Fundamentals

of Antennas:
Concepts and Applications

Christos G. Christodoulou
Parveen F. Wahid

Tutorial Texts in Optical Engineering

Volume TT50

Bellingham, Washington USA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Christodoulou, C. G. (Christos G.)

Fundamentals of antennas : concepts and applications / by C.G. Christodoulou and P.F. Wahid
p. cm .
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8194-4112-0 (pbk.)
1.Antennas (Electronics). I.Wahid, P. F. (Parveen F.) II. Title.

TK7871.6 .C48 2001

621.384'135dc21
2001032207
CIP

Published by

SPIEThe International Society for Optical Engineering

P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010
Phone: 360/676-3290
Fax: 360/647-1445
Email: spie@spie.org
WWW: www.spie.org

Copyright 2001 The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed

in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

INTRODUCTION

The field of information science and technology incorporates several devices,

including antennas, which can be used to transmit, collect and transfer
information. Understanding how these antennas work and how they can be
utilized at different frequencies ranging from radio to terahertz requires some
insight into the physics of antenna operation and a knowledge of the basic
parameters for their operation.
This book, which is tutorial in nature, contains seven chapters. Chapter 1
outlines how antennas have evolved historically, and presents some important
advances made in their design and applications. The chapter discusses the impact
of antennas in various systems, to give the reader an idea of the range of their
applications that include communications, remote sensing, radar, biomedicine,
etc. In Chapter 2 the reader is introduced to the fundamentals of antennas. All of
the figures of merit and parameters used to evaluate antennas are covered.
Concepts such as radiation pattern, directivity, gain, bandwidth, polarization, and
others are explained in a very straightforward manner. The information provided
in this chapter forms the cornerstone upon which all the other chapters are built.
Chapter 3 introduces the most basic type of antenna, the wire antenna, and
presents the analysis of this antenna for different configurations such as small
dipoles, dipoles of finite length, and loop antennas. These antennas are still used
today in a variety of applications such as communication, TV broadcasting, and
navigation. In Chapter 4, array antennas are discussed. Several antennas can be
arranged in space, in different geometrical configurations, to produce a highly
directional pattern. Such a configuration of multiple antenna elements is referred
to as an antenna array. In an array antenna, the fields from the individual
elements can be made to interfere constructively in some directions and cancel in
others. Phased array antennas offer the unique capability of scanning of the main
beam (major lobe) by changing the phase of the excitation of each array element.
Chapter 5 exposes the reader to a variety of antennas, such as reflectors,
lenses, horns, and microstrip antennas. This chapter adds to the knowledge base
provided by the previous chapters by explaining how different applications
require different antennas and why a single antenna cannot be used successfully
for all applications. Chapter 6 shows how an antenna can be integrated with a
detector for successful operation in order to efficiently collect terahertz radiation.
These integrated antennas have several applications in areas such as remote
sensing, radio astronomy, plasma diagnostics, atmospheric studies, and space
communications. However, these applications demand the use of low-noise
receivers over a range of about 30 GHz to more than 1 THz. The serious
technical challenges on the design and use of submillimeter-wave local
oscillators and detectors that exist are presented and discussed in this chapter,
which is a fusion between optics and antenna concepts.

ix
x INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 7, antenna measurement techniques are described. Measurements

often form an integral part of the antenna design process, with measurements on
prototype antennas being conducted at various steps of the design process to
check that the antenna meets the design specification. The key parameters that
are often measured are the radiation pattern, efficiency, gain, and impedance.
Depending on the antenna and its application, other parameters such as the
polarization purity, power-handling capacity, etc., may also be measured. The
use of sophisticated computerized equipment has made it possible to make
accurate measurements of antenna parameters. The advantages and disadvantages
of performing measurements indoors using anechoic chambers versus outdoor
ranges are presented and discussed as well.
This book is intended for students, engineers, and researchers who have not
taken a formal antenna course and are interested in the basics of antenna theory
and operation. The authors have attempted to link the lower-frequency (RF)
concepts to the higher-frequency (optics) concepts with which the readers may be
more familiar. The book is written in a modular fashion, so that readers can
choose the chapters they are interested in without having to go through the entire
book. It is the hope of the authors that readers find in this book the necessary
tools and examples that can help them in incorporating antennas, as needed, in
their research problems.
CONTENTS

Introduction / ix

Chapter 1. History and Applications / 1

1.1 History and development of antennas / 1
1.2 Applications and impact on systems / 3
1.2.1 Antennas in communication systems / 4
1.2.2 Antennas in remote sensing / 6
1.2.3 Antennas for biomedical applications / 7
1.2.4 Radio astronomy applications / 9
1.2.5 Radar antennas / 9
References / 10

Chapter 2. Fundamental Parameters of Antennas / 13

2.1 Radiation pattern / 13
2.2 Power density / 15
2.3 Radiation intensity / 16
2.4 Directivity / 17
2.5 Gain / 17
2.6 Input impedance / 17
2.7 Bandwidth / 18
2.8 Polarization / 18
2.9 Friis equation / 19
References / 20

Chapter 3. Wire Antennas / 21

3.1 Infinitesimal dipoles / 21
3.1.1 Directivity / 23
3.2 Small dipole / 24
3.3 Dipole of finite length / 25
3.3.1 Input impedance / 28
3.4 Effect of infinite conductors on the radiation pattern of linear wire
antennas / 29
3.5 Loop antennas / 32
3.5.1 Small circular loop antennas / 32
3.5.2 Large circular-loop antennas / 34
3.6 Radiated fields of a short dipole and a small loop / 34
References / 36

vii
Chapter 4. Antenna Arrays / 37
4.1 Array factors / 38
4.2 Uniform N-element linear array / 42
4.2.1 Broadside array / 44
4.2.2 End-fire array / 44
4.3 Planar arrays / 46
4.4 Circular arrays / 48
References / 49

Chapter 5. Types of Antennas / 51

5.1 Reflector antennas / 51
5.1.1 Plane and corner reflectors / 51
5.1.2 Parabolic reflector / 51
5.2 Lens antennas / 54
5.3 Horn antennas / 56
5.4 Microstrip antennas / 57
5.4.1 Analysis of microstrip antennas / 59
5.4.2 Multiple feeds for circular polarization / 65
5.4.3 Microstrip arrays / 66
5.5 Radome coverings / 68
References / 68

Chapter 6. Antennas for Infrared Detectors / 71

6.1 Antennas for infrared detectors / 72
6.2 Design of helical antennas for terahertz applications / 74
6.3 Design of broadband FIR antennas / 76
References / 81

Chapter 7. Antenna Measurements / 85

7.1 Radiation pattern measurements / 85
7.1.1. Outdoor ranges / 85
7.1.2 Anechoic chambers / 86
7.2 Gain measurements / 88
7.2.1 Comparison method / 88
7.2.2 Two-antenna method / 89
7.3 Impedance measurements / 90
References / 90

Index / 91

viii
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS

1.1 History and development of antennas

Since 1901, the time of Marconis first experiments with transmitting
electromagnetic waves, antennas have found several important applications over
the entire frequency range, and numerous designs of antennas now exist.
Antennas are an integral part of our everyday lives and are used for a multitude
of purposes. All antennas operate on the same basic principles of
electromagnetic theory formulated by James Clark Maxwell. An antenna is used
to either transmit or receive electromagnetic waves, and it serves as a transducer
that converts guided waves into free-space waves in the transmitting mode, or
vice-versa in the receiving mode. Maxwell put forth his unified theory of
electricity and magnetism in 1873 [1] in his famous book A Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism, incorporating all previously known results on
electricity and magnetism and expressing these mathematically through what we
refer to as Maxwells equations, which hold over the entire electromagnetic
spectrum. His theory was met with much skepticism, and it was not until 1886
that Heinrich Hertz [2], considered the Father of Radio, was able to validate this
theory with his experiments. The first radio system, at a wavelength of 4 m,
consisted of a /2 dipole (transmitting antenna) and a resonant loop (receiving
antenna) [3]. By turning on the induction coil, sparks were induced across the
gap and detected at the receiving antenna.
Almost a decade later in 1901, Guglielmo Marconi was able to receive
signals across the Atlantic in St. Johns, Newfoundland, that were sent from a
station he had built in Poldhu, Cornwall, England. Marconis transmitting
antenna was a fan antenna with 50 vertical wires supported by two 6-m guyed
wooden poles. The receiving antenna was a 200-m wire pulled up with a kite [3].
For many years since Marconis experiment, antennas operated at low
frequencies up to the UHF region and were primarily wire-type antennas. The
demands for effective communication systems during World War II moved the
field of antennas up into the higher frequencies, and led to the design of many
new types of microwave antennas that were capable of producing highly
directive beams with small-sized antennas. An excellent reference on the early
work done in microwave antennas is the MIT Radiation Laboratory Series book
by Silver [4]. Advances in computer architecture and technology moved the field
into new directions and produced major advances, with microstrip antennas and
arrays, in particular, being heavily investigated during the 196080 period for a
wide range of applications. In addition, the use of numerical techniques to

1
2 CHAPTER 1

analyze complex antenna systems became prevalent, making the issues of

reduced computational time and computer memory storage requirements an
important part of antenna design. Sophisticated simulation tools are now an
integral part of antenna research, and several commercial simulation packages
such as IE3D, NEC, XFDTD, FIDELITY, etc. are used extensively, significantly
reducing manufacturing costs and time.
Research during the latter part of the twentieth century led us into the arena
of wireless communications. This posed new and exciting challenges to antenna
engineers, with stringent demands being placed on the size and performance of
the antennas used for satellite and terrestrial communications. Research was
directed toward the design of smart or adaptive antennas that can perform
well in a mobile environment. Various topics related to these antennas can be
found in the Special Issue on Wireless Communications [5]. More recently,
microeletromechanical system (MEMS) devices have emerged as an attractive
option for high-frequency systems. MEMS phase shifters, with the advantages of
low loss and fast actuation, have been investigated for use in fast- scanning
phased arrays [6]. Reconfigurable antennas, where several antennas share the
same physical aperture, cover different frequency bands, and perform different
functions, have now caught the attention of researchers. Some examples of
research done on reconfigurable antennas are given in references [7] and [8].
The applications of antennas range from communications to astronomy, to
various deep-space applications. These antennas have been discussed in several
books, and some of these have been included in references [9-26]. Elaborate
antennas or antenna systems require careful design and a thorough understanding
of the radiation mechanism involved. The selection of the type of antenna to be
used for a given application is determined by electrical and mechanical
constraints and operating costs. The electrical parameters of the antenna are the
frequency of operation, gain, polarization, radiation pattern, impedance, etc. The
mechanical parameters of importance are the size, weight, reliability,
manufacturing process, etc. In addition, the environment under which the
antenna is to be used also needs to be taken into consideration; e.g., the effects of
temperature, rain, wind vibrations, etc. For example, the 23 antennas on the
Space Shuttle orbiter must have a useful life of 100,000 operational hours over a
10-year period or about 100 orbital missions. These antennas are required to
operate at temperatures from -150F to 350F , during re-entry. They also have to
withstand a substantial amount of pressure and possible direct lightning strikes.
The designer will have to meet all of these constraints, along with the standard
antenna problems of polarization, scan rates, frequency agility, etc. Antennas are
shielded from the environment through the use of radomes, whose presence is
taken into account while designing the antenna.
Antennas can be classified broadly into the following categories: wire
antennas, reflector antennas, lens antennas, traveling-wave antennas, frequency-
independent antennas, horn antennas, and conformal antennas. In addition,
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS 3

antennas are very often used in array configurations to improve upon the
characteristics of an individual antenna element.

1.2 Applications and impact on systems

Antennas enjoy a very large range of applications, both in the military and
commercial world. Most well known to the average person are those applications
associated with radio, TV, and communication systems. Today, antennas find
extensive use in biomedicine, radar, remote sensing, astronomy, collision
avoidance, air traffic control, global positioning systems, pagers, wireless LANs,
etc., and cover a very wide range of frequencies, as shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1. Frequency bands and general usage.

Band Designation Frequency Range Usage

Very Low Frequencies 330 kHz Long-distance telegraphy, navigation.
(VLF) Antennas are physically large but electrically
small. Propagation is accomplished using
earths surface and the ionosphere. Vertically
polarized waves.
Low Frequency (LF) 30-300 kHz Aeronautical navigation services, long
distance communications, radio
broadcasting. Vertical polarization.
Medium Frequency 300-3000 kHz Regional broadcasting and communication
(MF) links. AM radio.
High Frequency (HF) 3-30 MHz Communications, broadcasting, surveillance,
CB radio (26.96527.225 MHz). Ionospheric
propagation. Vertical and horizontal
propagation.
Very High Frequency 30-300 MHz Surveillance, TV broadcasting (5472 MHz),
(VHF) (7688 MHz), and (174216 MHz), FM
radio (88108 MHz), Wind profilers.
Ultrahigh Frequency 300-1000 MHz Cellular communications, surveillance TV
(UHF) (470890 MHz).
L 1-2 GHz Long-range surveillance, remote sensing.
S 2-4 GHz Weather, traffic control, tracking,
hyperthermia.
C 4-8 GHz Weather detection, long-range tracking.
X 8-12 GHz Satellite communications, missile guidance,
mapping.
Ku 12-18 GHz Satellite communications, altimetry, high-
resolution mapping.
K 18-27 GHz Very high resolution mapping.
Ka 27-40 GHz Airport surveillance.
Submillimeter waves Experimental stage.
4 CHAPTER 1

1.2.1 Antennas in communication systems

Antennas are one of the most critical components in a communication system,
since they responsible for the proper transmission and reception of
electromagnetic waves. A good design can help relax some of the complex
system requirements involved in a communication link and increase overall
system performance. The choice of an antenna for a specific application
(cellular, satellite-based, ground-based, etc.), depends on the platform to be used
(car, ship, building, spacecraft, etc.), the environment (sea, space, land ), the
frequency of operation, and the nature of the application (video, audio data, etc.).
Communication systems can be broken into several different categories:

Direct (line-of-site) links. These are transmission links established between two
highly directional antennas. The link can be between two land-based antennas
(radio relays); between a tower and a mobile antenna (cellular communication);
between a land-based antenna and a satellite antenna (satellite communication);
between two satellite antennas (space communication). Usually these links
operate at frequencies between 1 GHz and 25 GHz. A typical distance between
two points in a high-capacity, digital microwave radio relay system is about 30
miles.

Satellite Communications. Antennas on orbiting satellites are used to provide

communications between various locations around the earth. They are used
either to form a large area-of-coverage beam for broadcasting, or spot beams for
point-to-point communications. Also, multibeam antennas are used to link
mobile and fixed users who cannot be linked economically via radio, land-based
relays [27-29]. In general, most telecommunication satellites are placed in
geostationary orbit (GEO), about 22,235 miles above the earth, as shown in Fig.
1.1. There are also some satellites at lower earth orbits (LEOs) that are used for
wireless communications. Modern satellites have several receiving and
transmitting antennas that can offer services such as video, audio, and data
transmission.
The impact of antennas on satellite technology continues to grow. For
example, very small aperture terminal dishes (VSATs) at Ku band that can
transmit any combination of voice, data, and video using satellite networking,
have become valuable tools for several small and large companies. Most
satellites operate at the L, S, or Ku band, but increasing demand for mobile
telephony and high-speed interactive data exchange is pushing the antenna and
satellite technology into higher operational frequencies. For example, the ETS-
VI (a Japanese satellite comparable to NASAs TDRS), caries five antennas: an
S-band phased array, a 0.4-m reflector for 43/38 GHZ for up and down links, an
0.8-m reflector for 26/33 GHz, a 3.5-m reflector for 20 GHz, and a 2.5-m
reflector for 30 GHz. In Fig. 1.2, the antennas used on NASAs Advanced
Communications Technology Sattellite (ACTS) are shown. It is anticipated that
in the twenty-first century, millions of households worldwide will have access to
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS 5

dual Ku/Ka-band dishes that provide greater bandwidth availability. These

households will be able to enjoy hundreds of TV channels from around the
world. Moreover, low-cost access to high-speed, voice, data and video
communications will be available to a larger number of customers.

Figure 1.1. A satellite communication system.

Figure 1.2. Antennas on NASAs ACTS satellite [Courtesy, NASA Langley].

6 CHAPTER 1

Personal/Mobile Communication Systems. The vehicular antennas used with

mobile satellite communications constitute the weak link of the system. If the
antenna has high gain, then tracking of the satellite becomes necessary. If the
vehicle antenna has low gain, the capacity of the communication system link is
diminished. Moreover, handheld telephone units require ingenious design due to
a lack of real estate on the portable device.
There is more emphasis now on enhancing antenna technologies for wireless
communications, especially in cellular communications, which will improve the
link performance and reduce the undesirable visual impact of antenna towers.
Techniques that utilize smart antennas, fixed multiple beams, and neural
networks are increasing the capacity of mobile communication systems, whether
it is land-based or satellite-based [30]. It is anticipated that in the twenty-first
century, the wire will no longer dictate where we must go to use the telephone,
fax, e-mail, or computer. This will lead to the design of more compact, more
sophisticated antennas.

1.2.2 Antennas in remote sensing

Remote sensing is the process of obtaining information about a certain object
without coming into direct physical contact with it. Antennas such as horns,
reflectors, phased arrays, and synthetic apertures are used in remote sensing from
an airplane or a satellite to infer the physical properties of planetary
atmosphere and surface, or to take images of objects.
For most remote sensing applications, a radiometer (shown in Fig. 1.3) is
used to observe a distributed target of large angular extent and warm in
temperature [31, 32]. Most antennas associated with radiometers are downward-
looking, with radiation patterns that possess small, close-in sidelobes.
Radiometer antennas require a very careful design to achieve high beam
efficiency, low antenna losses, low sidelobes, and good polarization properties.
The ohmic loss in the antenna is perhaps the most critical parameter, since it can
modify the apparent temperature observed by the radiometer system.
The degree of resolution of a remote map depends on the ability of the
antenna system to separate closely space objects in range and azimuth. To
increase the azimuth resolution, a technique called synthetic aperture is
employed. As an aircraft flies over a target, the antenna transmits pulses
assuming the value of a single radiating element in a long array. Each time a
pulse is transmitted, the antenna, due to the aircrafts motion, is further along the
flight path. By storing and adding up the returned signals from many pulses, the
single antenna element acts as the equivalent of a very large antenna, hundreds
of feet long. This system can produce maps that approach the quality of good
aerial photographs; the synthetic aperture antenna becomes a radio camera that
can yield excellent remote imagery. Figure 1.4 shows the three-day average
global brightness temperature for H polarization and V polarization.
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS 7

Figure 1.3. A radiometer system.

Today, antennas are used for remote sensing applications in both military
and civilian sectors. In the 1970s, remote sensing provided NASA with maps of
the lunar surface before the Apollo landing. In 1985, British scientists noted the
ozone depletion over Antarctica. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew, the most costly
natural disaster in the history of the United States, was detected on time by very
high resolution radar on satellites, which helped keep the casualties low. In 1993,
during the flooding of the Mississippi River, antenna images were used to assist
in emergency planning and locating the threatened areas. In 1997, NASA used a
variety of antennas to receive signals from Mars, allowing the entire world to
observe the Pathfinder maneuver itself through the rocky martian terrain.

1.2.3 Antennas for biomedical applications

The antenna used in many biological applications operates under very different
conditions than do its more traditional free-space, far-field counterparts. Near
fields and mutual interaction with the body dominate; also, the antenna radiates
in a lossy environment rather than free space. Several antennas, from microstrip
antennas to phased arrays, operating at various frequencies, have been developed
to couple electromagnetic energy in or out of the body. Most medical
applications can be classified into two groups [33]: therapeutic and
informational. Examples of therapeutic applications are hyperthermia for cancer
therapy, enhancement of bone and wound healing, nerve simulation, neural
prosthesis, microwave angioplasty, treatment of prostatic hyperlastia, and
cardiac ablation. Examples of informational applications are tumor detection
using microwave radiometry, imaging using microwave tomography,
measurement of lung water content, and dosimetry.
8 CHAPTER 1

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.4. Three-day average global brightness temperature plots: (a) H polarization
(b) V polarization [Courtesy NASA/JPL].

Therapeutic applications are further classified as invasive and noninvasive.

Both applications require different types of antennas and different restrictions on
their design. In the noninvasive applications (i.e., not penetrating the body),
antennas are used to generate an electromagnetic field to heat some tissue.
Antennas such as helical-coils, ring capacitors, dielectrically loaded waveguides,
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS 9

and microstrip radiators are attractive because of their compactness. Phased

arrays are also used to provide focusing and increase the depth of penetration
[34-36]. The designer has to choose the right frequency, antenna size, and spot
size that the beam has to cover in the body. The depth of penetrationsince the
medium of propagation is lossyis determined by the total power applied or
available to the antenna.
Invasive applications require some kind of implantation in the tissue. Many
single antennas and phased or nonphased arrays have been used extensively for
treating certain tumors. A coaxial cable with an extended center conductor is a
typical implanted antenna. This type of antenna has also been used in arteries to
soften arterial plaque and enlarge the artery. Antennas have also been used to
stimulate certain nerves in the human body. As the technology advances in the
areas of materials and in the design of more compact antennas, more antenna
applications will be found in the areas of biology and medicine.

1.2.4 Radio astronomy applications

Another field where antennas have made a significant impact is astronomy. A
radio telescope is an antenna system that astronomers use to detect radio
frequency (RF) radiation emitted from extraterrestrial sources. Since radio
wavelengths are much longer that those in the visible region, radio telescopes
make use of very large antennas to obtain the resolution of optical telescopes.
Today, the most powerful radio telescope is located in the Plains of San
Augustin, near Sorocco, New Mexico. It is made of an array of 27 parabolic
antennas, each about 25 m in diameter. Its collecting area is equivalent to a 130-
m antenna. This antenna is used by more than 500 astronomers to study the Solar
System, the Milky Way galaxy, and extraterrestrial systems. Puerto Rico is the
site of the worlds largest single-antenna radio telescope. It uses a 300-m
spherical reflector consisting of perforated aluminum panels. These panels are
used to focus the received radio waves on movable antennas placed about 168 m
above the reflector surface. The movable antennas allow the astronomer to track
a celestial object in various directions in the sky.
Antennas have also been used in constructing a different type of a radio
telescope, called a radio interferometer, which consists of two or more separate
antennas that are capable of receiving radio waves simultaneously but are
connected to one receiver. The radio waves reach the antennas at different times
and are used to measure the distance or angular position of an object with a very
high degree of accuracy.

1.2.5 Radar antennas

Modern airplanes, both civilian and military, have several antennas on board that
are used for altimetry, speed measurement, collision avoidance, communications,
weather detection, navigation, and a variety of other functions [37-39]. Each
function requires a certain type of antenna and makes the operation of a radar
system feasible.
10 CHAPTER 1

Scientists in 1930 observed that electromagnetic waves emitted by a radio

source were reflected back by aircraft (echoes) that could be detected by
electronic equipment. In 1937, the first radar system, used in Britain for locating
the direction of enemy guns, operated around 2030 MHz. Since then, several
technological developments have emerged in the area of radar antennas, and the
desire to operate at different frequencies has led to the development of several
very versatile and sophisticated antennas. Radar antennas can be ground-based,
mobile, satellite-based, or placed on any aircraft or spacecraft.
Today, radar antennas are used for coastal surveillance, air traffic control,
weather prediction, surface detection (ground-penetrating radar), mine detection,
tracking, air defense, speed detection (traffic radar), burglar alarms, missile
guidance, mapping of the surface of the earth, reconnaissance, etc. Radar
antennas are generally designed to be part of a very complex system that
includes high-power klystrons, traveling wave tubes, solid-state devices,
integrated circuits, computers, signal processing, and a myriad of mechanical
parts. The requirements vary depending on the application (continuous wave,
pulsed radar, Doppler, etc.) and the platform of operation.
Advances in high-frequency systems, MEMS devices, and materials research
will continue to push the field of antennas into new, unexplored areas and
present challenges that will keep antenna design and analysis interesting and
exciting.

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Oxford Univ. Press, 1873; 1904.
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3. J. D. Kraus, Antennas since Hertz and Marconi, IEEE Trans. Antennas
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HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS 11

12. R. E. Collin and F. J. Zucker, Eds. Antenna Theory, Pts. 1 and 2, New York:
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Radar Systems Group, El Segundo, Calif., 1983.
32. C. T. Swift, Passive microwave remote sensing of the ocean - a review,
Boundary Layer Meteorology, vol. 18, pp. 2554, 1980.
33. C. H. Durney, Antennas and other electromagnetic applicators in biology
and medicine, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, Jan. 1992.
34. F. Montecchia, Microstrip antenna design for hyperthermia treatment of
superficial tumors, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 30, pp. 580588, June
1992.
35. J. Chen and O. P. Gandhi, Numerical simulation of annular phased arrays of
dipoles for hyperthermia of deep-seated tumors, IEEE Trans. on Biomed.
Eng., vol. 39, pp. 206216, March 1992.
12 CHAPTER 1

36. R. L. Magin and A. F. Perterson, Non-invasive microwave phased arrays

for local hyperthermiaa review, Int. J. Hyperthermia, vol. 5, pp. 429450,
1989.
37. M. I. Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill.
38. F. Nathason, Radar Design Principles, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
39. D. K. Barton, Radar Systems Analysis, Dedham, Mass.: Artech House, 1976.
CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS

The most basic properties of an antenna are its radiation pattern, gain,
impedance, and polarization. These properties are identical for linear passive
antennas used either as a transmitter or receiver by virtue of the reciprocity
theorem [1]. A complete definition of the terms used for antennas can be found in
[2].

2.1 Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern is defined in [2] as the spatial distribution of a quantity that
characterizes the electromagnetic field generated by an antenna. The field
intensity of the propagating wave decreases by 1/R with distance R from the
source.
To understand how an antenna radiates, consider a pulse of electric charge
moving along a straight conductor. A static electric charge or a charge moving
with a uniform velocity does not radiate. However, when charges are accelerated
along a conductor and are decelerated upon reflection from its end, radiated
fields are produced along the wire and at each end. A detailed explanation of how
an antenna radiates is given in [3-5].
The 3D spatial distribution of the radiated energy is displayed as a function
of the observers position along a constant radius. Power patterns and field
patterns are commonly used. The power pattern is a plot of the received power at
a constant radius, and the field pattern is the spatial variation (function of q and
f) of the electric and magnetic fields at a constant radius. The space surrounding
an antenna is divided radially into three regions: 1) the near-field (reactive)
region, 2) the near-field (radiating) or Fresnel region, and 3) the far-field or
Fraunhofer region. These regions are defined as follows [2]:
The reactive near field is the portion of the near-field region immediately
surrounding the antenna where the reactive field dominates. The radiating near-
field region is the portion of the near field of an antenna between the reactive
near-field region and the far-field region, where the angular field distribution is
dependent on the distance from the antenna. The far-field region is the region of
the field of an antenna where the angular field distribution is essentially
independent of the distance from a specified point in the antenna region. If D is
the largest dimension of the antenna and l is the wavelength, then the reactive
near-field region extends to a distance R 0.62 D 2 / l , the Fresnel region lies
between R 0.62 D 2 / l and R < 2D 2 l , and the Fraunhofer region extends

13
14 CHAPTER 2

from R = 2 D 2 l to infinity. The minimum distance for the far field observations
is 2D 2 l .
The radiation pattern of an antenna is commonly described in terms of its
principal E-plane and H-plane patterns. For a linearly polarized antenna, the E-
plane pattern is defined as the plane containing the electric field vector and the
direction of maximum radiation, and the H-plane pattern is the plane containing
the magnetic field vector and the direction of the maximum radiation. Figure 2.1
shows a rectangular and a polar plot of a radiation pattern.

Radiation
intensity
Major lobe

Minor lobes HPBW Sidelobe

Back lobe
FNBW

p p/2 0 p/2 p q
(a)

G G

00
300 0 dB 300

-10 dB
600 600
-20 dB

-30 dB

900 900

1200 1200

1500 1500

1800

(b)

Figure 2.1. (a) Rectangular and (b) polar radiation patterns.

FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS 15

Practical antennas are designed to have directional radiation patterns, i.e.,

they will radiate or receive radiation more effectively in one specified direction
than in others. An isotropic radiator, often used as a reference for expressing an
antennas directional properties, is a hypothetical lossless antenna radiating
equally in all directions. An omnidirectional pattern is a special case of a
directional pattern where the radiation is nondirectional in the azimuthal plane
and directional in the elevation plane, as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.2. An omnidirectional pattern.

From the rectangular radiation pattern shown in the Fig. 2.1 we can identify
the major lobe in the = 0 direction and the minor lobes (sidelobes and back
lobes) in the other directions. Some patterns may have more than one major lobe.
The major lobe contains the direction of maximum radiation, and between the
lobes there are nulls or directions of minimum radiation. Minor lobes levels are
expressed relative to the major lobes level. Sidelobe levels of 20 dB or lower
are acceptable for many applications. The half-power beamwidth is the width of
the main lobe in degrees, at the half-power points. The first null beamwidth is the
width of the main lobe between its first nulls. Generally, the beamwidth of an
antenna refers to its half-power beamwidth, also known as the 3-dB beamwidth.

2.2 Power density

The power density W of an antenna or the time average Poynting vector is given
by
16 CHAPTER 2

H 1 H H
W = Re[ ExH * ] W/m2 (2.1)
2
H H
where E and H are peak values in time. A time dependence of ejMt has been
assumed. The time average power radiated by an antenna is the total power
crossing a closed surface in the normal direction, and is given by
H H

Prad = W ds
S
W (2.2)

For an isotropic radiator, the power density is only in the radial direction and is
not a function of or ; i.e.,
H
W = W0 ar W/m2 (2.3)

and the total radiated power is given by

r r F 2F
Prad = W ds = (W0 ar ) (r 2 sin qd qd far )
S 0 0
2
= 4pr W0

or

Prad
W0 = W/m2 (2.4)
4pr 2

As can be seen, the power density is uniformly distributed over the surface of a
sphere of radius r.

2.3 Radiation intensity

The radiation intensity U (, ) of an antenna is the power radiated per unit solid
angle, and is a far-field parameter.

U = r2 W W/unit solid angle (2.5)

where W is the radiated power density in W/m2. The total power can be obtained
by integrating the radiation intensity over the entire solid angle

F 2F

Prad = U d W = U sin qd qd f
0 0
W (2.6)
FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS 17

2.4 Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction to the average radiation intensity, i.e, total radiated power/4p:

U (q,f )
D = 4p (2.7)
Prad

If the direction is not specified, the direction of the maximum radiation is

implied. The directivity is an indication of the directional properties of the
antenna. It does this by comparing the field intensity at any point to that of an
isotropic radiator. The directivity is a dimensionless quantity and is usually
expressed in decibels.

2.5 Gain
The gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted
by the antenna were radiated isotropically [2]. The gain can be expressed as

U (q,f)
G = 4p (2.8)
P0

where P0 is the power input to the antenna. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation is implied. The gain is a dimensionless quantity,
expressed in decibels. The directivity is based on radiated power, whereas the
gain is based on input power. The gain is related to the directivity through

G = he D (2.9)

where he is the antenna efficiency and takes into account losses due to mismatch
at the antenna terminals and dielectric and conduction losses. For a perfectly
matched lossless antenna, its gain and directivity are equal.

2.6 Input impedance

The input impedance of an antenna is the impedance presented by an antenna at
its terminals. The antenna impedance ZA can be expressed as

Z A = RA + j X A (2.10)

where RA is the antenna resistance in ohms and XA is the antenna reactance in

ohms.The radiation resistance is expressed as
18 CHAPTER 2

RA = Rr + RL (2.11)

where Rr is the radiation resistance and RL is the loss resistance. The radiation
resistance is associated with the radiation of real power. For a lossless antenna,
the input resistance reduces to the radiation resistance. The input impedance is
also the ratio of the voltage to the current at its terminals or the ratio of the
appropriate electric and magnetic fields at a point. The input impedance can be
determined by using equivalent circuit representation for the antenna [4]. The
impedance is a function of the geometry of the antenna, the method of excitation,
and the frequency. It is generally determined experimentally, although in recent
years, numerical electromagnetic techniques have been developed that allow one
to determine the impedance accurately for many complex geometries.

2.7 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within which
the performance of an antenna conforms to a specific standard [2] with respect to
some characteristic. The pattern bandwidth, expressed in terms of beamwidth,
sidelobe levels, and pattern characteristics, is used to characterize the radiation
pattern variations. The impedance bandwidth relates to the input impedance and
radiation efficiency. The bandwidth is expressed as the ratio of the upper to lower
frequencies of acceptable operation for broadband antennas. For narrowband
antennas, the bandwidth is usually expressed as a percentage of the frequency
difference over the center frequency.

2.8 Polarization
H
The polarization of a wave is the locus of the tip of the electric field vector, E ,
as a function of time. For a linearly polarized wave, the locus is a straight line; it
is a circle for a circularly polarized wave and an ellipse for an elliptically
polarized wave. The linear and circularly polarized waves are special cases of the
elliptically polarized wave. Right-hand polarization and left-hand polarizations
refer to the clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW) movement,
H
respectively, of the tip of the E vector as observed along the direction of
propagation. A linearly polarized antenna is one that radiates a linearly polarized
wave, and a circularly polarized antenna radiates a circularly polarized wave.
Consider a uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, given by
H
E = E x a x + E y a y

i.e.,
H
E = E x 0 cos(wt - kx + f x )a x + E y 0 cos(wt - kz + f y )a y (2.12)
FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS 19

where Ex0 and Ey0 are constants, fx and fy are the phases, and k is the wave
number. For linear polarization, f = fx = fy = 0 or p, and

Ey0
Ey = Ex (2.13)
Ex 0

which represents a straight line. The + and signs correspond to a phase of f = 0

and p, respectively. For circular polarization, f = fy fx = p/2, and

Ey0
=1 (2.14)
Ex 0

This gives E x2 + E y2 = 1 , which represents a circle.

For the case of elliptical polarization, f = p/2 and Ey0 Exo. The shape of
the path traced by the tip of the electric field vector in this case is an ellipse.
These cases are illustrated in Fig. 3.3. The Poincar sphere can also be used to
represent the polarization of the wave radiated by an antenna [3]. Each point on
the Poincar sphere represents a unique polarization.

2.9 Friis equation

The Friis equation relates the power received to the power transmitted between
two antennas separated by a distance R > 2D2/l, D being the largest dimension of
either antenna. For matched alignment along the maximum direction for radiation
and reception, the equation is [3]
2
Pr l
= Gr Gt (2.15)
Pt 4pR

where Pt is the power input at the transmitting antenna, Pr is the power received
by the receiving antenna, and Gr and Gt are the gains of the receiving and
transmitting antennas, respectively.
20 CHAPTER 2

Ey Ey

(0,a)
a
(a) b Ex Ex
(a,0

(a) (b)

Ey Ey

(0,2a)

Ex Ex
(a,0

Figure 2.3. Polarization of an electromagnetic wave: (a) linear (b) right circular (c) left
circular (d) elliptical.

References
1. S. Silver, Microwave Antenna Theory and Design, Radiation Laboratory
Series, McGraw-Hill.
2. IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas, 1983.
3. J. D. Kraus, Antennas, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill.
4. C. Balanis, Antenna Theory - Analysis and Design, 2nd Ed., John Wiley and
Sons.
CHAPTER 3
WIRE ANTENNAS

The dipole antenna, a linear wire antenna, is the most basic type of a radiator. A
center-fed dipole of length l consists of two linear conductors of length l / 2
separated by a small gap. Dipole antennas can be grouped as infinitesimal
dipoles, small dipoles, and finite-length dipoles.

3.1 Infinitesimal dipoles

A linear wire antenna of length l << (usually at least l< /50) is considered to
be an infinitesimal dipole. The radius a is assumed to be << and << l. The
current on the antenna, assumed to be constant, can be represented by

I ( z ) I 0 a z (3.1)

For an infinitesimal dipole situated at the origin as shown in Fig. 3.1, the fields at
a distance r from the antenna are given in spherical coordinates by [1]

l/2
y
l/2

Figure 3.1. An infinitesimal dipole at the origin.

21
22 CHAPTER 3

I 0l cos 1 jkr
Er 2
1 e
2r jkr
kI l sin 1 1 jkr
E j 0 1 e
4r jkr kr 2
E 0 (3.2)
kI 0l sin 1 jkr
H j 1 e
4r jkr
Hr H 0

The complex power density is

1 1 * *
W Re( ExH * ) ( E H ar Er H a )
2 2 (3.3)

and the total radiated power in the radial direction is

2
I 0l j

Pr W ds 1
3 (kr )3

S (3.4)

The real radiated power in the radial direction is

2
I 0l
Prad (3.5)
3

The imaginary component of the power in Eq. (3.4) along with the contributions
of W from Eq. (3.3) determine the total reactive power of the antenna. The
reactive power is dominant for small values of kr. For larger values of kr, the
reactive power is negligible, and it is zero for kr .
The far fields of the infinitesimal dipole ( kr 1) can be written as

kI 0le jkr
E j sin
4r
kI le jkr
H j 0 sin (3.6)
4r
Er E H r H 0
WIRE ANTENNAS 23

As can be seen, the far field is transverse or TEM with respect to the radial
direction. The wave impedance E/H is equal to the intrinsic impedance of the
medium.
The radiation resistance of the infinitesimal dipole is obtained by setting

1 2
Prad I 0 Rr (3.7)
2

and obtaining
2 2
2 l l
Rr 802 (3.8)
3

3.1.1 Directivity
Using the the far field expressions given in Eq. (3.6), the average power density
can be written as
2
1 1 2 kI 0l sin 2
Wav Re( ExH ) E ar ar (3.9)
2 2 2 4 r2

The radiation intensity is

U r 2Wav (3.10)

The maximum radiation intensity occurs in the broadside direction, with a

half-power beamwidth of 90 degrees. The infinitesimal dipole has an
omnidirectional pattern, as shown in Fig. 3.2.
The directivity of an infinitesimal dipole is given by

U max 3
D0 4 (3.11)
Prad 2

The maximum effective aperture is

2 3 2
Aem D0 (3.12)
4 8
24 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3.2. Radiation pattern of an infinitesimal dipole.

Aem represents the area over which power is extracted from the incident wave and
delivered to the load. When multiplied by the power density of the incident wave,
it gives the maximum power that can be delivered to the load. In Eq. (3.12) it is
assumed that there are no losses, the antenna is matched to the load and
polarization matched to the incident wave.

3.2 Small dipole

A small dipole is one whose length is /50 < l < /10. The current distribution
can be approximated by a triangular representation. For the dipole shown in Fig.
3.3, the current can be represented as

2
I 0 1 l z a z

for 0 z l / 2
I e ( x, y , z )
I 1 2 z a (3.13)
0 l
z

for l/2 z l/2

where I0 is a constant and the primed coordinates are points located on the dipole.
WIRE ANTENNAS 25

z
P (r, , )

r
dz
l/2
y

l/2

Figure 3.3. Small dipole located at the origin.

The far fields of the small dipole are given by [1,2]

kI 0le jkr
E j sin
8r
kI le jkr sin
H j 0 (3.14)
8r
H r H E Er 0

The radiation resistance of the small dipole is

2
2 Prad l
Rr 202 (3.15)

2
I0

and is 1/4 that of the infinitesimal dipole.

The relative shape of the radiation pattern is the same of that of the
infinitesimal dipole, hence the directivity and the effective area of the small
dipole are the same as in Eqs. (3.11) and (3.12).

3.3 Dipole of finite length

The current distribution on a dipole of finite length can be assumed to be
sinusoidal. The radius of the dipole can be assumed to be zero. For a center-fed
dipole located at the origin, with the current going to zero at the ends, the current
distribution can be represented as
26 CHAPTER 3

l
I 0 sin k z az
2
for 0 z / 2
I e ( x 0, y 0, z ) (3.16)
I sin k l z a
0 2 z

for l / 2 z 0

The current distribution along the dipole for different lengths is shown in Fig.
3.4.
For a dipole located at the origin along the z-axis, the far fields are given by

kl kl

jkr
cos cos cos
I e
E j 0 2 2
2r sin
kl kl (3.17)
cos cos
E I 0 e jkr 2 2
H j
2r sin

The average power density is

1 2
Wav Wav ar E ar
2
2
kl kl (3.18)
cos cos cos
I0 2 2 a
2 2 r
8 r sin

and the radiation intensity is

2
kl kl
2 cos cos cos
I 2 2
U r 2Wav 0 2
8 sin

(3.19)
WIRE ANTENNAS 27

Figure 3.5(a) shows the radiation pattern for dipoles of different lengths. For
lengths up to l = , the pattern is omnidirectional, with the beamwidth decreasing
as the length increases. For lengths l >, sidelobes begin to appear in the pattern.
Figure 3.5(b) shows the radiation pattern of a l = 1.5 dipole. The 3-dB
beamwidth for the infinitesimal dipole l << is 90 degrees, and for l = , it is
47.8 degrees.
For a half-wavelength dipole, l = /2, the equation becomes

cos cos
jkr
I e 2
E j 0
2 r sin


(3.20)

cos cos
I 0 e jkr 2
H j
2 r sin

The radiation resistance of the half-wave dipole is 73 and can be calculated

from the far fields. The directivity of the half-wave dipole is 1.643 and its
effective area is 0.13 2. Expressions for determining the radiation resistance and
the directivity for a dipole of length l can be found in [1].

l/2

I0 Current I e

l = /4

l = /2
l/2

l=
l = 3 /2

l = 2

Figure 3.4. Current distributions along a finite-length dipole.

28 CHAPTER 3

00
l<< 300
30 0
0 dB l= /2

l=
10 dB

600 600
20 dB

30 dB

900 900
900

1200 1200

1500 1500

0
180

Figure 3.5(a). Radiation patterns of dipoles of different lengths.

0
0 dB

10 dB

20 dB

30 dB

90 90

180

Figure 3.5(b). Radiation pattern of a l = 1.5 dipole.

WIRE ANTENNAS 29

3.3.1 Input impedance

The real part of the antenna input impedance, which is the input resistance,
reduces to the radiation resistance for the case of a lossless antenna. The radiation
resistance can be referred to the maximum current or to the current at the input
terminals. We set

2 2
I in I0
Rin Rr (3.21)
2 2

where Rin is the radiation resistance at the input (feed) terminals, R r the radiation
resistance at the current maximum, I0, the current maximum and Iin, the current at
the input terminals.
As can be seen, when the antenna length is a multiple of , l = n; for n = 1,
2, 3., Rin is infinite. In practice, Rin has very high values because the current
distribution is not purely sinusoidal and due to the effects of the finite radius of
the dipole and the spacing at the terminals. For a l = /2 dipole, Rr Rin since
the current maximum occurs at the input terminals. The input impedance of a
half-wavelength dipole is Z in = 73 + j 42.5. The imaginary part can be reduced or
eliminated through matching or by reducing the dipole length. The resonant
length of the dipole is generally around l = 0.47 to 0.48 , depending on its
radius [2].

3.4 Effect of infinite conductors on the radiation pattern of

linear wire antennas
The presence of an infinite conductor (ground plane) near a linear antenna affects
its radiation characteristics significantly. For antennas near or on infinite perfect
conductors, the analysis can be done using image theory; i.e., virtual sources are
introduced at the appropriate locations to account for the reflections that occur at
the conductor.
Consider a vertical infinitesimal dipole placed at a height h above a flat
infinite conductor, as shown in Fig. 3.6. The virtual source is located a distance h
below the conductor. For this case, the polarity of the image source is the same as
that of the actual source, and the reflection coefficient is 1. The fields arriving at
the distant point after reflections from the ground appear to originate from the
virtual source. The far field can be determined by summing the fields of the
actual source and the image source.
Referring to Fig. 3.6 and using the far fields of an infinitesimal dipole, we
have
kI 0le jkr
E j sin [2cos(kh cos )]z 0
4r
30 CHAPTER 3

P1
Direct
Reflected
Actual Direct P2
source

Reflected

i1 r1 i2 r2
R1 R2

h =

Virtual source
(image)

Figure 3.6. Infinitesimal dipole above a perfect conductor.

E = 0, z < 0 (3.22)
As can be seen in the above equation, the pattern is a product of the field of a
single infinitesimal dipole located symmetrically at the origin [Eq. (3.6)] and a
term that is a function of the height h above the ground plane and the angle of
the observation point. This is the concept of pattern multiplication that is
discussed in more detail in the next chapter. The fields below the conductor are
zero. Figure 3.7 shows the field patterns for different values of the height h above
the conductor. A large number of sidelobes begin to appear in the pattern as h
exceeds .
A vertical quarter-wave monopole (l = /4) mounted on an infinite conductor
appears as an equivalent /2 dipole. The far fields above the conductor will be
the same as those of the half-wavelength dipole. The input impedance of the /4
monopole referred to as current maximum is one-half that of the /2 dipole.
For the case of the horizontal infinitesimal dipole placed at a height h above
an infinite conductor, we have a virtual source of opposite polarity as shown in
Fig. 3.8. The far fields can be obtained by summing the fields from the source
and its image [1]. In the far field, the direct component can be written as
WIRE ANTENNAS 31

Figure 3.7. Radiation patterns of an infinitesimal dipole above a perfect conductor.

kI 0le jkr1
Ed j sin (3.23)
4r1

and the reflected component as

kI 0le jkr2
Er jRh sin (3.24)
4r2

Here, Rh, the reflection coefficient, is = 1,

cos a y ar sin sin

and sin 1 sin 2 sin 2 (3.25)

The total far field, valid only above the ground plane, can be expressed using the
approximations r1 = r h cos , r2 = r + h cos for the phase terms, and r1 = r2 =
r for the amplitude terms, as

E Ed Er
kI 0le jkr (3.26)
j 1 sin 2 sin 2 [2 j sin(kh cos )]
4r
32 CHAPTER 3

P1
Direct
Reflected
Actual Direct P2
source

Reflected

i1 r1 2 r2
R1 R2

h =

Virtual
source(image)

Figure 3.8. Horizontal infinitesimal dipole above a perfect conductor.

3.5 Loop antennas

The loop antenna is another type of basic radiating element and another example
of a wire antenna. Loop antennas can have shapes that are circular, square,
elliptical, etc. Electrically small loop antennas with a radius that is small
compared to its wavelength have radiation patterns that are of the same form as
an infinitesimal dipole. These antennas are referred to as infinitesimal magnetic
dipoles. Loop antennas that are electrically small have very low radiation
resistance and hence are not efficient radiators, and they are usually used as
receivers. In many instances, loop antennas with N turns rather than a single turn
are used to increase the radiation efficiency.

3.5.1 Small circular loop antennas

The single-turn circular loop is one of the simplest forms of the loop antenna.
Consider a loop centered at the origin in the xy plane, as shown in Fig. 3.9. The
radius a of the loop is small compared to the wavelength, and the radius of the
wire is assumed to be negligible. Assuming a constant current distribution on the
loop, we have current in the direction I = I0, where I0 is a constant.
WIRE ANTENNAS 33

r
R
'=/2
I

l y

a d
I '

dl=a

Figure 3.9. Small circular loop at the origin.

The far fields of the small loop are given by [1-3]

k 2 a 2 I 0 e jkr
E sin
4r
k 2 a 2 I 0 e jkr
H sin (3.27)
4r
H r H Er E 0

As in the case of the dipole antenna, the near fields are reactive and the far
fields are real. The real radiated power is given by

2
Prad (ka ) 4 I 0 (3.28)
12

2
I0
The radiation resistance, determined by setting Prad Rr , is given by
2
34 CHAPTER 3

Rr (k 2 a 2 ) 2
6 (3.29)

In terms of the area S of the loop and the circumference C, we have

4
C
Rr 202

4
c
2
Rr 20

(3.30)
S2
Rr 31,171 4

The radiation resistance of a single-turn loop is in general larger than its loss
resistance, making it a very poor radiator. For an N-turn linear-loop antenna, the
radiation resistance is that given in Eq. (3.30) multiplied by a factor N2. Hence,
the radiation resistance can be increased by increasing the number of turns.

3.5.2 Large circular-loop antennas

The current in a large-loop antenna can be considered to be uniform for radius a
< 0.03 , and it is not necessarily uniform for loops with large radii. Assuming a
constant current distribution, the far fields for a large loop are [4]

ak I 0 e jkr
E J1 (ka sin )
2r
E akI 0 e jkr
H J1 (ka sin ) (3.31)
2r
Hr H 0

where J1(ka sin ) is the Bessel function of the first order. The radiation patterns
are shown in Fig. 3.10 for different values of the radius a.
The radiation patterns for loops with radius < /2 are similar to those of a
linear dipole with length l << . They exhibit a null along = 0 degrees, the axis
of the loop. As the radius increases, the field in the plane of the loop ( = 90
degrees ) begins to decrease, and a null appears at = 90 degrees [3].
WIRE ANTENNAS 35

a = 0.1 00
a = 0.2
300 0 dB 300 a = 0.5

10 dB

600
600
-20 dB

30 dB

900 900

1200 1200

1500 1500

1800

Figure 3.10. Radiation patterns of a large circular loop.

3.6 Radiated fields of a short dipole and a small loop

Equations (3.6) and (3.31) give the far fields for an infinitesimal dipole and a
small loop, respectively. The comparison between these fields is given in Table
3.1.
For a loop and an electric dipole carrying a current I0 of the same phase, the
fields are in phase quadrature. The small loop can be considered equivalent to an
infinitesimal magnetic dipole. A small loop carrying current I0 placed at the
origin in the xy plane can be replaced by an infinitesimal magnetic dipole at the
origin oriented in the z direction, carrying a magnetic current Im [2,4].

Table 3.1. Comparison of the fields of a short dipole and a small loop.

Infinitesimal Dipole Small Dipole

kI le jkr k 2 a2 I0e jkr

E j 0 sin H sin
4r 4r
kI le jkr k 2 a2 I0e jkr
H j 0 sin E sin
4r 4r
Er E Hr H 0 Hr H Er E 0
36 CHAPTER 3

References
1. C. Balanis, Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and
Sons.
2. K. F. Lee, Principles of Antenna Theory, John Wiley and Sons.
3. J. Kraus, Antennas, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill.
4. E. Wolff, Antenna Analysis, John Wiley and Sons.
CHAPTER 4
ANTENNA ARRAYS

Several antennas can be arranged in space, in different geometrical

configurations, to produce a highly directional pattern [1-5]. Such a configuration
of multiple antenna elements is referred to as an antenna array. In an array
antenna, the fields from the individual elements interfere constructively in some
directions and cancel in others. Usually, arrays consist of identical elements,
although it is possible to create an array of dissimilar radiating elements.
Arrays offer the unique capability of electronic scanning of the main beam
(major lobe) by changing the phase of the excitation current of each array
element (phased-array antennas). Also, a large variety of radiation patterns and
sidelobe levels can be achieved by controlling the magnitude of the excitation
current as well. Phased-array antennas have many applications, such as radar,
remote sensing, and communications.
There are five main control mechanisms that affect the overall performance
of an array antenna; the array geometry (linear, circular, planar, etc., arrangement
of the radiating elements), the distance of separation between adjacent elements,
the amplitude current excitation of each individual element, phase excitation of
each individual element, and the radiation pattern of each individual element
Figure 4.1 shows a two-dimensional planar array. The individual element
consists of a stacked microstrip antenna as shown in Fig. 4.2. Each microstrip
antenna is fed by an external phase shifter through a coaxial connection.

Figure 4.1. An array antenna of 69 microstrip elements.

37
38 CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.2. The configuration of a single element used for the array.

4.1 Array factor

Consider an array of two dipoles in free space, as shown in Fig. 4.3 below. Let
the dipole at (0, 0, d/2) carry a current I0 (f / 2) and the one at (0, 0, d/2) carry
a current I0 ( f / 2) , where f is the phase difference between the two dipoles.
This phase difference can be achieved through a variety of phases shifters that
employ microwave, semiconductor, or optical techniques.
The total electric field at the observation point P is given as the vectorial sum
of the fields due to the two individual antennas [1]:

z P
r1

d
y

r2

Figure 4.3. Geometry of two dipoles of length l and separation d.

ANTENNA ARRAYS 39

L L
Etotal = E 1 + E2
jhkI o e- j ( kr1 -f / 2) e - j ( kr2 +f / 2) (4.1)
= l cos q1 aq1 + cos q2 aq 2
4p r1 r2

d d
r1 = r - cos q and r2 = r + cos q
2 2

Hence, Eq. (4.1) becomes

L L
Etotal = E1 + E2
j hkI 0 - jkr 1 (4.2)
= aG le cos q 2 cos (kd cos q + f)
4 pr 2

A close examination of Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2) shows that the total field is equal
to the field of the single element (element factor) located at the origin, multiplied
by an array factor (AF) that is given by

1
EAF = 2cos ( kd cos q + f) (4.3)
2

In general, the far-field pattern of any array is given by the multiplication pattern
of the field of the single element in the array and the array factor:

Total Pattern= Element Factor (EF) Array Factor (AF) (4.4)

The array factor is a function of the geometrical arrangement of the radiating

elements comprising the array, the current excitation of the elements, the phase
shift f between the elements, the distance of separation d between the elements
and the frequency of operation.

Example 4.1:
Find the total pattern of two identical horizontal dipoles shown in Fig. 4.4, with
d = l 4 and f = 0 .
Consider the normalized array factor in Eq. (4.3); i.e.,

1
AFn = cos (kd cos q + f) (4.5)
2
40 CHAPTER 4

z
r1

d
y

r2

Figure 4.4. Far-field geometry of two dipoles of length l separated by a distance d.

1 1 2p l
In this case, (kd cos q) = cos q . Thus, the array factor becomes
2 2 l 4

p
AFn = cos cos q (4.6)
4

No null is introduced by the array factor. The only null that occurs is the one due
to the element factor (horizontal dipole) at q = p 2 , as shown in Fig. 4.5 below.
The total pattern, using the multiplication pattern procedure, is also shown in Fig.
4.5.
If f = p 2 then AFn = cos [ p 4(cos q + 1)] , which introduces a null at q = 0
deg. Figure 4.6 illustrates the principle of pattern multiplication in this case. If
f = - p 2 , then the nulls would appear at q =90 deg and q =180 deg.
ANTENNA ARRAYS 41

Element pattern
Array factor of 2 sources spaced
by 0.25 . phase delta= 0 deg.

Multiplication pattern of 2 sources spaced by 0.25 . phase delta=0 deg.

Figure 4.5. Element factor, array factor, and total pattern for a two-element array of
infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with d = l 4 and f = 0 .

Element pattern Array factor of 2 sources spaced by

0 25 . phase delta= 0 deg.

Multiplication pattern of 2 sources spaced by 0.25 . phase delta=0 deg.

Figure 4.6. Element factor, array factor, and total pattern for a two-element array of
horizontal dipoles with d = l 4 and f = p 2 .
42 CHAPTER 4

Element pattern Array factor of 2 sources spaced by

0 25 . phase delta= 0 deg.

Multiplication pattern of 2 sources spaced by 0.25 . phase delta=0 deg.

Figure 4.7. Element factor, array factor, and total pattern for a two-element array of
horizontal dipoles with d = l 4 and f = - p 2 .

4.2 Uniform N-element linear array

Consider an N-element array antenna of isotropic radiators shown in Fig. 4.8,
which is a linear array, where each element is fed with a current of the same
magnitude but with a progressive phase shift f between the elements. The
distance of separation between adjacent elements is d.
The array factor can be expressed as the sum of the contributions from the
elements of the array, i.e.,

AF = 1 + e jy + e j 2 y + e j 3y + ... + e j ( N -1) y (4.7)

where, y = kd cos q + f .
Equation (4 7) is a geometric series that can be expressed as

Ny
sin
AF = 2 (4.8)
y
sin
2
ANTENNA ARRAYS 43

rN

r3

r2
d
r1

Figure 4.8. Geometrical configuration of N isotropic elements along z separated

by a distance d and fed with a progressive phase of f .

Figure 4.9. An 8-element linear microstrip array antenna.

44 CHAPTER 4

From a close examination of the AF in Eq. (4.8), the following points can be
made:

1. The principal maximum (major lobe) occurs when the denominator goes
to zero, i.e., y = 0 .

lf
y = kd cos q major + f = 0 or cos q major = -
2 pd

2. The nulls occur when the numerator goes to zero, i.e.,

sin( N y / 2) = 0 or N y / 2 = np for n =1, 2, 3,

Figure 4.9 depicts a linear array of eight microstrip antennas. The entire antenna
is mounted on a ground plane.

4.2.1 Broadside array

A broadside array is an array that has its major lobe at major = 90 deg, that is, in a
direction normal to the axis of the array. Therefore, we have = kd cos90
+ f = 0 , which gives f = 0 . Hence, in order to have the main beam at = 90 deg,
the progressive phase shift between the elements should be equal to zero,
provided that the spacing d nl for n = 1,2,3,

4.2.2 End-fire array

An end-fire array has its major lobe at major = 0 deg or major = 180 deg. For major
= 0 deg we set kd cos + f = kd cos 0 + f , which indicates that the progressive
phase shift should be f = kd. For major = 180 deg, the condition is f = kd.

Example 4.2
To demonstrate the method of designing uniform array antennas and to introduce
the concept of grating lobes, a 10-element uniform array with f = 0 is considered
for two different values of the spacing d ( d = l 4 and d = l ) as shown in Fig.
4.10. Since f = 0 , a major lobe should appear at q = 90 deg. However, when
d = l , two more maximum lobes appear at q = 0 deg and q = 180 deg. These two
extra maximum lobes are called grating lobes. These lobes are usually undesired
lobes that occur due to some constructive interference of the individual element
fields. These grating lobes appear when the distance of separation d is greater
than l . Thus as a rule of thumb, d should always be less than l to avoid any
grating lobes.
ANTENNA ARRAYS 45

It should be mentioned here that nonuniform arrays are arrays where the
elements are not fed with the same amplitude. Examples of these are the binomial
array and Dolph-Tschebyscheff array. In the binomial array, the amplitude of
each element is changed to maximize the beamwidth of the major lobe; and in the
Dolph-Tschebyscheff array, the major beam to sidelobe ratio is maximized by
changing the amplitude excitation to specific values given by formulas found in
[1].
90
10
120 60
8

6
150 30
4

180 0

210 330

240 300
270
Array Factor of 10 s ources spaced by 0.25 lambda, p hase delta= 0 deg

90
10
120 60
8

6
150 30
4

180 0

210 330

240 300
270
Array Factor of 10 s ources spaced by 1 l ambda, p hase delta= 0 deg

Figure 4.10. Array factor patterns for a 10-element, uniform broadside array with f = 0.
46 CHAPTER 4

1 2 3 N
1 y
2

Figure 4.11. Planar array geometry.

4.3 Planar arrays

Linear arrays can only scan the beam in one direction ( q ). To also scan the main
beam along the f direction as well, two-dimensional arrays are employed. Two-
dimensional (planar) arrays provide more gain and lower sidelobes than linear
arrays. The design principles for planar arrays are the same as those discussed
earlier for the linear arrays.
The array factor of a planar array can be expressed as the multiplication of
the array factors of two linear arrays, one along the x direction and the other
along the y direction [1]. The array factor can be written as

AFplanar = AFx AFy (4.9)

sin( M y x / 2) sin( N y y / 2)
or AF = (4.10)
M sin(y x / 2) N sin(y y / 2)

where y x = kd x sin q cos f + f x and y y = kd y sin q cos f + f y .

Generally, array antennas are used at RF frequencies, at or below the
gigahertz range. Array antennas that include photonic and optical interfaces can
also be used at terahertz frequencies. Figure 4.12 shows the setup used for
imaging purposes at terahertz frequencies using a 55 array of helical antennas.
The antennas are approximately 300 mm apart. The terahertz antenna structures
ANTENNA ARRAYS 47

object being
terahertz scanned THz
Optics Optics

terahertz processing
source electronics 30fps

LCVD Helical Antenna

Microbolometer Array with Parallel Output

Figure 4.12. Helical array antenna used as a terahertz imager.

were fabricated by using a laser chemical vapor deposition (LCVD) process to

form fibers that can be grown into complex three-dimensional structures directly
on semiconductor substrates. By focusing the laser through a diffractive optic,
arrays of antennas can be fabricated at the same time. Terahertz radiation
detection devices can be realized by combining the LCVD antennas with MEMS
microbolometers that convert received terahertz radiation into a change in
resistance. Arrays of these antenna-bolometer pairs can be fabricated on the same
substrate to realize a terahertz-imaging device.
Figure 4.13 shows a photograph of a 5-turn rectilinear helical antenna
structure wound around a center post [6]. This is the antenna that was used as the

Figure 4.13. Photograph of a rectilinear 3D helical antenna structure designed for

approximately 0.5 THz.
48 CHAPTER 4

f q P

Figure 4.14. Geometry of an N-element circular array.

array element in the planar array antenna in Figure 4.12. The spiral diameter was
200 mm, the pitch angle is 13 deg, the loop height is 185 mm, and the wire
diameter is 18 mm. Assuming that the useful frequency range of operation for the
axial antenna mode is derived from the antenna circumference equaling 0.75 to
1.33 l, the antenna would have a frequency range of 0.36 to 0.63 THz. The
antenna stands approximately 1-mm tall, normal to the substrate surface.

4.4 Circular arrays

In a circular-array configuration, the elements are placed in a circular ring.
Applications of circular arrays can be found today in the areas of direction
finding, GPS, space navigation, radar, sonar, etc. Figure 4.14 shows the geometry
of an N-element circular array. The array factor in this case is given by [1]:

N jka sin q cos(f - f ) - sin q cos(f - f )

AF(q, f) = I e n o o n (4.11)
n
n =1

where B o and Go are the angles of the main beam.

ANTENNA ARRAYS 49

References
1. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, New York: John Wiley
& Sons, 1997.
2. R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1985.
3. J. D. Kraus, Antennas, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
4. K. F. Sander, G. A. L. Reed, Transmission and Propagation of
Electromagnetic Waves, 2nd ed., Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press, 1986.
5. W. L. Stutzman, G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1981.
6. R. N. Dean, Jr., P.C. Nordine and C. G. Christodoulou, 3-D helical THz
antennas, Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, pp. 106-111, Jan. 20,
2000.
CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF ANTENNAS

In this chapter, several different types of antennas are discussed. The antennas
presented are the reflector antenna, the lens antenna, the horn antenna, and the
microstrip antenna. These antennas have distinct characteristics that make them
suitable for a variety of applications.

5.1 Reflector antennas

Since World War II, when reflector antennas gained prominence due to their use
with radar systems, reflector antennas have played an important role in
communication systems. Love [1] has published a collection of papers on
reflector antennas. Reflector antennas can have a variety of geometrical shapes
and require careful design and a full characterization of the field system. Silver
[2] presents the technique for their analysis based on aperture theory and physical
optics. Other methods such as the geometrical theory of diffraction and the fast
Fourier transform, along with various optimization techniques, are used more
often for the accurate design of these antennas [3].

5.1.1 Plane and corner reflectors

The plane reflector, shown in Fig. 5.1(a), is the simplest type of reflector antenna
[4]. The polarization of the feed and its position can be adjusted to obtain the
desired radiation properties. The analysis of the system can be done using image
theory. The corner reflector has been investigated by Kraus [4], and the 90-deg
corner reflector is found to be the most effective. The feeds for the corner
reflector are generally dipoles, which are placed parallel to the vertex. These
antennas can be analyzed in a rather straightforward manner using the method of
images. In Fig. 5.1(b), the antenna 1, which is the feed, is shown along with three
images. For corner reflectors with infinite sides, the gain increases as the angle
increases.

5.1.2 Parabolic reflector

Among curved reflectors, the paraboloid is the most commonly used. The
paraboloidal reflector is formed by rotating a parabolic reflector about its axis.
The reflector transforms a spherical wave radiated from an antenna at its focus
into a plane wave. The fields across the plane AA shown in Fig. 5.2 will be in
phase. If the amplitudes are also constant, then the result is an antenna with a
large aperture possessing a high gain. The plane BB where the reflector ends is

51
52 CHAPTER 5

the aperture plane. The use of directional antennas as the feed antenna helps to
eliminate any significant direct radiation from the source. To avoid the blockage
caused by the feed placed at the focal point, i.e. for a front-end arrangement, the
feed is sometimes offset from the axis as shown in Fig. 5.3. A higher efficiency
can be realized by modifying the reflector surfaces [5,6].

Figure 5.1. (a) Plane reflector; (b) Corner reflector.

B'
A'
P
Q S

F Axis

A
B
Aperture
plane

Figure 5.2 Parabolic reflector.

TYPES OF ANTENNAS 53

Figure 5.3. Parabolic reflector with an off-set feed.

Other types of reflectors used are the Cassegrain and the Gregorian
reflectors. The Cassegrain reflector is a dual-reflector system that uses a parabola
as the primary reflector and a hyperbola as the secondary reflector with a feed
along the axis of the parabola. The Gregorian dual-reflector antenna uses an
ellipse as the subreflector. The Cassegrain and the Gregorian reflectors are shown
in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5, respectively.

Figure 5.4. A Cassegrain reflector antenna.

54 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.5. A Gregorian dual-reflector antenna.

Most paraboloid reflectors use horn antennas (conical or pyramidal) as their

feeds. With a parabolic reflector, feed scanning is limited. A spherical reflector
provides greater scanning but requires more elaborate feed design since it fails to
focus an incident plane wave to a point. Spherical reflectors can suffer from a
loss in aperture and increased minor lobes due to blockage by the feed.
The radiation characteristics of the paraboloidal reflector can be determined
by the aperture method or the current distribution method [2,7]. In the aperture
distribution method, fields reflected from the paraboloidal surface are found over
the aperture plane normal to the reflector axis, using geometrical optics methods.
Equivalent sources are then determined over this aperture plane within the
projected area of the reflector. The equivalent sources outside this area are
assumed to be zero. The radiated fields are computed using the equivalent
sources and aperture techniques. In the current distribution method, the physical
optics approximation of the induced surface current density is formulated over
the illuminated surface of the reflector. The radiated field is then obtained by
integrating the current density over the surface.

5.2 Lens antennas

At high frequencies, lens antennas can be used to perform functions similar to
reflector antennas. The collimating action of the lens antenna is shown in Fig.
5.6. Both lenses and parabolic reflectors use free space as a feed network to
excite a large aperture. The feed of a lens remains out of the aperture, eliminating
TYPES OF ANTENNAS 55

(a) (b)

Figure 5.6. Lens antenna. (a) Concave-Planar. (b) Convex-Planar.

aperture blockage and the resulting high sidelobe levels. Dielectric lens antennas
are similar to the optical lens and the aperture of the antenna is equal to the
projection of the rim shape. Lenses are divided into two categories, single-
surface and dual-surface. In the single-surface lens, one surface is an equiphase
surface of the incident or emergent wave and the rays pass through normal to this
surface without refraction.
In a dual-surface lens, refraction occurs at both lens surfaces. Single-surface
lenses convert either cylindrical or spherical waves to plane waves, as shown in
Fig. 5.6. Cylindrical waves require a line source and a cylindrical lens surface,
and spherical waves use a point source and a spherical lens surface. The far-field
pattern is determined by diffraction from the aperture. Dual-surface lenses allow
more control of the pattern characteristics. Both surfaces are used for focusing,
and the second surface can be used to control the distribution in the aperture
plane.
These simple lenses are many wavelengths thick, if their focal length and
aperture are large compared to a wavelength; in this case, the surface of the lens
can be zoned by removing multiples of wavelengths from the thickness. The
zoning can be done either in the refracting or nonrefracting surface. The zoned
lens is frequency sensitive and can give rise to shadowing losses at transition
regions. Figure 5.7 shows a zoned lens.
Artificial dielectric lenses in which particles such as metal spheres, strips,
disks, or rods are introduced in the dielectric have been investigated by Kock
[7,8]. The size of the particles has to be small compared to the wavelength. Metal
plate lenses using spaced conducting plates are used at microwave frequencies.
Since the index of refraction of a metal plate medium depends on the ratio of
wavelength to the spacing between the plates, these lenses are frequency
sensitive. The Luneberg lens is a spherical symmetric lens with an index of
refraction that varies as a function of the radius. A plane wave incident on this
lens will be brought to a focus on the opposite side. These lenses can be made
using a series of concentric spherical shells, each having a dielectric constant.
56 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.7. Zoned lens.

5.3 Horn antennas

The electromagnetic horn antenna is characterized by attractive qualities such as
unidirectional pattern, high gain, and purity of polarization. Horn antennas are
used as feeds for reflector and lenses antennas and as a laboratory standard for
the calibration of other antennas. A good collection of papers on horn antennas
can be found in [9]. Horn antennas can be of rectangular or circular type. The
conical horn antenna is shown in Fig. 5.8. Circular horns, derived from circular
waveguides, can be conical, biconical, or exponentially tapered.
Rectangular horns, derived from a rectangular waveguide can be pyramidal
or sectoral E-plane and H-plane horns. The E-planes sectoral horn has a flare in
the direction of the field of the dominant TE10 mode in the rectangular wave
guide and the H-plane sectoral horn has a flare in the direction of the H field. The
pyramidal horn has a flare in both directions. The radiation pattern of the horn
antenna can be determined from a knowledge of the aperture dimensions and the

Figure 5.8. Conical horn antenna.

TYPES OF ANTENNAS 57

Figure 5.9. Sectoral and pyramidal horns. (a) E-plane sectoral, (b) H-plane sectoral,
(c) pyramidal.

aperture field distribution. Figure 5.9 shows the geometry of the sectoral and
pyramidal horns.
The large aperture and single-mode excitation can be achieved by gradually
flaring the waveguide to form a horn. Higher order modes are generated at the
throat of the horn (the region between the waveguide and the horn). However,
these will be attenuated in the throat region if the flare angle is not large. The
flare angle of the horn and its dimension affect its radiation pattern and
directivity. Maximum directivity can be achieved by optimizing the horn length
and the flare angle. The radiation patterns for various horn antennas can be found
in [10]. The dependence of the patterns on parameters such as the flare angle,
aperture size, and length of the horn are also presented.
The need for feed systems that provide low cross polarization and edge
diffraction and more symmetrical patterns led to the design of the corrugated
horn [11]. These horns have corrugations or grooves along the walls that are /4
to /2 deep. The conical corrugated horn, referred to as a scalar horn, has a larger
bandwidth than its small flare angle corrugated horn. This horn is very suitable as
a feed for reflector antennas.

5.4 Microstrip antennas

Microstrip patch antennas appear in a variety of shapes, including rectangular,
circular, elliptical, and triangular. They are planar and conformal structures that
are also lightweight and can be used with integrated circuits [12-16]. Microstrip
or printed antennas are used in several applications, including radar, GPS, mobile
58 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.10. Geometry of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna.

Figure 5.11. Feed configurations for a microstrip patch antenna.

TYPES OF ANTENNAS 59

communications, aeronautical applications, medical applications, etc. Figure 5.10

shows the geometry of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna.
The patch element shown in Fig. 5.10 uses a microstrip line feed. This
particular feed is one of a number of feed arrangements that can be used with
microstrip antennas. Figure 5.11 shows several popular feed mechanisms that can
be utilized with microstrip antennas. Each feed configuration has its advantages
and disadvantages. For impedance matching purposes, the offset microstrip line
feed is the easiest to use since the offset depth controls the input impedance of
the antenna. Moreover, this configuration is simple to fabricate and analyze as
well. However, the feed line radiates and causes pattern and polarization
degradation. The coaxial probe feed reduces spurious feed radiation, it is fairly
easy to construct and match, but it tends to have a narrow bandwidth. The
aperture-coupled feed isolates the feed mechanism from the radiating element
through the use of a ground plane. Energy from the feed line is coupled to the
element patch through the aperture slot. Finally, the proximity-coupled feed
removes the ground plane so it is easier to manufacture than the aperture-coupled
feed. It also exhibits low spurious radiation and provides the largest bandwidth of
the feed configurations presented here.

5.4.1 Analysis of microstrip antennas

Transmission line model

Several models have been developed to analyze and design microstrip antennas.
Using the transmission-line model, shown in Fig. 5.12, the microstrip antenna is
modeled as two radiating slots that are separated by a distance L. In reality, due

Figure 5.12. Transmission line model.

60 CHAPTER 5

to fringing effects the actual distance of separation is Leff (effective length or

electrical length), which is the length of the patch, L, plus an additional
distance, 2L , that accounts for the fact that the patch looks electrically wider
due to the fringing fields.
This added distance can be calculated from [7]:

reff 0.3
W
0.12
L 0.412 h h (5.1)
W
reff 0.258 0.8
h

where, eff is the effective dielectric constant of a microstrip transmission line

given by
1/ 2
1 r 1 h
reff r 1 12 (5.2)
2 2 W

Thus, the effective distance separating the two radiating slots becomes

Leff L 2 L (5.3)

It is this adjusted length that is utilized in calculating the resonant frequency of

the antenna, from [12]:

c
( f r )010 (5.4)
2 Leff eff

with c being the speed of light .

Since the transmission-line model takes into consideration fringing effects at
the edges of the patch, it provides a good prediction of the resonant frequency.
Moreover, it predicts the input impedance of the antenna fairly accurately.
However, it does not account for the effects of a truncated dielectric substrate or
a finite ground plane; nor does it provide insight into the radiation patterns of the
antenna. Finally, the model breaks down as the height of the dielectric substrate,
h, becomes a significant portion of the wavelength (.01, for example, or less).

Cavity model
In order to gain some insight into the radiating mechanism of a microstrip
antenna, one needs to first understand the near-field quantities that are present
around the structure. The cavity model is very useful in achieving this goal since
TYPES OF ANTENNAS 61

Figure 5.13. Geometry of the cavity model.

it provides a mathematical solution for the electric and magnetic fields of a

microstrip antenna. It does so by using a dielectric loaded cavity to represent the
antenna, as shown in Fig. 5.13. This approach models the dielectric material by
assuming that it is truncated at the edges of the patch. The patch and ground
planes are assumed to be perfect electric conductors, and the edges of the
substrate are modeled with perfectly conducting magnetic walls. It should be
noted that the cavity model does not include feed effects; the feed is shown in the
figure just for reference.
If we assume that the dielectric is very thin, then the electric field is constant
along the height of the substrate, h, and is nearly normal to the surface of the
patch. In that case we can consider only the TM z modes inside the cavity. The
electric and magnetic fields inside the cavity are given by [10]

kx k y
Ex j Amnp sin(k x x)cos(k y y )sin(k z z )

k y kz
Ey j Amnp cos(k x x)sin(k y y )sin(k z z )

2
(k 2 k z )
Ez j Amnp cos( k x x)cos(k y y )cos(k z z ) (5.5)

ky
Hx j Amnp cos(k x x)sin(k y y )cos(k z z )

62 CHAPTER 5

kx
Hy j Amnp sin(k x x)cos( k y y )cos(k z z )

Hz 0

with

m
kx , m 0,1, 2...
L
n
ky , n 0,1, 2... m n p 0 (5.6)
W
p
kz , p 0,1, 2...
h

and Amnp is the amplitude coefficient. The resonant frequencies for the cavity are

2 2
1 m n p
( f r ) mnp (5.7)
2 L W h

z
Examining the above fields for TM100 dominant mode excitation, we see that
k y k z 0 and the field components reduce to

Ez jA100 cos x
L
(5.8)

Hy A100sin x
L L

We obtain the equivalent electric and magnetic current densities on the patch
using

J n H
(5.9)
M n E

where n is the outward directed surface normal.

The magnetic field is zero along the x = 0 and x = L walls, and it is normal to
the surface along the y = 0 and y = W walls. Thus, no equivalent electric current
density flows on the walls of the cavity. The electric field results in a nonzero
magnetic current density on the walls of the cavity. Figure 5.14 depicts both the
TYPES OF ANTENNAS 63

Figure 5.14. Field configurations and current densities for microstrip patch.

electric field and the associated magnetic current densities for the microstrip
antenna. The magnetic currents can be broken into a pair of radiating slots and a
pair of non-radiating slots. The radiating slots are in phase so they will
constructively interfere in the far-field. Therefore, these two slots form the
primary radiation mechanism for the microstrip antenna. On the other hand, the
nonradiating slots are out of phase so they will destructively interfere in the far
field and will not contribute to the radiated fields.
An effective loss tangent needs to be added to account for the power that is
lost to radiation. Alternatively, the radiated energy can be modeled using an
impedance boundary condition at the walls [10]. Although the cavity model is
good at predicting the radiation patterns of a microstrip antenna, it does have
some limitations. First, the cavity model does not model the feed effects, nor
does it model the adverse effects introduced by a finite substrate and ground
plane. One way to circumvent these limitations is to employ numerical
techniques such as the finite difference method, the method of moments of the
finite-element approach.
Figure 5.15 shows a cross-section of a stacked microstrip antenna consisting
of two square metal patches and a foam layer (r = 1.1) on top of a Rexolite
substrate (r = 2.53, tan = 0.00066) with truncated dielectric layers. The coaxial
probe is connected to the lower patch, and the upper patch (parasitic) is excited
through coupling from the main radiating patch. The radiation patterns are shown
in Figs. 5.16 and 5.17. The stacked microstrip antenna provides a wider
bandwidth as compared to a single-layer patch antenna.
64 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.15. Layout of a stacked antenna element.

0
0 dB

10 dB

20 dB

30 dB

90 90

180

Figure 5.16. E-Plane radiation pattern of the stacked element phi-cut = 0 degrees, f =
4.75 GHz.
TYPES OF ANTENNAS 65

0
0 dB

10 dB

20 dB

30 dB

90 90

180

Figure 5.17. H-Plane radiation pattern of the stacked element phi-cut = 90 deg, f = 4.75
GHz.

5.4.2 Multiple feeds for circular polarization

Rectangular and circular patches primarily radiate linearly polarized waves if
conventional feeds are used without any changes. However, circular and elliptical
polarizations can be achieved by utilizing several feed arrangements or making
slight modifications to the elements [16, 17]. Circular polarization can be
obtained if two orthogonal modes are excited, with a 90-deg time-phase
difference between them. This is usually accomplished by adjusting the physical
dimensions of the patch and using either one or more feeds.
For a circular patch, circular polarization is obtained by using two feeds with
proper angular separation. By making use of two coaxial probes, each probe is
always positioned at a point where the field generated by the other probe exhibits
a null so that there minimal mutual coupling between the two probes. To achieve
circular polarization, the two feeds are fed in such a manner that there is 90-deg
time-phase difference between the two fields; this can be achieved through the
use of a 90-deg hybrid, as shown in Fig. 5.18. Sometimes a shorting pin is
positioned at the center of the patch to connect the patch to the ground plane.
z
For the dominant mode ( TM110 ) and for higher-order modes
z z z
( TM 210 , TM 010 , TM 310 ), the required spacing between the two feeds that
yields circular polarization is different. Furthermore, as it is seen in Fig. 5.19,
two additional feed probes located diametrically opposite to the original poles are
usually recommended, in order to preserve symmetry. The additional probes are
used to suppress the adjacent modes, which usually have the next highest
66 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.18. Circular patch fed with two coaxial probes.

Figure 5.19. Circular patch feed arrangements for the dominant and higher-order modes.

z z
magnitudes. For even modes ( TM 210 and TM 410 ), the four feed probes have
z
phases of 0 deg, 90 deg, 0 deg, and 90 deg, while for the odd modes ( TM110 and
z
TM 310 ) they have phases of 0 deg, 90 deg, 180 deg and 270 deg.

5.4.3 Microstrip arrays

Microstrip antennas can be easily integrated into arrays [18-24] and can be
arranged in a rectangular lattice, shown in Fig. 5.20, or in a triangular lattice,
shown in Fig. 5.25.
Figure 5.22 shows an example of a 44-element subarray of circular
microstrip patches along with the feed network, designed for use in a direct
broadcast system [25]. It has circular polarization, as indicated by the two feeds
for each patch. Note the difference in feed line lengths to create the required 90-
deg phase shift between the two feeds for each patch.
TYPES OF ANTENNAS 67

Figure 5.20. Rectangular lattice configuration.

Figure 5.21. Triangular lattice configuration.

68 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.22. A circular microstrip patch array for a direct broadcast system.

5.5 Radome coverings

A radar dome, or radome, is a protective dielectric housing for antennas. The
function of the radome is to protect the antenna from adverse environments in
ground-based, shipboard, airborne and aerospace applications, while causing an
insignificant effect on the electrical performance of the enclosed antenna or
antennas. The frequency band of application for radomes is approximately 1 to
1000 GHz. Radomes [12] are generally composed of low-loss dielectrics of
thickness comparable to a wavelength, which are shaped to cover the antenna
and, if necessary, to conform to aerodynamic streamlining.

References
1. A.W. Love, Reflector Antennas, New York: IEEE Press, 1978.
2. S. Silver, Microwave Antennas Theory and Design, Radiation Lab Series,
McGraw-Hill.
3. R. Collin, and F. J. Zucker, Antenna Theory Part II, McGraw-Hill, 1969.
4. J. D. Kraus, The corner reflector antenna, Proc. IRE, vol. 28, pp. 513519,
Nov. 1940.
5. P. J. Wood, Reflector Analysis and Design, London: Peter Peregrinus Press,
1980.
6. P. J. B. Clarricoats G. T. Poulton, High efficiency microwave reflector
antennasA review, Proc. IEEE, vol. 6J, no. 10, pp. 14701502, Oct. 1977.
7. W. E. Kock, Metallic Delay Lens, BSTJ, vol. 27, pp. 5882, Jan 1948.
8. W. E. Kock, Metal lens antennas, Proc. IRE, vol. 34, pp. 828836, Nov.
1946.
TYPES OF ANTENNAS 69

9. A.W. Love, Electromagnetic Horn Antennas, IEEE Press, 1976.

10. A.Balanis, Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons.
11. P. J. B. Clarricoats and A. D. Olver, Corrugated Horns for Microwave
Antennas, London: Peter Peregrinus Press, 1984.
12. R. C. Johnson, Antenna Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill.
13. P. Bhartia, K. Rao, and R. S. Tomar, Millimeter-Wave Microstrip and
Printed Circuit Antennas, Artech House, 1st ed., Boston, 1991.
14. K. R. Carver, Microstrip Antenna Technology, vol. 29, no. 1, Jan 1981.
15. D. M. Pozar and D. H. Schaubert, Microstrip Antennas, Piscataway, N.J.:
IEEE Press, 1995.
16. D. M. Pozar, Microstrip Antennas, Proc. IEEE, pp. 7991, vol. 80, no. 1, Jan.
1987.
17. J. Huang, Circularly polarized conical patterns from circular microstrip
antennas, IEEE Trans. Antennas and Prop., vol. 32, no. 9, pp. 991994,
Sept. 1984.
18. J. T. Aberle and D. M. Pozar, Analysis of infinite arrays of one and two-
probe fed circular patches, IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., vol. 38, no. 4, pp.
421432, April 1990.
19. R. Telikepalli et al., Wide band microstrip phased array for mobile satellite
communications, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 43, no. 7, pp.
17581763, July 1995.
20. R. P. Jedlicka et al., Measured mutual coupling between microstrip
antennas, IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 147149, Jan.
1981.
21. D. M. Pozar, Input impedance and mutual coupling of rectangular
microstrip antennas, IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 1191
1196, Nov. 1982.
22. J. Gmez-Tagle, Application of the FDTD method for the analysis of finite-
sized phased array microstrip antennas,University of Central Florida,
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Orlando, Florida, 1999.
23. R. C. Hansen, Phased Array Antennas, 1st ed., New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1998.
24. R. J. Mailloux, Phased Array Antenna Handbook, Artech House.
25. M. Rubelj, P. F. Wahid, C. G Christodoulou, A microstrip antenna array for
direct broadcast satellite receivers, Microwave and Opt. Tech. Lett., vol. 15,
no. 2, June 1997.
CHAPTER 6
ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS

The last research frontier in high-frequency electronics is in the terahertz (or

submillimeter-wave) region, between microwaves and the infrared (i.e., 0.315
THz). While the terahertz frequency region offers many technical advantages
(e.g., wider bandwidth, improved spatial resolution, compactness), the solid state
electronics capability within that frequency region has been very limited from a
basic signal source and systems perspective (i.e., < milliwatts). This limited
development is mainly due to two fundamental factors. First, extremely
challenging engineering problems exist in this region where component size is on
the order of . Second, applications of this shorter-wavelength microwave region
have been restricted, so far, to a few specialized fields (e.g., molecular
spectroscopy). On the lower-frequency side, electronic devices reach an upper
frequency limit of several hundred gigahertz due to transient times and parasitic
RC time constants. On the higher-frequency side, photonic devices such as
interband laser diodes can only be used at approximately 10 THz.
The other important component of a system working in the far-infrared
region (FIR) regime, besides the FIR source, is the FIR detector. In the field of
FIR detectors, specifically those based on resonant tunneling in quantum well
heterostructures, a great deal of research has been conducted and some promising
results have been published.
Today, increasingly more important applications of terahertz technology are
rapidly emerging that are relevant to civilian and military applications. For
example, at frequencies above 300 GHz, the strong absorption of electromagnetic
energy by atmospheric molecules makes any communication link impossible to
achieve. On the other hand, this same fundamental interaction mechanism allows
terahertz electronics to be a very promising tool for the identification and
interrogation of chemical and biological (CB) agents. Recent developments in
microwave remote-sensing techniques and submillimeter-wave heterodyne
radiometric systems have led to the use of limb sounders to study the upper
atmosphere of Earth [1]. The Antarctic ozone hole discovered in 1985 [2], and its
effect in shielding life from solar ultraviolet radiation, shows that it is necessary
to monitor the upper atmosphere in order to detect the change of the atmospheric
ozone layer, which is being depleted systematically by pollution [3]. There is an
urgent need to include local oscillators and detectors for radiometers at 2.5 THz
in new satellites, for more accurate monitoring of ozone depletion and
tropospheric chemistry in general.
Several applications, in areas such as remote sensing, radio astronomy,
plasma diagnostics, atmospheric studies, space communications, generally

71
72 CHAPTER 6

demand low-noise receivers from about 30 GHz to more than 1 THz. However,
this region presents serious technical challenges on submillimeter-wave local
oscillators and detectors[4-8]. For example, the frequency coverage of the NASA
SMMM (Sub-Millimeter Moderate Mission) is from 400 GHz to 1.2 THz, and
the minimum output power requirement of the local oscillator at 1 THz is 50 W.
The challenge here is to develop a small, lightweight, reliable device, that makes
use of a low-voltage power supply but is capable of generating enough output
power.
In this chapter we show how an antenna can be integrated with the detector
for successful operation to efficiently collect terahertz radiation.

6.1 Antennas for infrared detectors

As the size of FIR detectors is reduced in order to improve performance, they
cannot collect much of the terahertz radiation, and, therefore, the detection of
such radiation becomes difficult. An antenna coupled to the detector can
efficiently collect the radiation and feed it to the detector. Since high-frequency
devices are fabricated using lithographic techniques, it is usual practice to
integrate the feed antenna onto the same dielectric substrate as the detector. A
complete review of lithographic and submillimeter FIR antennas can be found [9-
13]. FIR antennas have been used in many applications. They have been used
with GaAs Schottky diodes and superconducting junctions in the design of
heterodyne receivers for astronomical and atmospheric spectroscopy. They have
been used in conjunction with simple resistive bolometers and with
thermocouples in imaging arrays. They have also been used in the design of
photo mixers.
In general, the size of FIR antennas is comparable to the wavelength of the
radiation being detected, while the detector itself is simply a fraction of the
wavelength, in order to achieve a fast response. The antenna collects the radiation
and supplies an electrical signal to the detector to be processed. So far, several
antenna configurations, such as dipole antennas [14], bowtie antennas [15,16],
log-periodic antennas [15], spiral antennas [16,17], helical antennas [18], and
microstrip antennas [19] have been used to feed various types of detectors.
Infrared antennas are different than microwave antennas in that the surface
impedance of the metals is much higher at terahertz frequencies than at
microwave frequencies. This fundamental difference is due to the skin effect
[20]. This high surface impedance causes losses that can slow the antenna
currents so that the antenna does not radiate very efficiently. The surface
impedance is not a constant, but depends on the characteristics of the incident
waves and on the shape and thickness of the material. Usually, the antenna is
chosen as a compromise between bandwidth and efficiency. To take advantage of
the fast response of the detector, a broadband antenna must be used as the
collecting area in order to achieve the detection of extremely narrow pulses of
radiation. Broadband antennas can be easily realized by using electrically thick
dielectric substrates. However, for good efficiency, the substrate thickness must
ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS 73

be much smaller than the operating wavelength (usually /20 or less) to avoid
substrate losses. At low frequencies, because the wavelength is large, it is easy to
fabricate antennas with thin substrates. However, at terahertz frequencies, the
substrate thickness becomes too small to handle. The substrate tends to be too
fragile to support the antenna-detector circuit for reliable operation.
It should be mentioned that for antennas deposited on dielectric substrates,
they couple energy primarily into the dielectric substrate rather than into the air.
When compared to a wave in air, the wave on the antenna is a slow wave and
excites evanescent modes. Compared to a wave in the dielectric, it is a fast wave
and excites radiation fields. Therefore, for materials with high dielectric
constants, such as Si or GaAs, most of the energy (90% or more) is confined in
the dielectric substrate instead of being radiated in free space. Also, the
efficiency of an antenna is limited by the amount of power lost to surface waves.
As the substrate becomes electrically thicker, more surface modes can exist,
which can have a detrimental effect on antenna performance. Moreover, the finite
size of the substrate diffracts these surface waves from the substrate edges, and
this affects the sidelobe level, polarization, and main beam shape.
To reduce loss due to dielectric heating, a special substrate geometry is
required to achieve high efficiency. Several techniques have been employed over
the years to reduce losses and enhance coupling of radiation from the antenna to
free space. One of the earliest approaches was to utilize a lens of the same
dielectric constant attached to the antenna substrate, called substrate lens. This
technique completely reduces substrate mode losses and diffraction at the edges
[21,22].
In order to reduce reflection losses at the air/dielectric interface, a matching
layer is required with the design of the substrate lens. Many antenna systems
were built on a substrate lens with a bowtie antenna, shown in Fig. 6.1, for
imaging arrays in plasma diagnostics and two-dimensional tracking applications
[23]. Bowtie antennas with a substrate lens have been integrated with a resonant
tunneling diode (RTD) to study the stimulated emission and absorption in the
terahertz range [24]. Other antenna structures have also been studied and used
with a substrate lens, including Yagi-Uda imaging arrays, coupled slotlines,
double-slot antennas, and double dipole antennas. Planar log-periodic, helical,
and spiral antennas offer an attractive alternative to bowtie antennas on dielectric
lenses for wideband applications [25,26].
The dielectrically filled parabola is another new design that is based on the
substrate lens principle. In this case, a quartz substrate is machined as a parabola,
and its curved edge is metallized to produce a parabolic reflector. The antenna is
fabricated with its flat portion toward the dielectric lens and radiates most of its
power into the substrate. The radiation is then reflected and collimated by the
parabolic reflector. Measurements with dipole, spiral, log-periodic, and bowtie
antennas placed at the focus of the parabola yield very good radiation patterns.
74 CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.1. A bowtie antenna used for wideband terahertz applications.

In [27], yet another approach was used to handle the substrate mode problem.
The idea was to remove the substrate and integrate the antenna on a thin
dielectric membrane. The membrane is so thin compared to the free-space
wavelength that the antenna effectively radiates as if it were in free space. Other
antenna structures have also been designed with membrane technology,m such as
integrated horn antenna and reflector antennas [10]. Other techniques have also
been developed to reduce or even eliminate surface waves. One of these
techniques is based on the use of photonic bandgap (PBG) substrates. According
to this technique, holes in certain arrangements are drilled in the substrate [28,29]
to create certain periodic patterns that result in an increased efficiency and
directivity.

6.2 Design of helical antennas for terahertz applications

Figure 6.2 depicts an example of a helical antenna designed for the 0.1- to 2.7-
THz range. The terahertz antenna structure was fabricated by using laser
chemical vapor deposition (LCVD) to form fibers that can be grown into
complex three-dimensional structures directly on semiconductor substrates [18].
By focusing the laser through a diffractive optic, arrays of antennas can be
fabricated at the same time. Terahertz radiation detection devices can be realized
by combining the LCVD antennas with MEMS microbolometers that convert
received terahertz radiation into a change in resistance. Arrays of these antenna-
bolometer pairs can be fabricated on the same substrate to realize a terahertz
imaging device.
ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS 75

Figure 6.2. SEM photograph of an antennalike structure consisting of 40-m square

spirals around a center post.

Figure 6.3 depicts a helical antenna as a conductor coiled around an

imaginary cylinder. The conductor can be coiled in the clockwise or
counterclockwise direction depending on the polarization requirements. The
pitch angle, , provides a measure of how tightly the helix is wound. For a given
circumference, smaller values of imply closer turn spacing.
The operation of a helical antenna can be described in terms of transmission
and radiation modes. Transmission modes describe how an electromagnetic wave
propagates along the helix. At low frequencies, where the wavelength is much
longer than the helix circumference, regions of positive and negative charge in
the current distribution are separated by many turns. Because of this separation,
the electric field becomes directed mainly along the axis of the helix. At
frequencies where the wavelength approaches the value of the helix
circumference, higher order transmission modes occur.
The radiation field pattern depends on the radiation modes excited. There are
mainly two modes: the normal mode and the axial mode. The axial mode antenna
is the most widely used mode. Actually, the axial mode helical antenna is the
most widely used circularly polarized antenna, either in space or on the ground.
For the axial mode to occur, the frequency of operation must be such that the
helix circumference is within the range 0.75 to 1.33 . The axial mode is
characterized by a symmetric main lobe directed along the axis of the helix. On
the other hand, for the normal mode the maximum field strength occurs in the
direction perpendicular (normal) to the helix axis. The radiation resistance in this
76 CHAPTER 6

D= diameter of
C=circumference helix
tan = s/C =
L = S 2 + C 2 length of
= pitch
N= number of
d=diameter of helix

Figure 6.3. Helical antenna geometry.

case is very low and hence the normal mode helix is not a very efficient antenna.
For this discussion, only the axial mode helical antenna is considered. The input
impedance of the axial mode antenna is mostly resistive and is given by

R = 140

This is an empirical formula used for calculating the impedance of a helical

antenna. It does not take into account the effect of skin depth, but since no
closed-form solution exists, it is a reasonable approximation. It is this impedance
that can be used for matching purposes with a waveguide or bolometer. More
specifically, the dimensions of the helix at 1 THz ( =300 m) are

C=341.307 m
s=81.3 m
d=15 m
N=5 turns
= 13 deg.

6.3 Design of broadband FIR antennas

Consider the device shown in Fig. 6.4. It consists of a bow-tie antenna integrated
with a double quantum well (DQW), photon-assisted tunneling (PAT) terahertz
detector. The radiation can be detected by observing the current-voltage
characteristic of the detector with and without the terahertz radiation. A detailed
discussion on the detectors principle of operation can be found in [30-34].
ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS 77

Figure 6.4. DQW FIR detector integrated with bowtie antenna.

The basic structure of this terahertz detector is similar to that of the recently
demonstrated double electron layer-tunneling transistor (DELTT) [32], the first
quantum tunneling transistor whose behavior is not sensitive to any lateral
dimensions of the device.
To take full advantage of the electrically tunable DQW PAT FIR detector,
any antenna fabricated with this detector should be broadband and efficient in
collecting the terahertz radiation. There are many possibilities of broadband
antenna structures to choose from such as the bowtie, log-periodic, and spiral
antennas. According to the theory of the DQW PAT FIR detectors, photons from
the laser beam with the correct amount of energy at terahertz frequencies, push
the device beyond threshold to produce a tunneling current that flows in the
detector.
One of the fundamental issues in this design is the matching of the DQW
detector to the input impedance of the bowtie antenna. A bad impedance match
between the detector and the antenna causes the incoming terahertz radiation to
be reflected instead of being collected and fed to the active area of the detector.
Therefore, a better understanding of how the bowtie and other broadband
antennas behave at these terahertz frequencies is very important in the realization
of the terahertz detector. Also, a quasi-static analysis of the antenna-detector
structure is important in studying the effects of the dc bias on the electric field
and potential distributions inside the detector structure. Another important issue
is the development of an equivalent circuit model for the terahertz detector. This
is very crucial in achieving the required impedance matching between the
antenna and the detector.
The input reflection coefficient of the antenna obtained though simulation is
shown in Fig. 6.5. The results show that the bowtie antenna with the
78 CHAPTER 6

configuration shown in Fig. 6.4 is well suited to work in the 45- to 95-GHz
frequency band. This gives a 70% bandwidth around the 70-GHz center
frequency, based on the 10-dB criterion (or equivalently 2:1 VSWR). The
computed directivity of the bowtie antenna in the broadside direction as a
function of frequency is shown in Fig. 6.6. The dips in the directivity at 70 and
90 GHz are due to nonfundamental mode current distributions that tend to radiate
off the broadside direction. Also, these dips might result due to losses contributed
by substrate and surface-wave modes. [35]
Since the main goal of the antenna here is to efficiently couple radiation from
free space and feed it to the active region of the detector, it is desirable to have

Figure 6.5. Reflection coefficient vs. frequency of the bowtie antenna shown in Fig. 6.4.

Figure 6.6. Directivity in the broadside direction of the original bowtie antenna as a
function of frequency.
ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS 79

Figure 6.7. Radar cross section (RCS) of the original bowtie antenna vs. frequency at
different elevation angles. The antenna is illuminated by a plane wave incident normally in
the z-direction with the electric field polarized in the x-direction.

the effective collecting aperture of the antenna as large as possible at the

frequency of radiation. By illuminating the antenna structure with an
electromagnetic plane wave incident at some angle and measuring the back-
scattered fields, the radar cross-section (RCS) of the antenna can be calculated.
The effective aperture is then proportional to RCS. In the present case, the
antenna is illuminated by a plane wave normally incident in the z-direction, with
an electric field polarized in the x-direction, and the simulation results for the
RCS as a function of frequency and at different elevation angles in the x-z plane,
are shown in Fig. 6.7. [35]
A new bowtie antenna with dimensions designed to operate around the 1.6-
THz frequency band is shown in Fig. 6.8. The bowtie antenna is designed to have
a length of approximately half a wavelength (inside the substrate) at 1.6 THz and
a bow angle of 60 deg.
The simulated results for the input reflection coefficient as a function of
frequency are shown in Fig. 6.9, and a clear resonance is observed at 1.6 THz. In
the 1.45- to 2-THz frequency band, the reflection coefficient magnitude is less
than 10 dB, giving a bandwidth of 34% around 1.6 THz. The bowtie antenna in
the present design behaves much like a half-wave dipole, but with a broader
bandwidth. [35]
80 CHAPTER 6

x
15.6m

28.2m

Figure 6.8. Modified bowtie antenna design.

Figure 6.9. Reflection coefficient vs. frequency of the modified bowtie antenna with a
center frequency of 1.6 THz.

References
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ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS 81

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15. C. Fumeaux et al, Nanometer thin-film Ni-NiO-Ni diodes for detection and
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82 CHAPTER 6

18. Codreanu, C. Fumeaux, D. F. Spencer and G. D. Boreman, Microstrip

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20. R. C. Compton et al, Bow-tie antennas on a dielectric half-space: theory and
experiment, IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propagat., vol. 35, pp. 622630,
June 1987.
21. E. N. Grossman, D. G. McDonald and J. E. Sauvageau, Far-infrared kinetic-
inductance detectors, IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, vol. 27, pp. 26772680,
March 1991.
22. D. P. Neikirk et al, Imaging antenna array at 119 m, Appl. Phys. Lett.,
vol. 41(4), pp. 329331, Aug. 1982.
23. H. Drexler, J. S. Scott and S. J. Allen, Photon-assisted tunneling in a
resonant tunneling diode: stimulated emission and absorption in the THz
range, Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 67(19), pp. 28162818, Nov. 1995.
24. D. B. Rutledge and M. S. Muha, Imaging antenna arrays, IEEE Trans.
Antennas and Propagat., vol. 30, pp. 535540, July 1982.
25. I.Wike, W. Herrmann and F. K. Kneubuhl, Submicron thin-film MOM
diodes for the detection of 10 m infrared laser radiation, Fourth
International Conference on Advanced Infrared Detectors and Systems, pp.
116119, 1990.
26. G. M. Rebeiz et al, Monolithic millimeter-wave two-dimensional horn
imaging array, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. 28, pp. 14731482,
Sept. 1990.
27. M. J. Vaughan, K. Y. Hur, and R. C. Compton, Improvements of microstrip
patch antenna radiation patterns, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat, vol. 42,
pp. 882885, June 1994.
28. R. A. York and Z. B. Popovic, Ed., Active and Quasi-Optical Arrays for
Solid-State Power Combining, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
29. Sanchez, C. F. Davis, K. C. Liu and A. Javan, The MOM tunneling diode:
theoretical estimate of its performance at microwave and infrared
frequencies, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 49(10), pp. 52705277, Oct. 1978.
30. J. A. Simmons et al, Planar quantum transistor based on 2D-2D tunneling in
double quantum well heterostructure, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 84(10), pp. 5626
5634, Nov. 1998.
31. M. A. Blout et al, Double electron layer tunneling transistor (DELTT),
Semicond. Sci. Technol., vol. 13, pp. A180A183, 1998.
32. J. S. Moon et al, Unipolar complementary circuits using double electron
layer tunneling transistor, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 74, pp. 314316, Jan. 1999.
33. P. J. Burke, I. B. Spielman and J. P. Eisenstein, High frequency
conductivity of the high-mobility two-dimensional electron gas, Appl. Phys.
Lett., vol. 76, pp. 745747, Feb. 2000.
ANTENNAS FOR INFRARED DETECTORS 83

34. M. Khodier, C.G. Christodoulou, and J. Simmons, An integrated broadband

bowtie antenna for THz detection with a double quantum well, IEEE
AP/URSI Symposium in Boston, Mass., July 2001.
CHAPTER 7
ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS

Antenna measurements are an important part of the antenna design process.

Measurements on prototype antennas are often done at various steps of the design
process to check that the antenna meets the design specification. The key
parameters of an antenna that are measured are the radiation pattern, efficiency,
gain, and impedance. Depending on the antenna and its application, other
parameters such as the polarization purity, power handling capacity, etc. may
also be measured. The use of sophisticated computerized equipment has made it
possible to make accurate measurements of the important antenna parameters.
Detailed discussion on measurement techniques can be found in the IEEE
Standard Test Procedure for Antennas.

7.1 Radiation pattern measurements

To obtain a complete 3D space pattern, measurements of the field intensity have
to be made in all directions. The field components E and E are measured as a
function of ( constant) and ( constant). The measurements can be taken by
keeping the antenna under test fixed and moving the measuring antenna, or by
rotating the antenna under test about its vertical axis and keeping the measuring
antenna fixed. In most cases, pattern measurements are taken along the principal
planes; i.e., the E-plane and the H-plane patterns of the antenna are measured.
Consider an antenna located at the origin along the z-axis, as shown in Fig.
7.1. The requirement for the accurate measurement of the far-field radiation
pattern is that the antenna under test be illuminated by a uniform plane wave.
Reflection from the ground or obstacles surrounding the antenna can cause
unwanted reflections and errors in the measurements [1].
7.1.1. Outdoor ranges
The problem encountered with outdoor measuring ranges is reflection from the
ground, surrounding obstacles, and a lack of protection from the environment.
The effect of the ground is reduced by placing the antennas on towers or adjacent
buildings. In cases where the range is on irregular terrain, slant ranges are
designed such that the test antenna is at a fixed height on a tower and the source
is located at the ground. Ground reflections may be minimized using a source
antenna with high directivity [2].

85
86 CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.1. Geometry for radiation pattern measurements.

7.1.2 Anechoic chambers

An anechoic chamber is an enclosed room with the walls, floor, and ceiling
covered with absorbing material to minimize reflections. These chambers provide
a controlled environment for antenna testing. The absorbing materials used
generally come in the form of wedges or pyramids, as shown in Fig. 7.2, with a
thickness on the order of a few wavelengths. Reflection coefficients of 20 to
40 dB are obtainable over a range of incident angles and frequencies [1,2]. The
region within the chamber where phase errors are about 5 deg and the
amplitude errors are about 0.5 dB is referred to as the quiet zone.

Figure 7.2. Sections of absorbing material: (a) pyramid, (b) wedge.

ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS 87

In a tapered chamber, shown in Fig. 7.3, the tapered section of the chamber
ends in a rectangular section at the test region [3]. The antenna under test is
generally the receiving antenna. As the frequency gets higher and the antenna
under test gets larger, it becomes more difficult to obtain plane wave
illumination. The tapered chamber presents a more uniform plane wave at the test
antenna than a rectangular chamber.
Compact ranges [4] use as an off-set reflector to obtain plane wave
illumination over much smaller distances as compared to conventional ranges.
The reflector usually has edges that are serrated or rolled to minimize diffraction
from the edges. Different reflector antenna configurations such as parabolic,
Gregorian, Cassegrain, etc. are used to further improve performance. An
illustration of a compact test range is given in Fig. 7.4.
The far-field patterns can also be obtained from measurements of the near
field [2,5]. This allows the use of a smaller chamber; however, it requires very
accurate near-field measurements, with extra care taken to ensure that the probe
does not disturb the field being measured. Depending on the type of antenna
being measured, one of the three techniques below is used.

Figure 7.3. Tapered chamber.

88 CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.4. Compact test range.

In planar near-field scanning, the probe is moved over the antenna aperture
plane and the amplitude and phase are recorded. In a cylindrical near-field
scanning system, the probe is moved vertically while the antenna under test is
rotated; and for spherical near-field scanning, the probe is moved around the
antenna over a spherical surface. The near-field values are transformed to far-
field data using Fourier transforms. Computer software packages are available
that carry out this transformation.
The equipment used for measuring and recording the data is placed outside
the anechoic chamber. The measurement is generally computerized and radiation
plots in either rectangular or polar form can be generated.

7.2 Gain measurements

7.2.1 Comparison method
The gain of an antenna can be measured by comparison with a reference antenna
whose gain is known. Commonly used reference antennas are the half-
wavelength dipole and the pyramidal horn. In an anechoic chamber or test range,
a known amount of power is radiated by a source antenna and received by the
antenna under test, and the received signal level PR is noted. The test antenna is
then replaced with reference antenna, and the received signal level PR is noted.
The gain of the antenna is given by

PA
G= GR
PR
ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS 89

where GR is the gain of the reference antenna. It is assumed that both antennas
are properly matched and are located at a suitable distance from the source such
that the incident wave is a uniform plane wave.
7.2.2 Two-antenna method
Two identical test antennas can be used for measuring the gain, using one as the
transmitter and one as the receiver. Using the Friis transmission equation, the
power received by the antenna under test is

G 22
Pr = Pt (7.1)
(4) 2 r 2

where Pt is the transmitted power (W), G is the gain of the identical antennas,
is the wavelength (m), and r is the distance between the antennas (m). From the
above equation we have

4r Pr
G= (7.2)
Pt

The gain can thus be determined by measuring the ratio of the received to
transmitted power, the distance between the antennas, and the wavelength.
If the gain of the two antennas differs considerably, then we write

G = G01G02 (7.3)

where G01 is the gain of one antenna and G02 the gain of the second antenna.
A third reference antenna, whose gain need not be known, can be used for
comparison [1]. We obtain the ratio

G1
G = (7.4)
G2

where G1 is the gain of one antenna above the reference and G2 that of the second
antenna; then we have

G01
G = (7.5)
G02

and, therefore,
90 CHAPTER 7

G01 = G G
G (7.6)
G02 =
G

7.3 Impedance measurements

The antenna impedance can be derived by measuring the complex reflection
coefficient using a vector network analyzer. In many instances, the return loss of
the antenna is measured from which the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) can
be obtained. The VSWR is related to the reflection coefficient, , through the
relation

1+
VSWR = (7.7)
1

The return loss is given by the equation below and is generally expressed in
decibels:
2
1 VSWR + 1
RL = 2 = (7.8)
VSWR 1

VSWR values of 2 or less correspond to an acceptable match for many

applications.

References
1. J. Kraus, Antennas, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill.
2. S. Drabowitch, A. Papiernik, H. Griffiths, J. Encinas, B. L. Smith, Modern
Antennas, ITP Chapman and Hill.
3. C. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, John Wiley and Sons.
4. R. C. Johnson, H. A. Ecker, R. A. Moore, Compact range techniques and
measurements, IEEE Trans. Ant. and Prop., vol. AP-17, pp. 568576, Sep.
1969.
5. R. C. Johnson, H. Ecker, J. S. Hollis, Determination of far field antenna
patterns from near field measurements, Proc. IEEE, vol. 61, no. 2, pp.
16681694, Dec. 1973.
Christos G. Christodoulou received the B.Sc. degree in physics and math from
the American University of Cairo in 1979, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in
Electrical Engineering from North Carolina State University, Raleigh, in 1981
and 1985, respectively. He served as a faculty member at the University of
Central Florida, Orlando, from 1985 to 1998, where he received numerous
teaching and research awards. In 1999, he joined the faculty of the Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department of the University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque. In 1991 he was selected as the AP/MTT Engineer of the Year
(Orlando Section). He is a senior member of IEEE and a member of URSI
(Commission B). He served as the general Chair of the IEEE Antennas and
Propagation Society/URSI 1999 Symposium in Orlando, Florida. He has
published more than 150 papers in journals and conference proceedings. He is
also the co-author of a book, Applications of Neural Networks in
Electromagnetics. He is currently the co-editor for a column on "Wireless
Communications" for the IEEE AP Magazine and the associate editor for the
IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation. His research interests are in
the areas of wireless communications, modeling of electromagnetic
systems, smart antennas, neural network applications in electromagnetics, and
reconfigurable/ MEMS antennas.

Parveen F. Wahid received her B.Sc. degree in mathematics and physics in

1969, her M.Sc. degree in physics in 1971 from the University of Mysore, India,
and her Ph.D. in electrical communication engineering from the Indian Institute
of Science in 1979. She was a research associate in the Electrical Engineering
Department, University of Utah, from 1980 to 1982 and at the Electrical
Engineering Department, University of Nebraska/Lincoln from 1982 to 1983.
Since 1984 she has been with the University of Central Florida, where she is now
a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering. She teaches
electromagnetics, antenna theory and design, and microwave engineering
courses. Her research interests are in the area of the design of microstrip antennas
and arrays and adaptive arrays for wireless applications. Dr. Wahid has more
than 50 technical publications in journals and conference proceedings. She is the
recipient of the 2000 IEEE Third Millennium award, the 1996 Orlando Section
Engineer of the Year award, and the 1998 IEEE Orlando Section Professional
Service award. She is a member of the IEEE AP-S ADCOM. She served as the
General Chair for the 1998 IEEE Region 3 Southeastcon conference and was the
Technical Program Chair for the 1999 IEEE International AP/URSI symposium.
INDEX

Index Terms Links

90-degree hybrid 63

absorbing material 84
adaptive 2
air/dielectric interface 71
analysis of microstrip antennas 58
anechoic chamber 84
antenna array 37
antenna efficiency 17
antenna measurements 83
aperture plane 50
aperture theory 49
aperture-coupled feed 57
array factor 38
artificial dielectric lenses 54

bandwidth 17
beamwidth 15
Bessel function 33
bowtie antenna 71 78
broadband FIR antennas 75
broadside array 44

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Index Terms Links

Cassegrain 51
Cassegrain reflector 51
cavity model 59
cellular communications 6
circular patch 63
circular polarization 18 63
circular-array 48
coaxial probe feed 57
compact ranges 85
conformal structures 56
corner reflector 50

DELTT 75
dielectric heating 71
dielectric loaded cavity 59
dielectric substrate 71
dipole 21
dipole of finite length 25
directional pattern 15
directivity 16
double quantum well (DQW) photon-assisted
tunneling (PAT) 75
dual-surface lens 53

element factor 39
elliptical polarization 18 63
end-fire array 44
E-plane 14
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Index Terms Links

equivalent electric and magnetic current

densities 60

far-field 39
far-field region 13
fast Fourier transform 49
feed 57
field patterns 13
FIR detector 69
FIR source 69
Fraunhofer region 13
Fresnel region 13
Friis equation 18
fringing effects 59

gain 13 17
gain measurements 86
geometrical theory of diffraction 49
grating lobes 44
Gregorian dual-reflector antenna 52
ground plane 28

half-power beamwidth 15
half-wavelength dipole 26
helical antennas 71 72
higher-order modes 63
horn antenna 54
H-plane 14

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Index Terms Links

hyperthermia 7

image theory 29
impedance 13
impedance measurements 87
infinitesimal dipole 21
infrared 69
infrared detectors 69
input impedance 17 59 75
isotropic radiator 15

large circular-loop 33
LCVD 72
LCVD antennas 47
left-hand polarization 18
lens 71
lens antennas 53
linear array 42
linear wire antenna 21
linearly polarized 18
linearly polarized waves 63
log-periodic antennas 71
loop antenna 31
Luneberg lens 54

major lobe 15
maximum effective aperture 23
measurement techniques 83

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Index Terms Links

MEMS 47 72
microstrip antennas 56
microstrip arrays 64
minor lobes 15
mobile satellite communications 6
multiple feeds for circular polarization 63
multiplication pattern 39

near-field region 13
nonuniform arrays 45
null 40

offset microstrip line feed 57

omnidirectional pattern 15
outdoor ranges 83

parabolic reflector 50
phased-array 37
physical optics 49
planar arrays 46
plane reflector 50
polarization 13 18
power density 15
power patterns 13
principal maximum 43
printed antennas 56
proximity-coupled feed 57
pyramidal horn 55

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Index Terms Links

quarter-wave monopole 30
quasi-static analysis 76

radar 9
radar antennas 10
radiating region 13
radiation intensity 16
radiation pattern 13
radiation resistance 17 28
radio astronomy 9
radio interferometer 9
radio telescope 9
radiometer 6
radiometer antennas 6
radome 66
reactive region 13
reciprocity theorem 13
reconfigurable antennas 2
rectangular lattice 64
reflection coefficient 29 84
reflector antennas 49
remote sensing 6
resonant frequency 59
resonant length 28
return loss 88
right-hand polarization 18

satellite communications 4
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Index Terms Links

scalar horn 56
scanning 37
sectoral E-plane and H-plane horns 55
sectoral horn 55
single-layer patch antenna 61
single-surface lens 53
small circular loop 31
small dipole 24
smart 2
spiral antennas 71
stacked microstrip antenna 61
surface impedance 70
synthetic aperture 6
synthetic aperture antenna 6

tapered chamber 85
TEM 22
terahertz antenna 46
therapeutic applications 8
time average Poynting vector 15
total radiated power 16
transmission line model 58
transmission modes 73
triangular lattice 64
tunneling current 75

uniform array 44
uniform N-element linear array 42

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Index Terms Links

voltage standing wave ratio 87

wire antenna 31
wireless communications 2 6

Yagi-Uda imaging arrays 71

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