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The weight (W) of the fluid in the container is distributed over the area (A) of the base.
At the bottom of the container:
P = W/A;
because W = bmg and P = bmg/A
Mass (m) = density (r) × volume (V),
so P = brVg/A
V = Ah,
so P = brAhg/A, and
P = brgh
It should also be apparent that the pressure measured at any depth in the column is
proportional to depth. This phenomenon is used for measuring pressure head.
For example, the pressure 100 in. below the surface of a column of mercury at 80°F
(density = 0.48879 lb./in.3) is P = rh = 0.48879h.
If the surface of the mercury is exposed to local atmospheric pressure, it will be pounds-
per-square-inch gauge. If it’s exposed to a vacuum, it’s pounds-per-square-inch absolute.
A critical variable for accurate conversion from head pressure to pounds per square inch
is the temperature of the fluid because density varies with temperature. With large head,
the head pressure can also slightly increase density near the bottom of the column. Most
liquids are essentially incompressible, so this is usually insignificant. However, if the
fluid is a compressible gas (e.g., the atmosphere), the compressibility can be significant.
Thus, atmospheric pressure doesn’t vary directly with altitude (depth), but water pressure
is nearly directly proportional to depth.
F2 = (F1/A) × A2 = P × A2
And this is true for any area of the container you choose.
Figure 1. Pressure at the bottom of a fluid column of height (h) is generated by the weight of the column of fluid divided by the
area: P = F/A = W/A. Weight (W) is a function of volume (V) and density (d). Volume V = h × A. Therefore P = (d × h × A)/A or P =
d × h. Pressure can be expressed as head pressure in terms of the depth (h) of the fluid.
Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient pressure. Blood pressure is one example.
Common measurement units are pressure per square inch gauge (psig). Intake manifold
vacuum in an automobile engine is an example of a vacuum gauge measurement (vacuum
is negative gauge pressure).
Figure 2. Pressure is always measured relative to some reference. If the reference is absolute vacuum, the pressure is absolute
pressure. If the reference is local ambient pressure, the pressure is gauge pressure. If you're measuring a pressure difference
between two points without regard to the absolute or gauge pressure, the measurement is differential pressure.
Pressure measuring Devices
Although many manometers are simply a piece of glass tubing formed into a U shape
with a reference scale for measuring heights, there are many variations in terms of size,
shape, and material (see Figure 3). If the left side is connected to the measurement point,
and the right is left open to atmosphere, the manometer will indicate gauge pressure,
positive or negative (vacuum). Differential pressure can be measured by connecting each
of the legs to one of the measurement points. Absolute pressure can be measured by
evacuating the reference side. A mercury barometer is such an absolute pressure
measuring manometer indicating atmospheric pressure.
In some versions, the two legs of the U are of different diameters. Some types incorporate
a large-diameter “well” on one side. In others, one tube is inclined in order to provide
better resolution of the reading. But they all operate on the same principle. Because of the
many constraints on geometry of installation and observation, and their limited range,
manometers are not practical or effective for most pressure measurements.
The motion of the force-summing device can be linked to a linear variable differential
transformer, which acts as the electromechanical transduction element. Alternatively, it
can be linked, usually through a motion amplifying mechanism, to the wiper of a
potentiomenter. To reduce acceleration error, a balancing mass may be provided.
Mechanical Pressure Gauges. In mechanical gauges, the motion generated by the force-
summing device is converted by mechanical linkage into dial or pointer movement. The
better gauges provide adjustments for zero, span, linearity, and (sometimes) temperature
compensation for mechanical calibration. High-accuracy mechanical gauges take
advantage of special materials, balanced movements, compensation techniques, mirror
scales, knife-edge pointers, and expanded scales to improve the precision and accuracy of
readings. The most accurate mechanical gauges, test gauges, are used as transfer
standards for pressure calibration, but for applications requiring remote sensing,
monitoring, or recording they are impractical. Their mechanical linkages also limit their
frequency response for dynamic pressure measurements.
Bourdon Tube-Type Detectors Figure 2 Bourdon Tube The bourdon tube
pressure instrument is one of the oldest pressure sensing instruments in use
today. The bourdon tube (refer to Figure 2) consists of a thin-walled tube that is
flattened diametrically on opposite sides to produce a cross-sectional area
elliptical in shape, having two long flat sides and two short round sides.
The tube is bent lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 270 to 300 degrees.
Pressure applied to the inside of the tube causes distention of the flat
sections and tends to restore its original round cross-section. This change in
cross-section causes the tube to straighten slightly. Since the tube is
permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the tube traces a curve that is the result
of the change in angular position with respect to the center. Within limits, the
movement of the tip of the tube can then be used to position a pointer or to develop
an equivalent electrical signal (which is discussed later in the text) to indicate the
value of the applied internal pressure.
Bellows-Type Detectors The need for a pressure sensing element that was
extremely sensitive to low pressures and provided power for activating recording
and indicating mechanisms resulted in the development of the metallic bellows
pressure sensing element. The metallic bellows is most accurate when measuring
pressures from 0.5 to 75 psig. However, when used in conjunction with a heavy
range spring, some bellows can be used to measure pressures of over 1000
psig. Figure 1 shows a basic metallic bellows pressure sensing element. The
bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds formed
from very thin-walled tubing. The diameter of the bellows ranges from 0.5 to 12 in.
and may have as many as 24 folds. System pressure is applied to the internal
volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure to the instrument varies, the bellows
will expand or contract. The moving end of the bellows is connected to a
mechanical linkage assembly. As the bellows and linkage assembly moves, either an
electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure indication is provided. The
flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in character to that of a helical, coiled
compression spring. Up to the elastic limit of the bellows, the relation
between increments of load and deflection is linear. However, this
relationship exists only when the bellows is under compression. It is
necessary to construct the bellows such that all of the travel occurs on the
compression side of the point of equilibrium. Therefore, in practice, the bellows
must always be opposed by a spring, and the deflection characteristics will be the
resulting force of the spring and bellows.
Figure 1 Basic Metallic Bellows
As the wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation, its length is increased, and its cross-
sectional area decreases. These changes cause an increase in the resistance of the wire of the
strain gauge. This change in resistance is used as the variable resistance in a bridge circuit
that provides an electrical signal for indication of pressure. Figure 4 illustrates a strain gauge
pressure transducer.
. Figure 6 Bellows Resistance Transducer
Other resistance-type transducers combine a bellows or a bourdon tube with a variable resistor, as shown
in Figure 6. As pressure changes, the bellows will either expand or contract. This expansion and
contraction causes the attached slider to move along the slidewire, increasing or decreasing the resistance,
and thereby indicating an increase or decrease in pressure
Figure 18. A more complex capacitive pressure sensor can be built to detect differential pressure.
Inductance-Type Transducers
.
Figure 8 Differential Transformer
Piezoelectric Transducers. Piezoelectric (PE) pressure transducers (see Figure 11) use
stacks of piezoelectric crystal or ceramic elements to convert the motion of the force-
summing device to an electrical output. Quartz, tourmaline, and several other naturally
occurring crystals generate an electrical charge when strained. Specially formulated
ceramics can be artificially polarized to be piezoelectric, and they have higher
sensitivities than natural crystals. Unlike strain gauge transducers, PE devices require no
external excitation. Because their output is very high impedance and their signal levels
low, they require special signal conditioning such as charge amplifiers and noise-treated
coaxial cable.
Figure 11. Piezoelectric pressure sensors use stacks of piezoelectric crystal or ceramic elements to convert the motion of a force-
summing device to an electrical output.
Their primary advantage is their ruggedness, and, without integral electronics, their
usefulness at high temperatures. If not properly compensated, though, they are sensitive
to shock and vibration and may exhibit large changes of sensitivity with temperature
variations.
Any of the pressure detectors previously discussed can be joined to an electrical device to
form a pressure transducer. Transducers can produce a change in resistance,
inductance, or capacitance.
Figure 10 shows a block diagram of a typical pressure detection circuit. The sensing
element senses the pressure of the monitored system and converts the pressure to a
mechanical signal. The sensing element supplies the mechanical signal to a
transducer, as discussed above. The transducer converts the mechanical signal to
an electrical signal that is proportional to system pressure. If the mechanical
signal from the sensing element is used directly, a transducer is not required and
therefore not used. The detector circuitry will amplify and/or transmit this signal to
the pressure indicator. The electrical signal generated by the detection circuitry is
proportional to system pressure. The exact operation of detector circuitry depends upon
the type of transducer used. The pressure indicator provides remote indication of the
system pressure being measured.