INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION
India is a multilingual country. The 1961 Census, which can legitimately be
considered most authentic in this respect, recorded a total of 1,652 languages
belonging to four (now five, with the addition of Andamanese and Nicobarese
family, see Abbi 2006) different language families in this country. The major ones
being the Indo-Aryan languages are spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian
languages spoken by southern Indians. Other languages spoken in India belong to
the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman. According to 2001 census there are 234
mother tongues , more than 10,000 speakers for each language. Over 87 languages
are used in the print media, 71 languages are used on the radio, and the
administration of the country is conducted in 13 different languages. Yet many
languages have disappeared. Peoples Linguistic Survey of India under the
supervision of Ganesh Devy (since 2010) identified 860 distinct languages in India.
The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.
The official languages of the Union Government of the Republic of India are Hindi in
the Devanagari script and English as an associate language. The Eighth Schedule of
the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages at present, which have been referred to as
scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement.
Eighth Schedule
[Articles 344(1) and 351]
Languages
1. Assamese.
2. Bengali.
3. Bodo.
4. Dogri.
5. Gujarati.
6. Hindi.
7. Kannada.
8. Kashmiri.
9. Konkani.
10. Maithili.
11. Malayalam. Indian Languages

12. Manipuri.
13. Marathi.
14. Nepali.
15. Odia
16. Punjabi.
17. Sanskrit.
18. Santhali.
19. Sindhi.
20. Tamil. Multilingualism in India
21. Telugu.
22. Urdu
In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical
language to Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia. These languages
are also used for day to day discourse.
Multiplicity of languages in India does not act as a barrier in communication;
instead variability in linguistic behaviour facilitates communication. Contemporary
research has shown that multilingualism is an asset for language learning, scholastic
achievement, cognitive growth and social tolerance. The significance of Hindi as our
official language and as a major link language of a substantial part of the country can
hardly be overstated. Considering the importance of English as our window to the
world and as a language of higher education, knowledge and social mobility, most
states now introduce English early in school.
Social harmony in a country as diverse as India is only possible through mutual
respect for each others language and culture. Such respect can only be built on
knowledge. Ignorance breeds fear, hatred, and intolerance and this is indeed a major
barrier to the building up a national identity and responsible citizenship. With each
State having one dominant language, there is bound to develop a certain amount of
ethnocentric attitude and linguistic chauvinism. This not only hampers the free
movement of people and ideas but also imposes restrictions on creativity,
innovation, and diffusion and retards the modernization of the society. Therefore
multilingualism is encouraged in India.

LANGUAGE AND POWER

In spite of the fact that all languages as abstract systems or subsystems are equal, the
complex ways in which history, economics, sociology, and politics interact with
language, some languages become more prestigious than others and become
associated with socio-political power. It is generally the language used by the elite
that acquires power in society and becomes the standard language. All the
grammars, dictionaries, and various reference materials will invariably address this
standard language. From the point of view of the science of language, there is no
difference between what is variously called standard language, pure language,
dialect, variety, etc. Those who wield power create and perpetuate negative
stereotypes about the languages of the underprivileged. As Chambers (2003: 277)
points out, Prejudices based on dialect are as insidious as prejudices based on skin,
colour, religion, or any other insubstantial attribute, and they have the same result.
More than anything else, it is the socio-political and economic considerations that
make people decide the national, official, and associate official languages to be used
in education, administration, the judiciary, the mass media, etc. In principle, it is
eminently possible to do anything in any language, including advanced research in
the humanities, the social sciences, and the sciences. It should thus become obvious
that the languages of the underprivileged will never become empowered unless we
provide support structures that will ensure their use in a variety of contexts. It is also
important to remember that standard is never a fixed constant. Socio-historical
processes create hierarchies within languages; it is possible to initiate processes of
dialogue among these languages and follow an approach that travels within margins
and from there connects with the centre. The Indian tradition has been one of
coexistence of languages in day to day life and in different performative arts and
literature.

LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND THOUGHT

The relationship among language, culture, and thought has been an area of serious
enquiry for sociologists, anthropologists, psychologists and linguists for a very long
time. There is no doubt that in addition to a variety of gestures, rituals, and
paralinguistic features, language remains the main source of cultural transmission
and cognitive structures. The linguistic and cultural patterns of social behaviour are
largely subconsciously acquired and they gradually become constitutive of our
identities. The role of multiplicity of languages and diversity of cultures in this
context can hardly be over emphasised. If language, on the one hand, structures our
thought processes, it liberates us and takes us into unexplored territories of
knowledge and imagination, on the other. The relationship between language and
thought is indeed very complex and has remained one of the most challenging
puzzles for linguists, psychologists, and cognitive scientists in general. The cognitive,
social, and cultural patterns that govern our perception of the world are largely
shaped, formulated, and even dictated by the structures of the languages we speak.
In the case of Indian languages and cultures, we, in general, share a linguistic,
sociolinguistic, and cultural matrix, and an articulation of this matrix in different
languages may eventually lead to an enrichment of both linguistic and cultural
systems.
There are several functions of language apart from having the quality of unfolding
the world. The basic function of language is for communication.It is a medium
through which most of our knowledge is acquired. Language and literature have
close relationship. Literary forms such as poetry, prose, and drama are potent
sources that not only refine our literary sensibility but also enrich our aesthetic life,
enhane our synaesthetic abilities, and enormously improve our linguistic abilities,
particularly reading comprehension and written articulation. Literature also includes
jokes, irony, fantasy, story, parody, and parable, which pervade our everyday
discourse and in no way constitute an autonomous universe cut off from the worlds
business (habermas 1996, 1998, 2001). A considered appreciation of the aesthetic
aspects of language would inevitably lead to a preference for linguistic vitality and
creativity rather than an obsession with purity and correctness. Human beings not
only appreciate beauty but also often systematically codify laws that govern aesthetic
dimensions. This would also lead, one hopes, to a respect for minor and endangered
languages that is legitimately due to these languages and their speakers. No
community wishes to let its voice die. These languages are repositories of rich
cultural traditions and knowledge systems and every effort needs to be made to keep
them alive. This can be done only by making provisions for them in the school
curriculum framework.

TRIBAL LANGUAGES
Even in the absence of standardised varieties, tribal langusges could become
accessible tools for literary endeavour that allows for free expression to develop in all
varieties and results in the consolidation of knowledge bases in each language. Many
languages are becoming endangered and some have actually disappeared from the
Indian linguistic scene. Every time we lose a language, a whole literary and cultural
tradition is likely to be erased.
Indian subcontinent consists of an umpteen number of separate linguistic
communities, at times sharing a common language and culture and again, at times
standing in huge difference in dialects. It is already acknowledged that cosmopolitan
and metropolitan populace possesses their indigenous sophisticated version of
language and mode of communication. However, the point of interest in this context
is the mode of utilisation of the language of tribes and tribal population in the
country.

Tribal people make up 8.2 percent of the nation's total population, which adds to
over 84 million people, according to the 2001 Indian census. Tribal people are
essentially an aboriginal community residing in India, possessing their own customs
and languages.
Indian tribal languages can be defined as essentially 'folk' languages, and spoken by
people of ethnic groups. Indian tribal languages can simply be defined as the
traditional languages utilised by the tribal folk. The languages used by tribal
communities in India are indeed quite complex, but still priceless relics of India's
past. This is the precise reason why they are preserved orally in the form of songs,
legends and other tales. Some of the leading tribal language-speaking groups
comprise: Garo tribes, Chakma tribes, Naga tribes, Gond tribes, Mizo tribes, Munda
tribes, Santhali tribes,Khasia tribes, Oraon tribes and the tribe of Manipur.
Some of the tribal languages prevalent in India are Abujmaria, Garo, Aariya, and
Tsangla, Saurashtri etc.The Garo language is spoken by the tribal communities
residing in and around Garo hills, Meghalya, Tripura, Western Assam, and
Nagaland. Several dialects of this language include Megam, Chisak, Atong etc.
Another tribal language is Abujmaria which is spoken by the people of Abujmar hills
in Bastar District. The Hill Maria tribal community uses this language as their
medium to converse with their folks. This language is of Dravidian language family.
Saurashtri is another tribal language which is also termed as Patnuli. Tribal
communities residing in different parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka,
North Arcot and Chennai speak in this language. Apart from these tribal languages,
there are some other tribal languages namely Gadaba spoken by the people of
Koraput district of Orissa.
Aariya is another tribal language spoken by the tribal communities of Madhya
Pradesh and Tsangla spoken in some villages of Arunachal Pradesh.
Indian tribal languages are extremely well organised and orderly, owing to a
developed past and the enlightened educational interference. Garo and Chakma
languages have a slight Chinese hint to their diction. There lies an elementary
similarity between the Garo and Magh languages, as both tribes belong to the same
origin. Munda, Santhali, Kol, Khasia, Garo and Kurukh language are interrelated
languages. Munda and Kurukh are regarded as equivalent languages, due to the
syntax and verbs of both are almost identical. Munda, Santhali and Kol languages
are even more ancient than the Indo-Aryan languages. These tribal languages further
belong to Austro-Asian, Indo-Chinese, and Chinese-Tibetan, Tibetan-Burman or
Dravidian families. As these tribal groups have mostly migrated from places
mentioned, they have adopted their language principally from those nations.
The various languages spoken by Tribes of India are as follows
Indo-Aryan Family: Assamese language , Baigani, Banjari, Bengali language,, Bhatri,
Bhili, Bhunjia, Chakma, Chhattisgarhi, Dhanki, Dhodia, Dhundhari, Gadiali,
Gamit/Gavti, Garasia/Girasia, Gojri/Gujjari, Gujarati language, Hajong, Halbi,
Harauti, language, Jaunsari, Kachchi, Khotta, Kinnui, Kokni, Konkani language,
Kotwalia, Kudamamali, Thar, Lambani or Lamani language, Laria, Magahi,
Mahl, Marathi language, Mavchi, Mewnri, Nagpuri, Naikadi, Nimari, Oriya
language, Rathi, Sarhodi, Shina, Tharu, Wagri, Warli.

Tibeto-Burman Family: Adi Ashing, Adi Bokar, Adi Bori, Adi Gallong, Adi Komkar,
Adi Milang, Adi Minyong, Adi Padam, Adi Karko, Pailibo, Adi Pangi, Adi Pasi, Adi
Ramo, Adi Shimong, Adi Tangam, Aimol, Anal, Angami, Ao, Apatani, Balti,
Bangni/Dafla, Bawm, Bhotia, Biate, Bodo, Bugun, Chakhesang, Champa, Chang,
Chiru, Chote, Chung, Dalu, Deori, Dokpa/Droskat, Duhlian-Twang, Gangte, Garo,
Halam, Hmar, Hrusso/Aka, Hualngo, Kabui, Kachari, Kagati, Kak barak, Khamba,
Khampa, Khiamngan, Koch, Koireng, Konyak, Kuki, Ladakhi, Lahauli, Lai Hawlh,
Lakher/Mara, Lalung, Lamgang, Lepcha, Lisu, Lotha, Lushai/Mizo, Mag/Mogh, Mao,
Maram, Maring, Memba, Mikir, Miri, Mishing, Mishmi, Monpa, Monsang, Moyon,
Na, Naga, Sherdukpen, Nishi, Nocte, Paite, Pang, Phom, Pochury, Ralte, Rengma,
Riang, Sajalong/Miju, Sangtam, Sema, Sherpa, Singpho, Sulung, Tagin, Tangsa,
Thado, Tangkhul, Tibetan, Toto, Vaiphei, Wancho, Yim-chungre, Zakhring/Meyer,
Zemi, Zou.
Dravidian Family: Dhurwa, Gadaba tribe , Gondi, Kadar tribe, Kannada, Kodagu,
Kolami, Koraga, Kota, Koya/Koi, Kui, Kurukh, Kuvi, Malayalam, Malta, Maria,
Naiki, Parji, Pengo, Tamil, Telugu langauge, Toda, Tulu, Virnvn, Yerukula.
Austro-Asiatic Family: Asuri, Bhumij tribe, Birhor tribe, Birjia tribe, Bondo, Diday,
Gutob, Ho, Juang, Kharia, Khasi, Kherwari, Korku, Korwa, Kurmi, Lodha, Mundari,
Nicobarese, Santali, Saora/Savara, Shompen, Thar.
Andamanese Family: Andamanese Tribe, Jarawa tribe, Onge, Santinelese.
Chinese Family: Khampti
Unclassified Family: Manchat
However, the list of Indian tribal languages is pretty long, owing to the
overwhelming number of tribes residing throughout the country.

CLASSICAL LANGUAGES
The social and cultural institutions of contemporary societies are constantly
illuminated by the past and classical languages remain their vehicles. The Indian
educational system has kept itself open to several classical languages, including
Tamil, Latin, Arabic, and Sanskrit. But the study of Sanskrit deserves far more
attention, for according to Nehru (1949), Sanskrit language and literature was the
greatest treasure that India possessed and he believed that the genius of India will
continue as long as it influences the life of the Indian people. Democratic and wider
access to education and mass media in India have made it possible for the vast
masses to have exposure to many more languages and varieties in the classical (and
often sanctified) tradition. Sanskrit as well as other classical languages and early
literature in the oral traditions are now being studied and brought forward to enrich
the contemporary and modern literatures. The literary, aesthetic, and grammatical
traditions of Sanskrit have opened up new horizons for the modern world. For
example, there is an extremely promising interface unfolding between Panini and
computational linguistics. Sanskrit literature has a variety of literature. Recent
Sanskrit scholarship has brought to light a rich variety of voices that were lying
buried under the expressions of high culture. It has helped one to talk about many
traditions in the Sanskrit language and to contextualise them.
SANSKRIT
Sanskrit is the oldest among all the available languages of the world. Rg-Veda is the
first available literature in any language of the world. Regarding time of Vedic
language and literature there are many opinions of scholars of India as well as West.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak opines that Maitrayn Samhit of Rg-Veda should have
the time around 6500 BC based on the astronomical calculation of the occasion
Vasant Sampat (Particular fall of the spring season) as narrated in that text.

Famous astronomer Herman Jacobi studying the position of the stellar Krttik
mentioned in atapatha Brhmana (an auxiliary text of Yajurveda) fixes its time
around 4500 B.C.

Great archaeologist of Czechoslovakia Prof. Hozni after excavation at

Bogazkoi of Turkey found some stone plates engraved by the names of Vedic Gods
like Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Nsatya writes in his report that Vedic culture and
Sanskrit language was prevalent in the Asian sub-continent by 2000 B.C.

Thus by the words of Tilak, Jacobi and Hozni time of Sanskrit language and
its literature can have the upper limit up to 7000 B.C.

Development of Sanskrit literature has gone through different phases viz, the
Vedas (Rg, Yajus, Sma and Atharva), Vedngas (iks, Kalpa, Chandas, Nirukta,
Vykarana & Jyotisa), rsakvyas (Rmyana and Mahbhrata), Purnas and
classical literature.

Along with Sanskrit literature, literature in Pli and Prkrt languages also
flourished in ancient India. 400 B.C. to 100 B.C. was the time when scholars of
Sanskrit and Sanskrit literature came into contact and mingled with the languages
and literatures of Pacific kelands like Java and Bali (Suvarnadvpa in Sanskrit).
Vietnam (Camp) Cambodia (Kamboja), Keddah, Malaysia (kathadvipa), Thailaad
(yma) and Mianmar (Suvarnabhmi) where even now lots of Sanskrit literature
were found preserved.

Vedic literature, the most ancient in the world are in form of hymns (Mantras)
which are of 3 types, viz, Rk, Yajus and Sman. The hymns purporting the praise of
gods are called Rk and book of collection of Rks is called Rgveda. The book consists
of 10 Mandalas, 85 Anuvkas and 10580 hymns. The hymns that describe the process
of Yajna (rituals) are called Yajus and the collection is called Yajurveda. Sma means
the hymns that please the gods (by its musical rhythm) (

In course of time sages Atharv and Angir collected some other hymns that
are useful for man in everyday life like medicines, antidote to poision, administration
and some black magic. The Collection of these books later on was called by the name
of the authors as Atharvaveda, tharvana Samhit or Atharvngirasa Samhit. And
thus erlier Vedas were three (trai) and later four in numbers.

Language of the Vedas are mysterious which is why scholars interpret in

different ways. Some interpret it as a historical document whereas some take it
symbolically and some as a test of religion.

Vedic literature (Vedavanmaya) not only comprises of 4 Vedas but other

ancillary texts such as Brhmana. ranyaka, Upanisad. These texts are considered
under Vedic literature on the basis of their language which we call as Vedic Sanskrit
that is slightly different from classical Sanskrit which is prevailing even now.

Messages of all the Vedas are Peace of the world, unity of mankind, world-
fraternity, and egalitarianism and so on Rg Veda says
meaning everybody first
become a human being. Vedas are not attached to any particular caste, creed, and
religion and are without any bias. Its teaching is universal and without any
boundary. It suggests having open mindedness.

: :
Let the noble thoughts come from all angles. It also advocates for social harmony.

Let us walk together, speak in same tone and understand each others heart.

In order to understand the application of the Vedic Mantras as well as their relevance
Brhmana texts were written. atapatha Brhmana of Yajurveda establishes deep
connection of Yajna with ecological balance. Some famous Brhmanas are itareya,
Taitereya etc.

ranyakas are the texts which describe about the Vedic way of life, code of conduct
of various Aramas like Brahamacarya, Grhastha, Vnaprastha and Sampnysa.

Towards the end of Vedic literature comes an encyclopedic philosophical literature

viz, Upanisads which are more than 100 in number. Out of them 11 Upanishads
become famous thanks to the masterly commentaries of ankarcrya, i.e. Isa, Kena,
Katha, Prana, Mundaka, Mndukya, Aitareya, Taitareya, Brhadranyaka,
Chndogya and vetvetara.

The world Upanisad signifies the proximity of teacher and taught. Upa means
near means ultimately and sad means

, ,
(cast away) (to know, to move and to obtain) (to fulfill)
This means student reaches near Guru and casts away his ignorance, knows/ moves
to/ obtains ultimate truth and fulfills his goal of life.

In order to take the knowledge forward Upanisad prays for strong bonding of
teacher & taught.

May you protect both of us, nourish both of us, give energy to both of us, make both
of us study with valour and never let us fight with each other.
Upnisad gives a unique narrative to explain about kman which otherwise is
indescribable
:

That is full in itself. This is also full in itself. Full is subtracted from full and the
remainder still is full. This description is about the relationship of the greater tman
which pervades the whole universe and the individual soul (i.e. Jiva)

: :
Whatever is available in the world is all enjoyable by the god. So enjoy with the
feeling of sacrifice and never greed for others wealth.

By and large objectives of the Upanisads are

knowledge of God, Nature, Soul, Society, Nation

Relationship of Mind, body and soul.
To lead a spiritual life and cessation of suffering.

In order to understand and preserve the Vedic wisdom some other branches of
knowledge were developed which were called the Vedngas (limbs of Veda). Those
are ik (treatise on Pronunciation), Kalpa (Treatise on architecture of Yajs),
Nrukta (Science of etymology), Vykarana (Science of language), Chandas (Science
of meters) and Jyotisa (Astronomy).

These branches of knowledge help in pronouncing and understanding the Vedas and
performing the Yajas. These were developed in post Vedic era i.e. 800 B.C. onwards
when Vedic language was no more is use and hence became difficult to understand.

Siks Different Vedas had their own iks

Prtikhyas. Prtikhyas describe the letters, sounds and some phonetic specialties
and operations of the respective Vedas.
Kalpa This means the rules or methods. Vedic rituals have some specific rules
which are described in the Kalpa Stra. It has four branches, viz, rauta Stra,
Gr the rules of
San rformed at home, Dharma Stra explains the duties at
different states such as duty of human being, social duties, royal duties etc. and
ulva Sutra is the science of geometry which was basically used for making the Vedi
(Place of Yajaa) of various kinds.

Vykaran This is considered to be the most important An

words are emplaned by their division into stems and suffixes. Innumerable treatises
are mode in this field of knowledge, foremost of which is Pninis As
which was written in the 6th C.B.C. and the tradition of this is still present.
Vykaran
dharma (virtue).

Nirukta The main purpose of this treatise is to explain the meaning of Vedic words
systematically. Though tradition records that various Niruktas were there in ancient
india, presently only one is available with us, that is authored by Yska in 800 B.C.
Apart from etimologies of Vedic words Nirukta also explains linguistic intricacies in
it.

Chandas This book helps in pronunciation and recitation of Vedic stanzas which
are composed in Various meters. It explains the main 7 meters of Vedic literature,
i.e.,

1. Gyatr (3 lines of 8 letters each)

2. Us es of 8 letters and 1 line of 12 letters)
3. Anus
4. Br
5. Pakt (4 lines of 10 letters each)
6. Tris
7. Jagat (4 lines of 12 letters each)

Jyotisa -

This is a science to measure the time. As Vedic rituals are supposed to be performed
in specific time, this science was developed to measure and fix the time for particular
activities. It counts the timing and movements of different planets and stars. One of
the most authentic texts on this subject is Vednga Jyotis
Lagadha crya sometimes between 1400 B.C. to 800 B.C.

After the era of Vedic literature comes the age of classical had been toned
down to more systematic, uniform and free use of many words had been restricted.
The first work in this language which is still a master price in the literature world is
Rmyana by Vlmki the text consists of 24000 verses and divided into 7 chapters,
i.e. called Kn d as. The story is about lord Rma who possesses a very high moral
character. His character is depicted as a dedicated son, committed to friends and
relatives, full of charity, truthful, a great warrior helping to the needies, protector of
Dharma, killer of wicked and person with a great soul. His character became so
popular that the story got narrated not only in Indian languages but also in most
languages of the world. In Srilanka the story is called Ramaketti, Ramakiyen in
Thailand, Hiqayat Maharaja Rama in Malaysia, Ramayanakakavin in Java and so on
which is still the foundation of religious, social and spiritual ethos of these Iceland
countries.
First Rmas visit to Jungle, killing of golden deer, kidnap of Sit, death of
Jatyu, dialogue with Sugrva, killing of Bli, crossing over the ocean, burning Lank
and later killing of Rvana, Kumbhakaraba etc, (friends) this is Rmyana.
After Rmyana, Sanskrit Literature offers another magnum opus, viz,
Mahbhrata by Kr - dvaipyana, also known as Vedavysa for he
systematically divided the Vedas Mahbharata consisting of 100 small chapters
(parvas) and 18 big chapters (Parvas) consisting about 1,00,000 verses is not only an
authentic text for Indian history but also is an encyclopedic text of religion,
philosophy, spirituality, geography, astronomy and many other sciences and
customs and traditions of india. This is why it is aptly said. -

Whatever is here is (elaborated) elsewhere and what is not here, is nowhere. Based
on the stories of Mahabhrata numerous literatures were written in later period in
various languages.
Though Mahbhrata is incomparable to any literature in the world for its rich
content and simplicity, a small portion of it from Bhismaparva has caught the eyes of
world literature enjoyed a special status as a complete treatise on philosophy. That is
called as rimadbhagavad git. Which is of about 700 verses with 18 chapters
(Adhyya) and has been translated and commented upon in almost all languages of
the world. Kr and his disciple where Kr shows the different ways
for the mankind for salvation and liberation form suffering. The different ways are,
Jana, Karma and Bhakti (knowledge, action and devotion), i.e., knowledge of
ultimate truth, i.e. tman which is beyond birth and death, action, i.e. performed
with detachment and selflessness and devotion towards god with complete self
sacrifice. Writer of Mahbhrata, Vedavysa has also authored 18 Purn
Bhgavata and Brahmastra.
While Rmyan rata and Purn
of Indian people with their epic stories with highly moral as well as religious
characters, in later period many classic literatures in form of poetries and dramnas
were composed adapting the original stories of those with some modifications. Some
creations were also made with historical characters. The eighteen puranas are:
1. Vishnu Purana
2. Naradiya Purana
3. Srimad Bhagavata Purana
4. Garuda (Suparna) Purana
5. Padma Purana
6. Varah Purana
7. Brahma Purana
8. Brahmanda Purana
9. Brahma Vaivarta Purana
10. Markandeya Purana
11. Bhavishya Purana
12. Vamana Purana
13. Matsya Purana
14. Kurma Purana
15. Linga Purana
16. Siva Purana
17. Skanda Purana and
18. Agni Purana

Classical Sanskrit literature by and large has two forms.

1. ravya Kvya (Literature that can be read or listened)
2. Dr ya Kvya (Literature that is performed and seen)
The earlier one is further divided into three.
1. Gadyakvya (Prose)
2. Padyakvya (Poetry)
3. Camokavya (Mixed)

Gadyakvya-
The form of literature that is not bound in meters and mostly elaborated is
Gadyakvya. As per its contents it is divided into two categories, i.e. 1- Kath and 2-
khyyik. Kath is based on fictional stories. Famous literature in form of Kath in
Sanskrit is Kdambar of Bn abhat t a and Das akumracaritam of Dan d in.
khyyiks based on the life stories of popular characters in history. The most
famous khyyik in Sanskrit literature is Bn abhattas Hars acaritam which is
based on life history of the king Hars avardhana.

Padyakvya
Most creations in Sanskrit literature are in this form. It has three varieties viz-
1. Mahkvya
2. Khan vya
3. Muktaka

Mahkvyas are written on stories picked form history or purn

number of chapters. Detailed elaboration of nature, personalities and situations are
available in this form of poetry. In Sanskrit literature there are famous five
Mahkvyas, viz, Klidsas Raghuvamam and Kumrasambhavam, Bhravis
Kirtrjuniyam, Mghas iuplavadham and rharsas Nais adhiyacaritam.
Mahkvyas contain all kinds of rasas (sentiments) with one r ngra (erotic) and
Vra as prime sentiment.
Khan akvyas contain all the qualites of Mahkvya except the large
volume and multiple chapters. Famous Khan akvya in Sanskrit literature is
Klidsas Meghadtam and tusam hram.
Muktakas are those varieties of poetry which are independent in itself. Its
contents are mostly witty, beautiful presentation of a situation or person and brain
teasers. Famous Muktakas in Sanskrit literature which have inspired the world
literature are Bhartr haris traid of atakas viz, Ntiataka, rngraataka and
Vairgyaataka and the verses of Vis nuarms Pacatantra etc.

Campkvya
This form of literature is composed with both prose and poetry portions. These are
like telling stories with recitation of poems in between to enhance the aesthetic value.
Famous campukvyas in Snaskrit literature are Nalacampu, Vivagundaracampu,
Rdhmdhavavilscamp etc.

Dr yakvya
Literature that is audio-visual and enjoyed while performed on stage is called
Dr yakvya. In language of dramaturgy this is known as Rpaka which is of ten
types.
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The types of Rpakas are Nt aka, Prakaran a, Bhn a, Vyyoga,
Samavakaras D ima, Ihmr ga, Anka, Vthi and Prahasana. This categorisation is
made on the basis of their theme, type of hero and the sentiment (Rasa).
Among these the famous types are Nt aka, Prakaran a and Prahasana.
Nt aka being the most popular form of Rupaka has been mostly used as a synonym
of Rpaka. The most famous Nt aka of Sanskrit literature that caught the
imagination of world literature is Kalidsas AbhijKnakuntalam. There is a
popular quote by its name i.e.,
Nt aka is the most adored form of literature and Nt aka of akuntal
among all Ntakas. Klidasa has created two more Nt akas, viz,
Mlavikgnimitram and Vikramorvaiyam. Other famous drammas in Sanskrit
literature are Bhavabhtis Ult ararmacaritam, udrakas Mrcchakat ikam,
Vikhdattas Mudrrks asam to name a few.
The divisions of classical Sanskrit literature can be understood by the following
diagram.
(Literature)
 (ravya) (Dr ya)

Ntaka
Gadya Padya Camp
Prakarana
Bhna
Vyyoga
Katha Akhyyik
Samavakra
Dima
Mahkvay Khandakvya Muktaka hmrga
Vithi
Prahasana
HINDI
Hindi Literature (Hindi: , Hindi Sahitya) includes literature in the
various Central Zone Indo-Aryan languages . It is broadly classified into four
prominent forms (styles) based on the date of production. They are :
Adi Kaal 11th14th century
Bhakti Kaal 14th18th century
Riti Kaal 18th20th century
Adhunik Kaal (modern literature) 20th century onwards
The literature was produced in different varieties of Hindi such
as Braj, Bundeli, Awadhi, Kannauji, Khariboli, Marwari, Angika, Vajjika, Maithili, M
agahiand Bhojpuri. From the 20th century, works produced in Hindi,
a register of Hindustani, are sometimes regarded as the only basis of modern
literature in Hindi.

Adi kaal (c. 1050 to 1375)

Literature of Adi kal (c. before 15th century CE) was developed in the regions
of Kannauj, Delhi, Ajmer stretching up to central India. Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem
written by Chand Bardai (1149 c. 1200), is considered as one of the first works in
the history of Hindi literature. Chand Bardai was a court poet( known as darbari)
of Prithviraj Chauhan, the famous ruler of Delhi and Ajmer during the invasion
of Muhammad of Ghor.

Jayachand, the last ruler of Kannauj belonging to the Rathore Rajput clan, gave more
patronage to Sanskrit (which was no longer the common man's language in this
period) rather than local dialects. Harsha, the author of Naishdhiya Charitra, was his
court poet. Jagnayak (sometimes Jagnik), the royal poet in Mahoba, and Nalha, the
royal poet in Ajmer, were the other prominent literary figures in this period.
However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat in the Second Battle of Tarain, most
literary works belonging to this period were destroyed by the army ofMuhammad of
Ghor. Very few scriptures and manuscripts from this period are available and their
genuineness is also doubted.

Some Siddha and Nathpanthi poetical works belonging to this period are also found,
but their genuineness is again, doubted. The Siddhas belonged to the Vajrayana, a
later Buddhist sect. Some scholars argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not an
earlier form of Hindi, butMagadhi Prakrit. Nathpanthis were yogis who practised
the Hatha yoga. Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available
from this period.

In the Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished
under the Delhi Sultanate and later under the Nizams ofHyderabad. It was written
in the Persian script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered as proto-
Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the
word Hindavi to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred
to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first
Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote
three prose works Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His
grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq. The first Deccani poet was Nizami.

During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets
like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also
be seen in some of Vidyapati's Maithili works.

Bhakti kaal (c. 1375 to 1700)

The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and
composition of long, epic poems.

[Avadhi] and [Brij Bhasha] were the dialects in which literature was developed. The
main works in Avadhi are Malik Muhammad Jayasi's
Padmavat and Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas. The major works in Braj dialect
are Tulsidas's Vinaya Patrika and Surdas's Sur Sagar. Sadhukaddiwas also a language
commonly used, especially by Kabir in his poetry and dohas.

The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in

poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry in
Sanskrit School and the Persian School. These included Verse
Patterns like Doha (two-liners), Sortha, Chaupaya (four-liners) etc.
This was also the age when Poetry was characterised under the
various Rasas. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha
Kaal) which was characterised by an overdose of Poetry in
the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much
more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut
of rasas from Shringara rasa (love), Vir Rasa (Heroism).

Bhakti poetry had two schools the Nirguna school (the

believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and
the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and
worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations). Kabir and Guru
Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy
was greatly influenced by the Advaita Vedanta philosophy
of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept
of Nirgun Nirakaar Bramh or the Shapeless Formless One.
Collection of Kabirs works are known as Bijak. The Saguna school was represented
by mainly Vaishnava poets like Surdas, Tulsidas and others and was a logical
extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes
of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in
the main compositions
like Ramacharitamanas, Suraravali, Suragar extoling Rama and Krishna.

This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic
elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like Abdul Rahim
Khan-I-Khana who was a court poet to Mughal emperor Akbar and was a great
devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously
secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large
number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.

Riti kaal (c. 1700 to 1900)

In the Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became predominant
in the Hindi literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the
age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis
on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional aspects of poetrythe main
characteristic of the Bhakti movementand the actual content of the poetry became
less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama
bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the
Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwordly related to Krishna Bhakti,
their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to
the Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's lifehis Leela, his pranks with the Gopis
in Braj, and the description of the physical beauty of Krishna and Radha,(Krishna's
Consort). The poetry of Bihari, and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known
book from this age is the Bihari Satsai of Bihari, a collection of Dohas (couplets),
dealing with Bhakti (devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringar (love).

Adhunik kaal (c. 1900 onwards)

In 1800, the British East India Company established Fort William College at Calcutta.
The College president J. B. Gilchrist hired professors to write books in Hindustani.
Some of these books were Prem Sagar by Lallu Lal, Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal
Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi
Inshallah Khan.

The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature

was Munshi Premchand, who is considered as the most revered figure
in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before
Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales,
entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have
been translated into many other languages. Some of his famous novels
are Godan, Gaban, Nirmala, Karmabhumi etc.

Phanishwar Nath 'Renu' was one of the most successful and influential writers of
modern Hindi literature in the post-Premchand era. He is the author of Maila Anchal,
which is regarded as the most significant Hindi novel. He is best known for
promoting the voice of the contemporary rural India through the genre of 'Aanchalik
Upanyas' (Regional Story), and is placed amongst the pioneering Hindi writers who
brought regional voices into the mainstream Hindi literature.

Bhartendu Yug

Bharatendu Harishchandra (1849-1882) is known to have brought in a modern

outlook in Hindi literature. He is described as Father of Modern Hindi Literature.
Other writers of this period include Radhakrishna Das, Pratapnarayan Mishra,
Balkrishna Bhatta, Badrinarayan Chaudhuri and Sudhakar Dwivedi. Bharatendu
Harishchandra, the pioneer of modern Hindi literature, encouraged many members
of his circle of poets and writers to recreate and translate novels from other
languages. Many novels were actually translated and adapted from English and
Bengali under his influence.

Dwivedi Yug

The Dwivedi Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is
named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing the
modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of the
Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged
poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.

Dwivedi became the editor of Saraswati in 1903, the first Hindi monthly magazine of
India, which was established in 1900. He used it to crusade for reforms in the Hindi
literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithili Sharan
Gupt's Bharat-bharati, which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar
Prathak's Bharatgit is another renowned poem of the period. The period was
important for laying the foundations for the modern Hindi poetry and that it did
reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time. However, she also adds that the
inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry

Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj,
and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The
subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were
often presented not as individuals but as social types.

Chhayavaad Yug

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known
as Chhayavaad (shadowism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known
asChhayavaadi. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi
Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chhayavaadi poets.
Poet Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'was another great poet with some Chayavaadi element
in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well.

This period of Neo-romanticism, represents the adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is

marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative
poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is
the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom
struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent
ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all the
literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades.

Other important genres of Adhunik Sahitya (Modernism) are:

Pragativad (Progressivism) of Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh and other authors.
Prayogvad (Experimentalism) of Ajneya and the Tar Saptak poets, also known
as Nayi Kavita (New Poetry) and Nayi Kahani (New Story) of Nirmal Verma and
others.Some important poets of this era are Shamsher, Nagarjun, Bhawani Prasad
Mishra, Raghuvir Sahay, Kedar Nath singh, Savashverdayal Saxena, Kunwar Narain
etc.

Hindi travel literature

Rahul Sankrityayan, Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Sachchidananda Hirananda

Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' and Baba Nagarjun were some of the great Indian writers who
dedicated themselves entirely to the Hindi Travel Literature (Yatra Vritanta). Rahul
Sankrityayan was one of the greatest travelled scholars of India, spending forty-five
years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the ("Father of
Hindi Travel literature"). Baba Nagarjun was a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has
also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues,
and was known as ("Janakavi- the People's Poet").

Hindi playwriting
The pioneer of Hindi theatre as well as playwrighting, Bhartendu
Harishchandra wrote Satya Harishchandra (1875), Bharat Durdasha (1876) and Andher
Nagari (1878), in the late 19th century, Jaishankar Prasad became the next big figure
in Hindi playwriting with plays like Skanda Gupta (1928), Chandragupta (1931)
and Dhruvswamini (1933).

As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of

nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they
adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for
political messages, a trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to
bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political,
though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era,
like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre of Habib Tanvir did in the 1950s90s, Jana Natya
Manch of Safdar Hashmi did in the 1970s80s. Post-independence the emerging
republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi
playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it was not as prolific as in
case with Hindi poetry or fiction.[11] Yet we have playwrights like Jagdish Chandra
Mathur (Konark) and Upendranath Ashk (Anjo Didi), who displayed a steadily
evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of
pioneers in Hindi playwrighting, Mohan Rakesh, who started with Ashadh Ka Ek
Din (1958), Adhe Adhure and Lehron Ke Rajhans, Dharamvir Bharati, who wroteAndha
Yug, and other playwrights like Surendra Verma, and Bhisham Sahni.

Hindi essay-writing

Kuber Nath Rai is one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form
of essay-writing. His collections of essays Gandha Madan, Priya neel-kanti, Ras
Aakhetak,Vishad Yog, Nishad Bansuri, Parna mukut have enormously enriched the form
of essay. A scholar of Indian culture and western literature, he was proud of Indian
heritage. His love for natural beauty and Indian folk literatures and preference for
agricultural society over the age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic
sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very
high among contemporary essayists in Hindi

URDU
Urdu holds a unique position among Indian languages by
virtue of not belonging to any well-defined geographical area.
For linguists, there is no fundamental difference between Urdu
and Hindi. Both languages have the same syntax and share a
greater part of their phonology, morphology, and lexicon. It is
only during the last seventy years that efforts have been made
to increasingly Sanskritise Hindi and Persianise or Arabicise
Urdu, with the result that the two varieties positioned at the A Textbook for Urdu
extreme ends of the continuum often become mutually Literature
incomprehensible, largely because of differences in the lexicon. On the other hand,
the symbolic and socio-political significance of these two varieties of Hindustani is
indeed immense. The fact that Hindi is written in the Devanagari and Urdu in the
Perso-Arabic script has become extremely important. Urdu (along with Sindhi) is
unique in that, while it is spoken all over the country.

ENGLISH
Over a period of time, English has become an integral part of the Indian verbal
repertoire. Even though in many remote parts of the country, it must still be treated
as a foreign language, in several semi-urban and urban areas, it can safely be called a
second language. With the impact of globalization, English is no longer the privilege
of the rich and middle class, but also the language of hope for the vast majority of
people.
Though English is the mother tongue of a very few people, it is widely used as a
second language in several domains of activity by a large number of people. It is an
important link language, an Associate Official language of the Union, the language
of higher education, competitive examinations, a substantial amount of national and
international business, commerce and finance, international communication, of
major news papers and important television channels holding a significant place in
the print and electronic media. It is also one of the major languages of research in the
fields of science, technology, medical sciences, liberal arts and humanities.

There is a rich body of Indian literature written in English. In the 20th century,
several Indian writers have distinguished themselves not only in traditional Indian
languages but also in English. Indian English typically follows British spelling and
pronunciation as opposed to American, and books published in India reflect this
phenomenon.

Indian English literature (IEL) refers to the body of work by writers in India who
write in the English language and whose native language could be one of the
numerous languages of India. It is also associated with the works of members of the
Indian diaspora, such as V. S. Naipaul, Kiran Desai, Jhumpa Lahiri, Agha Shahid Ali,
Rohinton Mistry and Salman Rushdie, who are of Indian descent. A few among
others are mentioned below.

IEL has a relatively recent history, being only one and a half centuries old. The first
book written by an Indian in English was Travels of Dean Mahomet, a travel narrative
by Sake Dean Mahomet published in England in 1793. In its early stages, IEL was
influenced by the Western novel. Early Indian writers used English unadulterated by
Indian words to convey an experience which was essentially Indian. Bankim
Chandra Chattopadhyay (18381894) wrote Rajmohan's Wife and published it in the
year 1864; it the first Indian novel written in English. Raja Rao (19082006), Indian
philosopher and writer, authored Kanthapura and The Serpent and the Rope, which are
Indian in terms of their storytelling qualities. Kisari Mohan Ganguli translated the
Mahabharat into English at that time.

India's only Nobel laureate in literature was the Bengali writer Rabindranath Tagore
(18611941), who wrote some of his work originally in English, and did some of his
own English translations from Bengali. He received the Nobel prize for his work
Gitanjali. Dhan Gopal Mukerji (18901936) was the first Indian
author to win a literary award in the United States. Nirad C.
Chaudhuri (18971999), a writer of non-fiction, is best known
for his The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (1951), in which
he relates his life experiences and influences. P. Lal (19292010),
a poet, translator, publisher and essayist, founded a press in the
1950s for Indian English writing, Writers Workshop.

R.K. Narayan (19062001) contributed over many decades and

continued to write till his death. Similar to the way Thomas
Hardy used Wessex, Narayan created the fictitious town of Malgudi where he set his
novels. Through Malgudi one can vividly understand the Indian experience.
Narayan's evocation of small town life and its experiences through the eyes of the
endearing child protagonist Swaminathan in Swami and Friends is a good sample of
his writing style.

Mulk Raj Anand (19052004), was similarly gaining recognition for his writing set in
rural India such as The Lost Child... and Other Stories, Untouchable, Coolie, Seven
Summers etc.

Early notable poets in English include Derozio, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Toru
Dutt, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Sri Aurobindo, Sarojini Naidu, and her brother
Harindranath Chattopadhyay.. Notable 20th Century authors of English poetry in
India include Dilip Chitre, Kamala Das, Eunice De Souza, Nissim Ezekiel, Kersy
Katrak, Arun Kolatkar, P. Lal, Jayanta Mahapatra, Dom Moraes, Gieve Patel, and A.
K. Ramanujan, are among several others.

Recent writers in India such as Arundhati Roy and David Davidar show a direction
towards contextuality and rootedness in their works. Arundhati Roy, a trained
architect and the 1997 Booker prize winner for her The God of Small Things, calls
herself a "home grown" writer. Her award winning book is set in the immensely
physical landscape of Kerala.

Among the later writers, the most notable is Salman Rushdie, born in India, now
living in the United Kingdom. Rushdie with his famous work Midnight's Children
(Booker Prize 1981, Booker of Bookers 1992, and Best of the Bookers 2008) ushered in
a new trend of writing. He used a hybrid language English generously peppered
with Indian terms to convey a theme that could be seen as representing the vast
canvas of India. Nayantara Sehgal was awarded the 1986 Sahitya Akademi Award
for English, for her novel, Rich Like Us (1985), by the Sahitya Akademi, India's
National Academy of Letters. Anita Desai, who was shortlisted for the Booker Prize
three times, received a Sahitya Akademi Award in 1978 for her novel Fire on the
Mountain and a British Guardian Prize for The Village by the Sea. Her daughter Kiran
Desai won the 2006 Man Booker Prize for her second novel, The Inheritance of Loss.
Ruskin Bond received Sahitya Academy Award for his collection of short stories Our
Trees Still Grow in Dehra in 1992. He is also the author of a historical novel A Flight of
Pigeons, which is based on an episode during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Vikram Seth, author of The Golden Gate (1986) and A Suitable Boy (1994) is a writer
who uses a purer English and more realistic themes. Another writer who has
contributed immensely to the India English Literature is Amitav Ghosh who is the
author of The Circle of Reason (his 1986 debut novel), The Shadow Lines (1988), The
Calcutta Chromosome (1995), The Glass Palace (2000), The Hungry Tide (2004), and Sea of
Poppies (2008), the first volume of The Ibis trilogy, set in the 1830s, just before the
Opium War, which encapsulates the colonial history of the East. Ghosh's latest work
of fiction is River of Smoke (2011), the second volume of The Ibis trilogy.

Rohinton Mistry is an India born Canadian author who is a Neustadt International

Prize for Literature laureate (2012). His first book Tales from Firozsha Baag (1987)
published by Penguin Books Canada is a collection of 11 short stories. His novels
Such a Long Journey (1991) and A Fine Balance (1995)earned him great acclaim. In
2008, Arvind Adiga received the Man Booker Prize for his debut novel The White
Tiger.
Contemporary Indian Drama has moved away from classical and European models.
Its main characteristic is that it is experimental and innovative in terms of thematic
and technical qualities. It does not follow any specific tradition and it has set its own
distinctive tradition in the history of world drama. It largely reinvestigates history,
legend, myth, religion and folk lore and views it in the context to contemporary
socio-political issues. Some pioneers of this form are Mohan Rakesh, Badal Sirkar,
Vijay Tendulkar and Girish Karnad, prepared the background of contemporary
Indian English Theatre.