CHAPTER 17 MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA The effect of Atmospheric Pressure. The barometer reading has a definite influence on the suction lift of a pump. With a high barometer, or high atmospheric pressure, a pump will have a higher vertical lift than with a low barometer. One pound of additional pressure will give nearly two feet extra of vertical suction lift. The term suction is used for convenience, but in actual practice it does not exist. A pump is merely a lever which alters the pressure in one compartment, and enables the difference in pressure between two adjoining compartments to assist in the transfer of liquid. An air compressor can be used to displace liquid from a tank, and during the war large numbers of tankers were fitted with air compressors and connections to their various cargo tanks with the object of using compressed air as a medium for keeping torpedoed vessels afloat. Steam ejectors which are often fitted in cofferdams and other compartments of oil tankers, perform the same duties as a pump. The steam ejector utilises the rapidly expanding powers of steam to create a vacuum which draws the liquid out of the tank and allows it to escape overboard. Absolute Pressure. A ship’s pump shows pounds per square inch on its back pressure gauge. This pressure is in excess of atmospheric pressure. Similarly, when a gauge shows vacuum it illustrates a lack of pressure. | inch of vacuum equals 13-7 Ibs. per square inch, whereas 1 Ib. of pressure equals 15-7 Ibs. per square inch. Atmospheric pressure being added to both for purposes of comparison, ‘Vacuum. 30 inches of vacuum is a perfect vacuum, and a reciprocating pump in good condition, with air tight suction lines will create a vacuum of more than 20 inches. Due to working in a seaway, ships’ pumps often have small leaks at the glands and at the expansion joints on the suction pipelines. Consequently, the pump does not create such a good vacuum. Vessels at one time were fitted with barge suctions. This was a connection which pierced the vessel’s side half way up the pumproom, and to which a hose could be connected. The loose end of the hose was inserted into a barge which tied up alongside the ship, and the vessel's pump sucked the oil out of the barge. This operation taxed the ship’s pumps to the limit owing to the heights of the suction lift. The efficiency of the pump is affected by the length of suction pipeline, and the closer the pump is to the suction, the more efficient it is. Centrifugal pumps do not create such a good vacuum as reciprocating pumps, and consequently are not cable of lifting liquid as high as a reciprocating pump. Principles of a Double-acting Steam Reciprocating Pump. The withdrawal stroke on the piston of a reciprocating pump creates a vacuum which opens the valves in the suction plate of the first pump chamber, and allows the oil to enter. While the piston is withdrawing and creating a vacuum in one chamber, it is compressing the liquid in the other chamber, thus forcing the delivery valves into the open position, and allowing the liquid to pass out of the chamber. The quick succession of perfectly timed piston strokes means a continuous flow of oil through the pump. The valves in both the suction and delivery plates ensure the one-way passage of the oil, therefore these pumps are known as positive displacement pumps. When the air enters a pump chamber, the stroke of a pump becomes more rapid, as air is compressable, and pressure has to be built up before it can be forced through the valves. Steam reciprocating pumps are generally fitted with air vessels which are situated on top of the pump and which collect any small quantities of air, or gas, which may pass through the pump, thus keeping the 18MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 129 pipelines full of oil, and avoiding unnecessary pulsation and vibration at the hoses and hose connections. ‘Two Stage Centrifugal Pump By Courtesy of Drvsale & Co. The pump chambers are fitted with test cocks which allow gas and air to be released from the pump, when the pump is gassed up. fic [Displaced From Tank i Aw Yentecing Tank Oil Areifring back Diagram 9a, Diagram 96, Draining with Reciprocating Pumps. Reciprocating pumps are far better suited for draining than centrifugal pumps. They will not lose suction when small quantities of air mixed with oil enter the pump, and as a result will drain tanks far drier than a centrifugal pump, which does not require much air to make it lose suction. When draining with a reciprocating pump, the speed of the pump should be reduced till the pump has a nice easy stroke, and the gauge shows a maximum vacuum. The pump can safely be left running until it is heard to suck air in the tank. By shutting down the suction valve, and reducing the aperture, the pump is assisted in draining the tank dry.130 TANKER HANDBOOK Principles of a Two Stage Centrifugal Pump. The oil enters the centrifugal pump through the eye of the first stage impeller from which it is thrown out by revolving motion of the impeller. It then passes up the inter-stage pipe to the second stage, where it is thrown out again by the second impeller. The speed and centrifugal motion of the impellers can be likened to a bucket with a hole in the bottom. If the bucket is swung at speed, through @ complete circle, the only water which leaves the bucket comes through the hole in the bottom, in the form of a jet under pressure. When air enters a centrifugal pump, it generally means that the pump will stop pumping and lose suction, The inter-stage pipe, which is the highest point in the pump, is fitted with an air cock, which can release air when opened. Each stage in the pump is fitted with a test cock, so that the progress of the liquid through the pump can be tested and gas and air released should the pump lose suction owing to the presence of as mixture of gas and air. Draining with Centrifugal Pumps. Draining with centrifugal pumps depends entirely on being able to keep air out of the pump. Whirlpoo's and eddies around the suction often allow sufficient air to reach the pump for suction to be lost. For this reason, when using this type of pump on tanks where the level of the liquid is dangerously low, it is advisable to shut in the suction and partly crack open another tank to help feed the pump. In this manner the rush of oil from the low tank is reduced and less likely to create whirlpools, and at the same time the pump is obtaining sufficient oil from the full tank to compensate for the oil lost when the suction valve was shut in. Centrifugal pumps are often fitted with a vacuum line which leads to a draining pump, the principle being that any air or gas entering the pump is immediately drained off by the vacuum or draining pump before the main pump has time to lose suction. Itis not always possible to leave a tank which is being drained for a visit to the pumproom to see if the pump still retains its suction, and in some tanks, even with the aid of a good gas-tight torch, the oil motion is not apparent. Diagram 9a illustrates a pump working properly with oil leaving the tank. The removal of the oil from the tank creates a vacuum. This draws air from the outside atmosphere through the ullage plug. When a pump loses suction, the oil in the pipeline drains back into the tank, displacing the gas and air inside the tank, which leaves via the ullage plug, see Diagram 9b. By placing a square of cloth over the ullage plug, it is possible to tell whether the pump has lost suction or is pumping properly. When pumping properly, the square of cloth tends to be pulled into the tank, and when suction is lost, it billows outwards like a tent. In many modern ships the discharge is regulated from the control room and cargo tanks are inerted. In such circumstances, it is not practical to open ullage caps and test the suction with a square of cloth. Such ships frequently have instrumentation which helps the operator control the situation, Tank ullage remote readout allows personnel to see when the ullage in any particular tank is becoming critical. The pump revolutions can be reduced and vacuum pump started remotely. The pump gauges show the suction and back pressure. In some circumstances partly closing a discharge valve will steady the pump so it will retain suction longer. If the pump loses suction the revolutions will rise and should be shut down, but most pumps will trip when the load decreases and the pump revolutions will increase significantly. When the centrifugal pump is stopped, the remaining oil should be removed with a positive replacement pump or eductor. When C.0.W. is being undertaken the bulk of the liquid should be removed with the main cargo pump, but when the bottom is being washed a stripping pump or eductor is preferable. Various Stages of Pumping out a Tank. As illustrated in sketches A, B, C, D, oil may be seen leaving a ship’s tank and passing via pump and pipeline to a shore tank. Sketch A shows the pump when stopped, with suction and delivery valves open. Suction gauge is showing a pressure of 12 Ibs., and the delivery gauge a pressure of 30 Ibs. Sketch B shows the pump in motion. The suction gauge shows 2 Ibs. of pressure, or in other words, the energy developed by the pump has reduced the value of the suction head to 2 Ibs. The back pressure gauge shows a pressure of 40 Ibs. and is a measure of the energy developed by the pump in overcoming the static head.131 MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA ‘1 westeig onoLaxs For] ste [eae Saneo ons wees upon dung Ly upon oung HOLS wns Ly Geog] treo Faz) Kwea wos pag ung132 TANKER HANDBOOK Sketch C shows a reduced suction head and a small vacuum, Should the pump be stopped at this stage the suction head would still flood the pump suction, but owing to its loss of height it no longer feeds the pump as fast as the pump can take it, hence the 2-in. vacuum, The back pressure has dropped slightly to 38 Ibs. which i the result ofthe loss of suction head, the pump no longer pumping on full tank. Sketch D shows the level of the liquid below the centre line of the pump, and illustrates the amount of suction lift. The suction gauge is showing 14 ins. of vacuum, and the back pressure gauge is showing 35 Ibs., another drop as the pump is now having to lift the oil. Note.—The figures shown on these sketches for pressure and vacuum are only examples. Priming Pumps. When a pump loses suction as a result of excessive suction lift, or gas or air entering the pump, the pump needs to be primed before suction can be regained. When a full tank is available, the suction head can be utilised to flood the pump chambers, and the gas and air released from the pump via the air cock. A centrifugal can be primed whilst the pump is stopped or stationary, but a reciprocating pump must be put in motion. When no suction head is available, the static head is utilised by opening the drop valve and allowing the oil to reach the suction and fill the pipeline. Suction Supply Conditions Atmospheric pressure (approximately 14-7 Ibs.) exerts a pressure on the surface of the liquid being pumped. It is the source of energy which causes the liquid to flow through the suction line as far as the pump, only when the liquid reaches the pump does the pump take over and superimpose conditions on the flow. Atmospheric pressure is for convenience converted into terms of liquid head when pumping problems are under consideration, and in terms of water is represented by a column 34 feet high. Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place with altitude and latitude, therefore the pressure it exerts is also variable, and this fact must be carefully borne in mind. Suction Head. It is possible that the liquid head representing atmospheric pressure may be supplemented or increased by an actual liquid head consisting of the head or column of the liquid being pumped. The iquid head is measured from the centre line of the pump to the surface of the liquid above the pump and is expressed in feet and inches. Suction Lift. Sometimes however, the level of the liquid being pumped is below the centre line of the pump. The distance measured vertically from the surface of the liquid to the centre line of the pump is referred to as the suction lift. he energy required to lift or push the liquid up the suction pipe as far as the pump is proportionate to the amount of suction lift, and results in a considerable loss or reduction in the head created by atmospheric pressure, Friction Losses. A considerable loss of energy or reduction in head is due to friction caused by the flow of liquid as it passes through the strum and the entrance to the suction pipe. Friction losses are increased by any bends, valves and strainer plates that may be encountered between the tank and the pump suction. It is also true to say that friction losses are proportionately higher with smaller bore pipes than with large ones, whilst the greater the velocity of the liquid through a given size pipe, the greater will be the friction losses. It should be reasonably clear by now that great care has to be taken in designing and installing the suction supply lines in a ship’s pumping system, as there is a definite limit to the energy or head available for supplying liquid to the cargo pumps. It is not sufficient for the suction head to be capableMISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 133 of supplying liquid to the pump, it must be capable of accelerating the liquid through the length of the suction line at sufficient speed to keep the pump properly fed. In addition to accelerating the liquid to keep pace with the requirements of the pump there must also be sufficient reserve head or pressure left to stop the liquid from vapourising. Pump Performance. Several different types of pumps have been described in Chapter 2 most of them working on entirely different principles, and deriving their motive power from such varied sources as steam engines, turbines, diesel and electric motors. The one thing all these pumps have in common is their ability to convert a given amount of energy into terms of velocity and pressure and superimpose these conditions on the flow of liquid. In other words when running at a given speed, a pump displaces a given volume of liquid against the resistance to flow of that liquid. ‘A pump will stop transferring oil from a tank when the Nett Positive Suction Head (N.P.S.H.) reaches a given value in which all the plus factors have been reduced by suction-flow conditions, such as suction lift, friction losses, etc., to a point that normal atmospheric pressure is insufficient to move the oil into the pump. Resistance to Flow. The resistance to flow which the pump has to overcome is composed of the following:— 1. The internal resistance to flow of the particular liquid being pumped. Liquids with a high viscosity provide more resistance to flow than those with a low viscosity. 2. Friction in the discharge pipeline. 3. The static head or liquid head measured from the centre line of the pump vertically to the surface of liquid in the shore tank A practical indication of the resistance to flow is the pressure indicated on the pump discharge or back pressure gauge. For practical purposes pump performance and the resistance to flow are often expressed graphically. The pump’s performance being depicted by what is known as a head capacity curve, which shows the relationship between the head and the volume of the particular liquid being pumped. A resistance curve, on the other hand, will illustrate the measure of resistance to be expected in a given size and length of pipeline with a given volume of liquid passing through it. These curves are very useful in estimating performance under different coni Cavitation. Cavitation effects centrifugal pumps as well as reciprocating pumps, Should the supply of liquid be restricted so that a portion of the liquid passes into vapour immediately in front of the bucket of a reciprocating pump or the impeller of a centrifugal pump cavitation takes place. When discharging low flash products in warm climates, or products such as crude oils that require heating, cavitation occurs much more easily, especially as the level of the oil falls below the suction lines and it has to be lifted higher and higher. The liquid flashes off into vapour filling the pump suction and eventually the suction line, bringing pumping operations to a standstill. To counter such conditions, the obvious answer would be a reduction in the temperature of the cargo. This can be effected in the case of cargoes that are being heated, by reducing or cutting off the heating in plenty of time. In the case of spirit cargoes in warm climates, however, there is no such easy solution, but it sometimes helps if the discharge is arranged so that draining operations are done during the night, thus taking advantage of any drop in temperature that might be experienced after the sun has gone down. As has previously been mentioned, the speed of a reciprocating pump should be reduced to give the pump a chance to fill with liquid, whilst the centrifugal pump should be assisted at this stage by the small gas extractor pump provided, this pump will draw off the gas and air before it reaches the impeller and breaks the flow of oil through the centrifugal pump. It sometimes helps a centrifugal pump if the discharge valve is throttled in against the pump, thus reducing the flow of oil, thereby helping to maintain pressure with the reduced quantity available. Increasing use is being made of automated and semi-automated priming devices involving vacuum assistance for centrifugal pumps. Tankers equipped in such a way are able to reduce the amount of oil134 TANKER HANDBOOK Kit for the stripping system to handle, and in some cases strip the tanks with the main pumps, thus eliminating the need for stripping pumps and systems. Such priming devices require each pump to be equipped with a tank or vertical cylinder, which is {ited into the suction line so that oil passing into the pump passes through it. When discharging from full tanks the cylinder is normally full of oil, and the high and low level clectronic sensors fitted in the cylinder are covered, and the discharge proceeds normally. The two electronic sensors are connected to the controls of a vacuum pump which takes suction (fom the top of the cylinder. The low level sensor starts the pump and the high level sensor stops it, Ac the N-P.S.H. reduces, gas can be expected to gather in the top of the cylinder till first the high level and then the low level sensors are uncovered. When the latter is uncovered, the vacuum pump is started and removes the gas which in turn allows the liquid level in the cylinder to rise. When it covers the high level sensor, the vacuum pump stops. The low level sensor is located at a level reasonably well above which the Minimum Nett Suction Head is reached. In this way suction conditions can be controlled so that the pump does not lose suction. In ‘earlier devices of this type a float was used to start and stop the vacuum pump. More sophisticated versions used for actually draining tanks have priming tanks and the capability to adjust the main pump speeds automatically as the vacuum pump is started. Pumps in Series. Under normal conditions there is nothing to be gained by passing oil from one pump to another before it is discharged ashore. Pumps are as a rule quite capable of dealing with the usual back Pressures experienced during routine discharges. Sometimes, however, a pump may be unable to lift the oil to the pump and discharge it against a normal but high back pressure. Under these Gucumstances it is sometimes advantageous to put one pump sucking from the tank in question and discharging into the suction of the other. In this way the pump discharging ashore is assisted by having its suction flooded with oil from the discharge of the first pump, with the suction under pressure the second pump will be able to build the pressure higher, and as a result stands a better chance of delivering the oil against a big back pressure. As a general rule it is advisable to restrict this practice to reciprocating pumps. ‘The pump discharging ashore should be started first, followed immediately after by the pump drawing from the tank; careful checks on the back pressure and suction gauges should be made at frequent intervals and the speed of the pumps adjusted accordingly. There is nothing to be gained by putting two centrifugal Pumps in series, and under certain conditions the pressure build up may prove dangerous, Sometimes Ge of more stripping pumps (reciprocating or rotary) are used to feed a main pump (centrifugal), though it is generally necessary to throttle in the discharge valve against the pump, and if possible reduce the revs, in order that the pump can adjust itself to the reduced quantity of oil that will be passing through it Containing Overflows. For ore reason or another, even on a highly organized vessel, accidents occur, resulting in the overtlow of oil from one or more tanks. Unfortunate as this may be, quick action in stopping the flow of oil, and containing the spillage on board, minimises the damage and prevents the pollution of harbour waters. Most oil terminals have regulations which strictly enforce the use of scupper plugs to minimise oil leakage overboard, should there be any accidents whilst the vessel is loading or discharging. The terminal ako supply Emergency Stop apparatus for stopping shore pumps. Unfortunately, the depth of scuppers in a large number of modern vessels does not exceed 2 in., and unless additional aetion is taken to stop overflows the oil easily overflows from the scuppers, Sawdust and sand are very useful in containing overflows. It should be standard practice to have a supply of sawdust available both on the fore deck and main deck whilst loading operations are in Progress. It is useless having the sawdust in a container stowed in the centre-castle or forward stores, as whilst it is being located and brought to the scene of spillage, the damage is done. In the case of dirty oils such as crude, once the oil has been contained, it can be drained back into Prof the cargo tanks, by removing a Butterworth plate, and sweeping all free oil through the opening. However, itis advisable to remove all oil impregnated sand and sawdust in drums, for disposal ashore,MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 135 With clean oil, the spillage should not be returned to the tank unless permission is received from the shore. ‘in the case of oil spillage from leaking lines and connections, this can be contained in drip trays, which should be emptied every few hours. Failure to empty these trays at regular intervals means that the oil reaches the scuppers and though in very small quantities might easily be floated overboard, Should rain or leaking fresh water hoses fill the scuppers. Drip trays are a permanent feature under all tnain cargo and bunker manifold connections. These trays may have to deal with significant spillage fand are generally emptied through special small bore piping, either by pump or gravity. Safety Hints whilst Handling Oil. From time to time accidents occur which result in loss of life through gas accumulating in pumprooms. Modern vessels are fitted with gas ¢jectors and these should always be kept in a working aandition, and switched on before commencing any loading or discharging operations. The gas is generally in the pumprooms as a result of leakage from pumps and pipelines, and one way of ensuring a gas-free pumproom is to reduce the number of leaks to a minimum, also regular pumping out of the pumproom bilges, and flushing with salt water. Line Clearance with Water. [As previously mentioned, according to the latest theories, line clearing by using water between grades, should be Kept to an absolute minimum. Oil and water mixtures generate an electric charge, fhrough friction of the molecules in the pipeline. After passing out of the pipeline, the water sinks to the bottom, and the oil floats to the top, each containing an electrical charge. The charge in the water lull discharge from contact with the steel sides and base of the tank, but the oil floating on the surface Bf the tank, does not so readily lose its charge of electricity. The danger lies in the fact that as more Giater and oil enter the tank the charge on the surface is increased, until eventually when the charge is Strong enough, and the gap just right, the charge earths itself in the form of a spark which jumps {rom the surface of the liquid to a metal contact at the top or side of the tank. Should the atmospheric gonditions in the tank contain the correct combination of gas and air, an explosion will occur ‘The reasons why low flash products cannot be loaded overall through an open ended hose is due to the possible build up of static electrical charges resulting in a possible explosion Experiments carried out with the object of determining the strength of static charges built up by different liquids flowing through different lengths and sizes of pipes, show that most liquid hydro-carbons build up small static charges when flowing through steel pipes. However, in most cases these charges disperse rapidly. It was found that static charges of quite considerable strength were built tip when the liquid was accelerated through a small bore pipe, With certain products even at quite we derate rates of flow, a strong electrical charge was built up. It was also noted that the stronger charges took considerably longer to disperse under normal conditions. Bonded Cables. In order to safeguard against accidents when the shore hoses are being connected or disconnected in a petroleum vapour laden atmosphere, and to help any static charges to disperse as quickly as possible, bonded cables or earth wires are used at some terminals to connect the ship to the shore, The pended cable or wire is generally clamped to a section of bare metal on the ship, preferably one of the pipeline crutches or supports near the manifold. This operation is always performed before the hoses are connected.