CHAPTER 20 SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER THE manoeuvrability and speed of a ship are dependant on a variety of things such as displacement, power-weight ratio and rudder area. Ship for ship, the tanker of equivalent size and power should have much the same performance as other types in still water. In strong winds differences in the amount and location of superstructure can have a marked effect, particularly when manoeuvring at low speeds in harbours or narrow channels, The problem with tankers is one of size. Year by year they get bigger and heavier while the power-weight ratio decreases. In addition to this it should be borne in mind that the vessel is designed as a competitive, economic unit for transportation of crude oil over vast distances. The hull form and propulsion machinery are blended according to an old-established formula. Maximum cargo to be carried at the best possible speed for the lowest horsepower and fuel consumption. Such ships spend 85 per cent. of their time at sea and if economic transportation of crude is to be achieved, no major deviation from this formula is really possible without major capital expense. From the standpoint of ship-handling, the big single-screw tanker of 100,000/600,000 d.w.t. as we know i today has virtues as well as vices. The fullest possible knowledge of both will help the ship-handler to know—(a) What he cannot do with certainty; (6) What he can do with safety. Control and Communication Equipment. Most large, modern tankers are equipped with good communication and bridge control equipment. In addition to engine telegraphs, telephone and/or talkback systems are provided while illuminated rudder indicators and engine revolution tachometers are positioned strategically in the wheelhouse. Telephone and/or talkback systems are provided between the bridge-for’ard and after mooring stations. This control and communication equipment needs regular testing and checkouts while at sea and before the vessel enters port. Breakdown in communications systems lead to misunderstandings and accidents. Approaching and Leaving Port. A large tanker in ballast when approaching a port should be ballasted and trimmed with due regard to weather conditions. In good weather this generally means propeller covered and ship trimmed not more than eight or nine feet by the stern, In strong winds and rough sea, more ballast is required and the trim reduced. When picking up or dropping a pilot it is essential to reduce speed in plenty of time leaving sufficient safe manoeuvring area to turn as necessary and provide a lee for the pilot boat, but retaining sufficient steerage way that the vessel will steer with engine stopped while pilot is actually boarding or leaving. A common mistake which can have serious consequences is to turn the vessel broadside to weather and stop the ship in the water so that she drifts to leeward. Frequently the ship rolls heavily making it difficult for the pilot to board or leave, and the vessel frequently goes down to leeward much quicker, and further than expected. In this connection ships at anchor in a choppy sea or off a port where swell is running, should not expect a pilot to risk his life attempting to board. If room permits, heave up and provide a lee; if not, put the helm over and steam, slowing on the anchor till the vessel’s hull provides the necessary protection. Tankers in ballast should not normally have too much trouble approaching a port. Speed should be reduced slowly so that the vessel is proceeding at normal slow manoeuvring speed 3/6000 ft. from the seabuoy or Pilot Boat. It is always easier to increase speed than to stop if going too fast. Large tankers in the loaded condition have to reduce speed a considerable distance off the seabuoy in order to run the weigh off. Frequently this means reducing speed 10-15 miles off the seabuoy. 158SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 159 Slowing down in plenty of time is absolutely essential in the loaded condition particularly in ports served by narrow deep-water channels where violent astern engine movements are likely to result in loss of steerage and cause the vessel to sheer out of the channel. Most modern Pilot Boats and large oil tankers are equipped with V.H.F. radios. It simplifies matters if an understanding is reached with the Pilot Boat on procedure prior to picking up or dropping a pilot at a strange port. Master and Pilot Relationship. ‘There are very few circumstances or ports where the pilot or mooring master acts in any other than an advisory capacity, the master of the vessel being responsible legally at all times. This does not mean that the pilot will not be held responsible for his actions, but it does clearly indicate that the master has the ultimate responsibility for the safety of his ship and can overrule the pilot in case of necessity. In practice, born of necessity, master-pilot relationships are generally harmonious and work- manlike. Pilots are employed for two reasons:— 1. Because they have local knowledge of channels, tides, docks and port facilities. 2. Because they are skilled ship-handlers used to manoeuvring all types of vessels within the confines and limitations of that particular port or pilotage area. While the master has the right to avail himself of the pilot’s skill and local knowledge, he has a reciprocal responsibilty to the pilot:— 1. To see that the ship is seaworthy and everything is in good working order. 2. That the crew are alert and manning their mooring stations. 3. That the pilot is provided with all the appropriate information concerning the ship, such as draft and other critical dimensions. 4, The master should tell him of any defects or limitations which might affect performance. Only one man at a time can effectively handle a ship. If a master chooses to use the services of a competent pilot, it is advisable to give him the con and the fullest possible co-operation rather than retain the con and use the pilot in an advisory capacity. The latter procedure frequently leads to misunderstandings with tugs and mooring craft. Handling Characteristics of Large Tankers. Most large tankers are powered by high-powered steam-turbines capable of developing up to 45,000 s.h.p. The ahead turbine shaft and propeller are designed to run most efficiently at or near maximum speed. By comparison with motor ships the propellers are generally larger and slower moving. Turbine-powered ships have the reputation of being reliable but slow with engine movements. Stern-power is often limited by comparison with a motor ship because the stern turbine is generally designed with up to 60 per cent. of the power of the ahead turbine. Frequently, if it runs for more than a few minutes it overheats and has to be stopped. In addition to this the efficiency of a tanker screw when going astern is small compared to its efficiency when the vessel is moving ahead. In other words, designed for the open sea, the big tanker is generally slow to respond to engine movements and tends to have less stopping-power than smaller ships. On the credit side, larger tankers have a high degree of directional stability. Not only do most of them steer well under power but in good weather they tend to stay on the same heading when making headway at reduced speed with the engines stopped. This virtue goes a long way to counter-balance the lack of stern power. Directional stability is a characteristic which the big tanker possesses whether loaded or in ballast, and provided it has adequate water under the keel. Obviously weather conditions can have an adverse effect, particularly strong beam winds and seas from either beam when the ship is in ballast. Surprisingly enough large tankers answer full helm fairly rapidly. In ballast the response is generally quick and the swing checked without delay by putting the helm over the other way. When loaded the vessel is slower to answer, but as the rate of swing increases so it becomes harder to check with helm only. At slow speed it is sometimes possible to increase engine speed after putting the helm the other way. This action generally has the desired effect.160 TANKER HANDBOOK Bridge Aft versus Bridge Amidships. Tankers have traditionally had the navigational bridge located just forward of the mid length. This position has certain advantages and disadvantages when manoeuvring a ship in port or navigating in restricted waters. The main advantages in favour of a bridge amidships are:— 1. Being on or close to longitundinal centre of gravity, navigation of river channels and bends appears easier. 2. The distance to the bow is less than with bridge aft, making it easier to judge end-on approaches such as entering locks, approaching Single-Point Moorings, and to control the action of tugs or workboats which are receiving or running forward moorings particularly at night. 3. The midship bridge is marginally better when navigating in fog and listening for fog signals. Frequently there is less vibration to upset navigational instruments like the gyro compass and radar. The main advantages of the bridge aft position are:— 1. When navigating up a straight but narrow channel, the slightest deviation of the ship’s head either way is apparent much quicker on the bridge aft ship. 2. When mooring in seaberths or directing tugs or mooring-launches, it is possible to see when the stern and propeller are clear from the bridge. 3. Going alongside docks or jetties, the entire single side of a ship over the length of parallel body is visible at a glance in relation to the jetty or dock. It is therefore much easier to judge speed of approach, angle to dock face, and detect swing toward or away from dock. Once accustomed to navigating from aft and the apparent higher rate of swing when turning, most pilots and masters prefer the bridge aft position for harbour and channel work. Judging Distance and Speed. When proceeding on her voyage in the open sea the big tanker can utilise her navigational instruments to fix her position, and from a number of fixes derive her true course and speed. Her log will tell the master her speed through the water at any given time, and if he wishes to measure the distance off the land or another ship, radar will provide the answer. When manoeuvring a ship in harbour, distance and speed become largely a matter of judgement. Pilots with local knowledge commit to memory vital information about depths of water, widths of channels, etc. They also become very skilled at judging distance down to a few feet. This is done in a variety of ways, but the first step must be based on known factors as shown in the sketch of two tugs swinging a tanker where the dimensions of all component parts are known. An experienced pilot making such a manoeuvre may well choose to do so between two fixed marks, in spite of the fact that the channel may be slightly narrower at this point. Knowing the length of his ship and that of each of his tugs, as well as the amount of tow line used, he would probably start swinging the ship so that the tide would carry her down, and timing the manoeuvre so she is across the channel when abreast of the two fixed points. If she gets too near the buoy he can go astern, while ahead movements will keep the ship clear of the jetty. If the tugs fail to turn her quick enough he can use the starboard anchor. (See diagram 1). Safe practice would dictate that he turned the ship heading away from the jetty to which the ship will ultimately moor, rather than towards it. Knowing the length of a jetty, the distance between bollards and other fixed objects help tremendously in judging distance when approaching a dock. Judging approach speed and distinguishing between the true and apparent motion of ship which is closing a jetty and swinging at the same time is difficult. Big tankers should never be landed on a dock or jetty with any velocity or swing. The safest way is to stop the ship and hold her off with tugs and/or an anchor, then run moorings from bow and stern. The ship can then be eased in alongside gently with the mooring ropes tight, and so checking any tendency to swing. Manoeuvring Big Tankers at Night. The bridge of a big ship may be fifty feet or more above sea level. The master and pilot are in many ways insulated by the dark. Their depth perception and ability to watch the shore for angular changes caused by the movement of the ship is limited, and consequently speed through the water and over the161 SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER p= Ave. Diagram 1 Diagram 2162 TANKER HANDBOOK. ground becomes difficult to judge. It is necessary to keep the ship darkened except for her navigation lights, so that those on the bridge are not blinded by the curtain of light thrown out by flood and working lights, and this often means securing tugs and handling heavy mooring ropes and wires in the dark. Night navigation of well-lit channels is probably no harder than doing the job in daylight, but berthing in seaberths and approaching jetties against a background of refinery lights can be difficult. The problem in both cases is similar. The pilot and master have to adjust the speed carefully and by watching range lights and other aids keep the vessel proceeding slowly along the desired track. Experienced pilots know at what range and bearing they can expect to see a particular light, how far off they are when they see the water reflecting the flashing light on a channel buoy, or the distance the dark shadow extends beyond the edge of a particular jetty. There is no substitute for experience and practise where night work is concerned, and adverse weather can frequently make it unsafe to carry on in darkness, though the same conditions would not be so limiting in broad daylight. Some large tankers are now fitted with Doppler equipment which tracks the ship's course and gives the speed in feet per second or tenths of a knot. This instrument also indicates how fast the ship is swinging or drifting to port or starboard. The use of the Doppler and similar equipment allows the ship handler to measure accurately, where formerly he had to guess or estimate. When it comes into more general use the Doppler will undoubtedly be very useful for night work, ky Sr aay One of four Europoort tugs manoeuvring a 285,000-ton tanker towards her berth Use of Tugs with Big Tankers. Large tankers require the assistance of tugs in many ports when berthing and unberthing. As always happens in such cases opinions vary on the amount of assistance required and the best method of providing it. Tugs are built for towing or pushing, and their engines and screws are designed to provide the maximum thrust possible for the designed shaft horse-power. Modern harbour tugs with 2/4000 s.h.p. have a bollard pull of 25/50 tons. In most cases two such tugs should be sufficient to berth or unberth a large tanker in ballast under favourable weather conditions. Up to four such tugs may be required when the vessel is loaded, but there seems little justification for the use of more than four, due to the difficulty of controlling a lot of tugs and using them effectively. Difficulty often occurs when ports have a limited number of modern tugs and a large number of old tugs. Old fashioned tugs are ineffective and expensive as it generally takes several such vessels to do the work of one modern tug,SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 163 Opinions differ on the merits of pushing, as opposed to towing. Harbour tugs in some parts of the world are capable of helping large ships by towing or pushing as required. Many new tugs built for ‘ocean towage as well as harbour work are unable to push because of their high-flaring bows. Pushing is most practical where there is limited space as when berthing a big ship at one of several finger piers. It is not possible in rough water or swell conditions, Bow Thrusters. While not in general use, several medium and large tankers have been fitted with bow thrusters. Essentially a bow thruster is a propeller mounted in an open transverse tunnel located well forward and below the light water line. Powered electrically or by a diesel engine, it can be remotely controlled from the bridge of the ship. By comparison with tug assistance of equal horse-power, the bow thruster is much more effective It can be used in conjunction with the conventional rudder and engines to swing a ship very rapidly. provided the vessel is stopped or moving very slowly. At speeds over 2 knots the effectiveness falls away rapidly. In addition to bow thrusters some vessels have stern thrusters. Entering Ports and Narrow Channels. The International Oil Tankers Commission has published a series of recommendations, as well as observations on Big Tankers and Their Reception. An attempt is made to examine the minimum safe requirements of such ship when entering a port. One recommendation is that the width of approach channels should not be less than five times the width of the biggest ship likely to use it The same recommendation goes on to point out, if strong currents or swell are present in the entrance, the width of the channel should be increased. Unfortunately not all ports are in a position to comply with such a recommendation and to provide an adequate depth of water over the full width of such an approach channel. ‘The fact that large ships have a fairly high record of incidents in port approaches may in some part be attributed to the limitations of some port approach channels. The problem is that as tanker-size increases, outstripping expensive port improvements, the economics do not justify the continuous programme of improvement, even if it is feasible from an engineering standpoint. What has become apparent from the combination of practical marine evaluations, as well as engineering studies, is that taken on its own, width of a navigable entrance channel may not be a controlling factor and 1/5-beam ratio is no guarantee of safety. The use of simulators and models have shown that some of the other features highlighted by this study play an equally important part. Among these are:— I. Bottom clearance. 2. Drift angle. 3. Speed of approach. 4. Stopping distance inside the port. 5. Type and amount of tug assistance. idual port and It is not possible in this chapter to handle these items in any detail. The indi prevailing conditions make each case a major study on its own. From a practical standpoint, the Master and pilot on the bridge have to decide whether the width of a given channel is adequate for the conditions prevailing in terms of weather and current. The bigger the ship, the more caution is required. What can be usefully discussed here is some of the factors which should influence the decision to enter or abort. Assuming the port is used regularly by vessels of the size in question and the water depth in the channel is adequate to provide safe bottom clearance, the issue then resolves around current, wind and possible swell. To steer without tug assistance, a big tanker needs to proceed at a speed of at least two knots, possibly more. At a speed of four knots she may steer well, but needs sufficient room inside the port to stop. Above four knots, the tugs may have difficulty making fast, whether this is done prior to entering or after passing through the entrance. If conditions permit the tugs to connect outside, the vessel can proceed at the minimum speed atSHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 165 which she will steer, and tug assistance is available to help counter drift to one side from wind and/or current, and also to keep her straight when the bow is inside and the transverse forces are still playing on the stern half, When the tugs are not able to connect up outside, the speed and drift angle are more important, if not critical, and the decision to enter becomes more marginal. The Reception of Big Tankers recommends that the tangent of the angle of drift according to wind, current and vessel's speed, does not exceed 0-25. In practical terms, this means with no wind and a transverse current of | knot, a big tanker would have to enter with a minimum speed of 4 knots, and allowing 14° for drift to make the correct course. It immediately becomes apparent from this simple example that the effect of current and wind can be critical in narrow entrance channels. In addition, with ships that have an overall length in the vicinity of 300 metres allowing more than 10°, even with tugs fast, really needs careful consideration, Apart from transverse forces caused by wind and current, the effect of swell and following winds and/or tides, must be considered. Deep-laden tankers are unlikely to be affected by the sea and swell unless wave-heights and periods are fairly big. The tanker may have to increase speed, but if she is not steering well at suitable entry speeds, it would be unwise to enter in the prevailing conditions. Tankers in ballast are easier to handle and have fewer problems with draft. On the other hand they have a large amount of freeboard. In a given set of conditions they may require more tug assistance in strong winds and to use more speed to make a given course, with less draft and a higher power/ weight ratio a sensible increase in speed appears to be logi a poor statistical record showing a fairly high proportion of accidents in port approaches, care has to be taken to balance the risks against the economic pressures of delay where channel or port entrances are limited, or inadequate for prevailing conditions. Large Tankers in Narrow Channels and Canals. Much has been written about the navigation of large ships in canals and narrow navigable channels, and the minimum bottom clearances necessary for safety. The amount of squat for given sizes of ships at different speeds have been measured in tank tests and compared with life-size experiments. From a practical standpoint deep-drafted ships navigating in canals or narrow channels are known to draw more water than when underway in deep water. It is also true that the draft increases with the speed. A deep-drafted ship will be harder to steer and control proceeding under full power, than when moving at a slower speed. The trouble is a big heavily laden tanker requires more power for a given speed in a canal than she would when navigating in the open sea. A safe speed under such circumstances becomes a compromise between the minimum that regulations and traffic conditions will allow, and the point at which the vessel becomes hard to handle. Astern engine movements are not advisable in narrow channels; any speed reduction effected will be more than counteracted by loss of steerage control caused by the turbulence around the rudder. Some simple ground rules for navigating in narrow channels with deep-drafted ships are:— 1. Proceed as slowly as practical and conditions will permit with the engines ahead. 2. Keep in the middle of the channel; anticipate rather than correct any tendency for the ship’s head to veer one way or the other. (Local knowledge is essential concerning water depth and irregularities in river or canal banks). 3. Correct rapid swings with increased ahead engine speed and helm, but reduce speed slowly a few revolutions at a time as soon as the vessel is steady and back in the middle of the channel. 4. When slowing down reduce speed slowly and early in preference to stopping the engine, as a ship steers better under power. Single-screw versus Twin-screw Tankers. As previously stated, large tankers are designed primarily as economic transportation units. From this standpoint economics appear to favour the single-screw ship up to a maximum somewhere between 3/600,000 d.w.t., at which point the power required to propel a big ship can no longer be handled by a single shaft and propeller. This demarkation line is somewhat vague and moves up year by year as technical progress is made on the design of propeller shafts and the propeller itself. In spite of this, once the point is passed, big ships will be fitted with twin screws.166 TANKER HANDBOOK LOK Diagram 3 | Sfpenenem PAnenoe Dear ins (ean yronsues Briper. Rs canemns Aureston HH Baoe Maes wns Jennsie \ Mind 1 It | Port we. Port ot Anchor oo “ a TT Diagram 5SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 167 Diagram 6, Wind 4 Diagram 7. < Diagram 8.168 TANKER HANDBOOK sa Diagram 9. To date not many large crude tankers have twin screws, those that are, are mainly motor ships with faster reving engines and smaller propellers. From the standpoint of manoeuvrability, large t tankers with twin rudders are best. When fitted with one rudder, their steering capabilities are normally not quite as good. Japanese Tanker loading at an M.B.M. in North Sumatra, Berthing Large Tankers in Seaberths. This is an operation which requires considerable skill and is generally undertaken with the assistance of an experienced mooring master. As seen in diagram 3, the approach is made down a track marked by two transit beacons which must be kept in line. The problem is to go as slowly as possible without falling off to leeward and causing the transits to open,SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 169 Too much speed may result in a broken starboard anchor chain and put a stop to the whole mooring operation. When the starboard anchor is dropped, the speed must be such that the vessel can be pulled up in her own length without putting too great a strain on the anchor chain—say 2-2'4 knots at the most. (See diagrams 4 and 5). According to wind directions and weather conditions the manoeuvres which follow the dropping of the port anchor will vary. In this case the wind is depicted as blowing the ship out and away from the berth; the worst possible situation, particularly if no tug assistance is available. In such a case the mooring master will have two and sometimes three ropes joined end for end and start running the first mooring line to No. | buoy as soon as the starboard anchor is dropped so that the rope is secured to the buoy at approximately the same time as the ship drops her port anchor, The next step is to back the ship astern while heaving on the starboard anchor chain, and keeping a good strain on the mooring rope. (See diagram 6). Ina strong wind the rope frequently breaks and there is no alternative but to pick up both anchors and start again, but the strain can be eased by stopping the windlass, putting the brake on, then steaming slow or half ahead on the chain, with helm hard to starboard. This throws the stern up to windward and towards No. | buoy. Heaving on the mooring line helps gets the stern up into the wind (See diagrams 7 and 8). The judicious use of anchors and engines, coupled with the assistance of a good mooring launch is required for the vessel to berth safely. Success depends on good team-work and the mooring master’s ability to use the leverage provided by the anchors to assist the transverse thrust of propeller and rudder in turning the vessel stern into wind. Without full use of anchors, rudder and engines, even a tug would be of little assistance though it undoubtedly helps and reduces the time taken in mooring in difficult conditions. (See Mooring at Bow and Unlike the multi-buoy seaberth, these facilities are approached with the anchors secured, and mooring is undertaken without using either anchor because of the risk of fouling pipeline and mooring tackle. The operation is generally accomplished with the assistance of a single mooring launch. Experienced mooring masters approach the Single Point after the Loading Arm or hoses have been positioned or towed out of the way. The approach is invariably arranged so that the vessel turns into the wind, with the wind and sea ahead, and the Single Point Mooring slightly to one side. This is done so that the ship clears the Mooring if she overshoots. Again, speed is all important. The slowest SINGLE “POIN, Hooainve MIND \ | Diagram 10,170 TANKER HANDBOOK, possible speed consistent with good steering and directional stability are essential. The vessel should be stopped in the water or moving imperceptibly ahead as the first mooring line is secured. Violent engine movements frequently induce yaw and broken moorings. (See diagrams 10 and 10A). When possible, most mooring masters prefer to keep the Single Point Mooring just clear to port rather than starboard, as astern movements given to check the ship will make the bow go to starboard rather than to port. ek ‘Prek up suentn ~~ a Hanacors Bow ~ Ge Lee fo Laem Diagram 103