Forging of Metals

Forging process
Deformation process in which work is compressed
between two dies

The figure shows an open

die forging process. Note
the red hot bar stock in
place.

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 Classification of Forging Operations

Cold vs. hot forging:

Hot or warm forging most common, due to the
significant deformation and the need to reduce
strength and increase ductility of work metal
Cold forging advantage: increased strength that
results from strain hardening
Impact vs. press forging:
Forge hammer - applies an impact load
Forge press - applies gradual pressure

Types of Forging Dies

Open-die forging - work is compressed between

two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with
minimum constraint
Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpart
Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
No excess flash is created

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 Open-Die Forging
Similar to compression test when workpart has
cylindrical cross section and is compressed along
its axis
Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work

Stages in Open-Die Forging

(a) forge hot billet to max diameter

(b) fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

(d) reverse part, forge left side

(e) finish (dimension control)

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 Open-Die forging and its analysis
1. Open-Die Forging with No Friction (ideal condition)

F Y f Af
Where F = forging force
Y f K n Yf = flow stress
ho
ln Af = cross-section of part
hf

True Stress- Strain curves in Tension at Room Temperature

For Various Metals

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 2. Open-Die Forging with Friction

Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging,

showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial
deformation, and (3) final shape.

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 Actual Forging Force
Load-stroke curve The actual forging force is greater
than the ideal case.

F K f Y f Af
The shape factor is to cover the
effect of barreling and the friction
effect.
0.4D f
K f 1
hf
Where:
: coefficient of friction
D: work-part diameter after forming
h: work-part height after forming

3. Forging Force at just yield point

At just yield point

hf = h o
Df = Do
= 0.002

F K f Y f Af

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Example(1):- A cylindrical workpart is warm upset forged in an open die.
Do = 50 mm and ho = 40 mm. Final height = 20 mm. = 0.2. The work
material has a flow curve defined by K = 600 MPa and n = 0.12.
Determine the force in the operation (a) just as the yield point is reached
(yield at strain = 0.002), and at height (b) h = 30 mm and (c) at h = 20 mm.

Solution
(a) At just yield point
hf = ho D f = Do = 0.002

Y f K n 600(0.002) 0.12 284.6MPa

0.4D f 0.4(0.2)(50)
K f 1 1 1.1
hf 40

Af Do2 (50) 2 1963.5mm 2
4 4
F K f Y f A f (1.1)(284.6)(1963.5) 614693N

(b) At hf = 30
ho 40
ln ln 0.287
hf 30

Y f K n 600(0.287) 0.12 516.6MPa

Do2 ho A f h f
4

502 40 A f 30 A f 2618mm 2
4
2
Af D 2f 2618 D f D f 57.7mm
4 4
0.4D f 0.4(0.2)(57.7)
K f 1 1 1.154
hf 30

F K f Y f A f (1.154)(516.6)(2618) 1560557 N

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 Forging a Rod, Fullering, and Edging

(a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note the amount
of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c) edging
operations to properly distribute the material when preshaping the blank for forging.

Cogging Operation on a Rectangular Bar

(a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. Blacksmiths use this
process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an anvil. (b) Reducing
the diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the dies and the workpiece.
(c) The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.

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 Open-die Forging practice
Fullering
Reducing workpiece cross section to prepare for
subsequent shaping action. Dies with convex surface
cavity are used.
Edging
Similar to Fullering, but the dies have concave surface
cavitiy.
Cogging
Open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces to reduce
cross-section and to increase length.

Impression-Die Forging
Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of
desired part shape

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 Impression-Die Forging
Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die
cavity into small gap between die plates
Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an
important function during compression:
As flash forms, friction resists continued metal
flow into gap, constraining material to fill die
cavity
In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates

Sequence in impression-die forging

(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,

(2) partial compression, and
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die
plates.

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 Forces in Impression-die Forging
Higher forging forces are required in this process than
open-die forging. The shape factor generally will
have a higher value.

F K f Y f Af

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of impression-die forging compared to

machining from solid stock:
Higher production rates
Less waste of metal
Greater strength
Favorable grain orientation in the metal
Limitations:
Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed

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Trimming After Impression-Die Forging

Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash after

impression-die forging.

Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling
whose cavity does not allow for flash

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 Flashless Forging

Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity

volume within very close tolerance
Process control more demanding than
impression-die forging
Best suited to part geometries that are simple
and symmetrical
Often classified as a precision forging process

Sequence in flashless forging

(1) just before initial contact with workpiece,

(2) partial compression, and
(3) final punch and die closure.

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 Upsetting and Heading

Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and

similar hardware products
More parts produced by upsetting than any other
forging operation
Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called
headers or formers
Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed,
then piece is cut to length
For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to
form threads

An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt

(1) wire stock is fed to the stop,

(2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted,
(3) punch moves forward,
(4) bottoms to form the head.

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 Heading (Upset Forging)

Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail

using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch, (c) and (d) two
common head styles for screws formed by die, (e) carriage bolt
head formed by punch and die.

The Coining
Process

(b)

(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were made by open-
die forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a modern coining
operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail and superior finish that can
be achieve in this process. Source: Courtesy of C & W Steel Stamp Co., Inc.

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 Roll Forging

Orbital Forging
Small contact area reduce
the forging force
required substantially.

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 Hobbing

To press the die against the softer blank to form the final shape.

Principles of Various Forging Machines

Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines.

(a) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft
can be replaced by a crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to
the ram. (b) Knuckle-joint press. (c) Screw press. (d) Hydraulic
press.

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 Defects in Forged Parts

Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web
thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused by an
oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center flows
past the filled regions as the die closes.

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