1.

1 Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a
simple model to describe their specificity on substrates:
Enzymes are biological catalysts that reduce the amount of energy needed to start a
chemical reaction and thus control the rate of reaction in the body.
Every reaction and process in the body (metabolism) is controlled by a specific enzyme.
Enzymes are proteins made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (CHON)
Lock & Key Model:
o Used to show how each enzyme is specific for a specific reaction
o The enzyme has a specific shape which fits onto the substrate forming an enzyme-
substrate complex.
o The reaction occurs and the enzyme breaks away from the products

Induced-Fit Model:
o A more recent modification of the lock and key.
o Proposes that active slightly changes its shape to accommodate the substrate
perfectly.

Factors that affect enzyme activity:

o The amount of substrate present
o Temperature
o Ph
o Presence of enzymes or cofactors
o Presence of heavy metals, e.g. Lead
1.2 Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to test the effect of:

Increased Temperature
Materials
Junket tablet 2 graduated pipettes
Distilled water (10ml) 8 thermometers
Milk (60ml) 8 water baths
16 test tubes Stopwatch
Method
1) Prepare 8 water baths a the temperatures of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 degrees by
adjusting the temperature with varied amounts of boiling and cold water and ice. It is
necessary to maintain the temperature of each water bath throughout the experiment.
2) Pipette 3ml of milk into each test tube.
3) Put 2 test tubes in each water bath labelling one A and
the other B.
4) Dissolve the junket tablet in 10ml of distilled water.
5) Add three drops of junket solution to each test tube
marked A, as B will act as a control.
6) Shake each test tube to make sure the solution is mixed
and place back in the water bath.
7) Time how long it takes for the milk to curdle, using a
stopwatch.
8) Examine and record results.
Conclusion
As the temperature increases so does the rate of
reaction.
Each enzyme has an optimal temperature

Change in ph
Materials
5 different bottles of solution (ph or 1, 5 labelled beaker for dispensing
3, 7, 9, 11) solutions
5 test tubes 5 5ml syringes
Test tube rack Fresh potato
Method
1) Place 5 test tubes into a test tube rack
2) Place 10ml of solution into the corresponding test
tube relative to the solution in the beaker.
3) Cut 5 cylinders of potato 3cm long about 8mm in
diameter.
4) Put a cylinder of potato into each test tube and start
stopwatch
5) After 5 mins, measure the height of the foam(oxygen)
which forms
Conclusion
Changes in ph alter an enzymes shape.
Each enzyme as an optimal ph.
The ph can change in different parts of the body.
 Change in substrate concentration
Materials
20 volume hydrogen peroxide 10ml pipettes
Distilled water Fresh potato
5 test tubes Ruler
Test tube rack Cork borer
Method
1) Set up 5 test tubes in a test tube rack
2) Pipette the following amouns of hydrogen peroxide and water into each test tube:
Test tube 1 2 3 4 5
H2O2 (ml) 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Distilled water (ml) 10 7.5 5 2.5 0
3) Mix the contents of each test tube
4) Cut 5 cylinders of potato 3cm long about 8mm in
diameter
5) Put a cylinder of potato into each test tube
6) Mark the height of the liquid in each test tube
7) After 5 mins, mark and measure the height of the bubbles
of oxygen that form over
8) Record results
Conclusion
Increased substrate concentration will increase rate or
reaction until another condition becomes a limiting factor.

1.3 Identify pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance:

pH is a measure of the acidity of a substance

1.4 Identify Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for
optimal efficiency:
Enzymes control all the metabolic processes in the body
Enzymes work optimally in an environment where their optimum temperature and ph
conditions are met.
At temperatures and ph values other than the optimum, the enzymes fail to work as
efficiently as they should or not at all.
E.g. If the process of respiration is disrupted, there will be a decrease in the release of
energy and the body will not function properly.
1.5 Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable
internal environment:
Homeostasis: the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment.
The process by which the internal environment is kept within normal limits regardless, of the
external environmental conditions, e.g. Temperature, ph, gas levels, water and salt
concentrations.
Allows enzymes optimal conditions to be met and the body to work efficiently and kept as
stable as possible.

1.6 Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:

Detecting changes from the stable state
Counteracting changes from the stable state
For a state of homeostasis to exist the body must have some way of detecting stimuli that
indicate a change in the bodys internal or external environment.

1.7 Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental
changes:
The stimulus response pathway consists of the steps:
Stimulus receptor central nervous system effector response
This pathway in the nervous system allows a change in the environment to be detected
and a response made to counteract the change.
The nervous system
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and the PNS consists of the sensory nerves
and the effector nerves.
When the environmental temperature begins to exceed a comfortable level for the body,
temperature sensors in the skin detect the temperature change and a sensory neuron
conducts a nervous impulse to the hypothalamus found in the brain. Nerve impulses pass
this information from the receptors to effector neurons then onto effectors, such as blood
vessels, sweat glands, endocrine glands and muscles.
1.8 Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism:

Keeping Warm Keeping Cool

Shiver to generate heat
Hair muscles erect; insulation
Increased appetite
Blood vessels constrict; less
blood flow, less heat loss
Increase in metabolism
Sweating; evaporation loses heat
Blood vessels dilate; increased
blood supple, more heat lost
Hair relaxes, less insulation
Decrease in metabolism
Less exercise

1.9 Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow
limits for individual species:
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the environment
Organisms on earth life in environments with ambient temperatures ranging from less than
0o (arctic animals) to more than 100o (bacteria found in boiling undersea volcano vents).
But, individual organisms cannot survive this entire range of temperatures.
E.g. Mammals can only survive temperatures from about 0-45o
Below 0oc, cells risk ice crystals forming in them and above 45oc, proteins within cells may
denature
This means that life is found in a very wide range of temperatures, but individual species
can only be found in a narrow temperature range
1.10 Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to
change in the ambient temperatures and explain how these responses assist temperature
regulation:
Endotherms use internal metabolic processes to control their body temperature, e.g. Mammals
and birds.
Endotherm responses to changing temperature:
o Migration: The short-tailed shearwater migrates to equatorial regions during the
winter months. This is to avoid the cold weather, as the bird only breeds in warm
weather.
o Insulation: The superb parrot contracts the muscles controlling its feather in cold
conditions, fluffing up its coat. This maintains a later of trapped air as insulation. This
air reduces heat exchange with the environment.
o Evaporation: The red kangaroo licks its arms to cool itself. The evaporation of the
saliva cools its skin.
o Nocturnal Behaviour: Hopping mice, and many other Australian endotherms, are
nocturnal. This is to prevent overheating, and to reduce moisture loss.

Ectotherms use the energy from their environment to regulate their body temperature, e.g. Fish,
reptiles, amphibians.
Ectotherm responses to changing temperature:
o Controlling Exposure: The goanna controls its body exposure to the sun by sun
baking in the cool morning, and staying in shade during the hot hours.
o Hibernation: The Bogong moths hibernate in hot weather (this is called
aestivation). During summer, they gather in caves, their metabolism slows and the
body temperature drops. This is to maintain body temperature.
o Shelter: The central netted dragon stays in sheltered areas to avoid extreme heat.
They can dig burrows or seek shelter in caves or crevices. This reduces the effect of
heat on their body.
o Nocturnal Activity: Brown snakes can change into nocturnal animals when the
temperature becomes very hot. Many desert animals sleep in burrows during the
day and are active at night, to escape the heat.

1.11 Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that
have occurs in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation:

Organism Endo/Ecto Adaptations

Burrows into sand to avoid heat at midday
Thorny Devil Ectotherm Water can be directed from anywhere on body to
mouth for cooling and water absorption.
Various basking behaviours.
Crocodilians Ectotherm
Mouth gaping, body orientation in regards to the sun
Blue tongue Basks in sun
Ectotherm
lizard Inactive during hot days
Licks paws
Red
Endotherm Sits in shade
Kangaroo
Sweats to cool
Alpine pigmy Sleeps in tightly would ball to retain heat
Endotherm
possum Huddling with other individuals to keep warm
Goes through periods of hibernation
Has an insulating coat that retains heat when
Platypus Endotherm swimming in cold water
Have sweat glands in important areas to cool
organism during hot weather.
1.12 Identify some responses of plants to temperature changes:
Plants respond to temperature change by altering their growth rate E.G. Some Eucalyptus
trees grow more in spring than in winter.
In extreme heat or cold, plants can die, but leave behind dormant seeds.
Plants may die above the ground, but leave bulbs, roots, rhizomes or tubers to survive
underground. These then sprout when favourable conditions return
Some plants can change the orientation of their leaves in relation to the sun at different
times of the sun, thus controlling temperature
Leaves hang down vertically to reduce sun exposure

2.1 Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
Substance Form carried in mammalian blood
Enters red blood cells and is combined with water to form
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
Carbon Dioxide 7% Co2 dissolved in plasma
23% combines with haemoglobin forming carbaminohaemoglobin
70% forms hydrogen carbonate ions and travels in plasma
Oxygen combines itself with haemoglobin to form
Oxygen
oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells (hbo2)
Water Liquid water is the solvent making up 90% of the plasma.
Salt Salt travels as either positive or negative ions in the plasma
Lipids are carried with phospholipids and cholesterol in a protein
Lipids
coated package called a chylomicron.
The nitrogenous waste is ammonia, but as this is toxic mammals
Nitrogenous convert this to urea. Conversion occurs in the liver and the kidney
Waste filter the urea from the blood.
Urea is transported dissolved in the plasma
Other products Many other products are soluble and travel in the plasma, e.g.
of digestion Sugars, amino acids, vitamins

2.2 Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin:

Oxygen is not very soluble in water and cannot be
carried efficiently dissolved in blood plasma.
The red blood cell has no nucleus; therefore it can carry
as many haemoglobin molecules as possible.
The haemoglobin is a complex protein molecule (3D)
which is made up of 4 long amino acid chains, each one
assembled around the atom of iron. Iron easily combines
with oxygen.
Adaptive advantage of haemoglobin is that it increases
the bloods carrying capacity of oxygen. Resulting in more oxygen available for cells.
Therefore gives an organism the ability to become more complex.
Mammalian cells need a lot of energy and therefore must have a continual supply of
oxygen for respiration
2.3 Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function:
Feature Arteries
Carry blood away from the
Definition
heart
Thick elastic muscular
walls
Structure Smooth inner layer
3 main layers with muscle
and elastic tissue
Distribute blood away
from the heart, e.g. To
arterioles that carry blood
to capillaries
Cope with high pressure
of blood being pumped
Function Enables expansion and
contraction to adjust to
the amount of blood
flowing through at any
one time
Carry oxygenated blood
(except pulmonary artery)
Capillaries
Thin-walled blood vessel
linking arteries and veins
A single layer of flat
overlapping cells
No elastic or muscular
fibres
Allows red blood cells to
pass through, maximising
the chance for the gases,
nutrients and wastes
between the blood and
the tissue cells.
This way the bodys tissues
are efficiently supplied
with the substances they
need while wastes are
removed
Gas exchange occurs,
e.g. Oxygen from blood
into tissues
Veins
Carry blood to the heart
Thinner muscular walls
Wider diameter
Valves
Fewer elastic and muscle
fibres.
Return blood to the heart
from capillaries to venules
to veins
Allows increases amounts
of blood flow through
veins
Prevent blood flowing
backward in the vein by
valves
Carry deoxygenated
blood (except pulmonary
vein)
2.4 Describe the changes in the chemical composition of blood as it moves around the body
and identify tissues in which these changes occur:
The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body. This is as a result
from the continuous exchange of substances between the blood and the surrounding
tissues.
In general, blood moving through the bodys tissues delivers oxygen and glucose for
cellular respiration as well as nutrients.
In general, blood moving away from the bodys tissues carries carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous wastes for disposal.
Tissue Main Changes in Blood
Increase in oxygen
Lung
Decrease in carbon dioxide
Villi of small Increase in glucose and other products of digestion (amino
intestine acids, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water)
Decrease in nitrogenous wastes (salts and water to form
Kidneys
urea)
Decrease in oxygen
Other body tissues Decrease in glucose
Increase in carbon dioxide

2.5 Performa first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on
water:
Materials
Straw
100ml distilled water
Universal indicator colour chart OR Probe for more accurate or fast results
Beaker
Method
1) Pour 100ml of distilled water into a beaker
2) Grab the straw and place in beaker
3) Blow gently avoiding spillage
4) Blow for two minutes
5) Observe colour change and check the ph by comparing to the universal colour chart OR
using data loggers with a ph probe.
Conclusion
The water turned a yellow colour as our breath contains carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and some of it formed carbonic acid
The formation of acid lowers the ph.
2.6 Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather
information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams for each:
Materials
Light microscope Prepared blood slide
Ruler Mm squared graph paper
Method
1) Set up the light microscope.
2) Place a small piece of mm squared paper. View the paper using a x40 objective.
3) Measure field of view by counting amount of squares across.
4) Remove the grid and place the prepared blood slide under the microscope.
5) Count the number of red blood cells across the field of view.
6) Record results.
Conclusion
Red blood cells (erythrocytes):
Size: 6-9 m
Shape: Bi-concave discs
Function: Transport of oxygen.
They have no nuclei; they only live for 3 months.
After this they are destroyed in the liver or spleen.
5-6 million in every millilitre of blood.
They are produced in the bone marrow

White blood cells (leucocytes):

Size: 12-15 m
Shape: Irregular shape; can change shape
Function: To defend against disease
Only 4-12 thousand per millilitre of blood
They are the largest blood cell
They have nuclei, unlike red blood cells
They are produced in the lymph glands.

2.7 Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from
cells is essential:
All living things use the process of respiration to release energy to be used by cells to
maintain life processes. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen in the equation:
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + ENERGY
Cell respiration is essential as it provides energy that is needed for metabolic process (e.g.
Protein synthesis) and if these processes do not occur it can result in fatality.
As a result of respiration, carbon dioxide is produced
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it makes carbonic acid.
This means that if a lot of carbon dioxide is produced, the body cells (and the blood and
lymph) will become acidic.
As studied before, enzymes can only function within a specific ph range
So an increase in carbon dioxide will result in a lowering of ph, which will affect the overall
metabolism of the body.
2.8 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow
measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe
and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used:
Measuring oxygen saturation levels:
Pulse Oximetry
Newer method
Non-invasive and
Can be used continuously on patients when needed such as in the intensive care
unit
Simply, passes two wavelengths of light through the finger and then measures the
amount of absorption on the other side.
This can determine the saturation levels of haemoglobin and hence the oxygen
levels
Measuring carbon dioxide concentrations
Capnometer
Non-invasive technique
Can be used continuously if needed
An infrared beam is passed through the blood and the absorption amount is
measured to determine the levels of carbon dioxide.
Measuring oxygen & carbon dioxide
Arterial Blood Gas Analysis (ABG):
A test that can be invasive
But, delays between the test and the result.
Needs only a sample of blood from an artery and can help with distinguishing
between conditions with similar symptoms
Used to determine the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the ph
level in the blood.
E.g. A patient in a coma can have their blood gases regularly monitored

2.9 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from
donated blood and discuss the uses of these products:
Red blood cells:
o Used to increase the amount of oxygen that can be carried to the bodys tissues;
o Given to anaemic patients, or people whose bone marrow do not make enough
red blood cells
Platelets:
o Used to make the blood clot; is given to people with cancer of the blood
(leukaemia or lymphoma).
o Patients undergoing chemotherapy, whose blood does not make enough platelets,
are given this.
Plasma:
o This liquid portion of the blood is given to people with clotting disorders (such as
haemophilia).
o It carried dissolved nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and blood cells and is
important in the treatment of burn victims.
o Also used to adjust the osmotic pressure of the blood (to pull fluids out of tissues).
White blood cells:
o Infection fighting component of the blood.
o Very rarely given, but are used when cell count is very low.
2.10 Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the
production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research
is needed:
Artificial Blood is a term to describe man made products that fulfil some of the functions
of biological blood.
Problems using real blood
o Shortage of real blood
o Has to be cross matched, because if you receive the wrong type of blood it can
be fatal, which is a disadvantage in emergency.
o Free of infectious agents.
Why artificial blood is needed
o The amount of blood needed for transfusion is rising each year faster than the
amount of blood being donated.
o Also chance in some places around the world of undetected blood bank
contamination from AIDS, hepatitis C and other diseases.
o In emergency trauma situation, e.g. Battlefield, there is need for rapid treatment of
patients without determining blood type for immunologic reactions as blood
substitutes do not contain any antigens.
o Blood has storage problems it must be kept at 4 degrees and only stays fresh for 42
days.
Advantage of artificial blood
o Free of infectious diseases
o Does not need refrigeration
o Can be kept for a longer period of time, e.g. 2-3 years unlike 3 weeks for human
blood
o Universal acceptance by all groups
o Readily available in large supplies solving problem of blood donors
2 types of Oxygen Carriers
1. Perflurochemicals (perflurocarbons):
o Synthetic and inert, are completely sterile
o Cheap to produce, compared to using real blood.
o Can dissolve 5 times more oxygen than blood.
o Free of biological materials, therefore no risk of infections
o BUT - must be combined with other materials to mix in with the bloodstream (e.g.
Lecithin).
2. Haemoglobin Based Oxygen Carriers (hbocs):
o Made from haemoglobin extracted from red blood cells
o Haemoglobin is not contained in membrane - cross matching unnecessary
o Can be stored for a long time
o BUT - haemoglobin tends to oxidise to a different form, break down, and can no
longer carry oxygen.
2.11 Describe current theories about processes for the movement of materials through plants in
xylem and phloem tissues:
Xylem (Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Mechanism)
Xylem cells are not alive, so physical processes are responsible for the upward movement
of water and minerals.
Theory:
o Cohesion: water molecules stick together.
o Transpiration: Water is pulled up from the top.
o Tension: Water moves up the xylem like a wire, due to cohesion.
o Adhesion: When the pull stops (at night) water sticks to the sides of the tubes and
doesnt fall down.
As water molecules are removed by transpiration in the leaf, the next molecule moves
upwards to take its place, pulling the stream of molecules continuously along. This is
passive transport.
Phloem (Pressure Flow Mechanism/Source to Sink)
The sugar is loaded into the phloem tube from the sugar source, e.g. The leaf (active
transport)
Water enters by osmosis due to high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water
pressure is now raised at this end of the tube.
At the sugar sink, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it leaves the phloem tube.
Water follows the sugar, leaving by osmosis and thus the water pressure in the tube drops.
The building up of pressure at the source end, and the reduction of pressure at the sink
end, causes water to flow from source to sink. As sugar is dissolved in the water, it flows at
the same rate as the water. Sieve tubes between phloem cells allow the movement of the
phloem sap to continue relatively unimpeded.
2.12 Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand
data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue:
PHLOEM:

XYLEM:
3.1 Explain why the concentration of water to cells should be maintained within a narrow range
for optimal function:
Water inside a cell is essential for life. Too little or too much can result in serious problems
and most cells will die if their water content is changed significantly.
It is necessary for many reasons:
o It is the medium that transports and distributes many substances (such as nutrients
and wastes) in and between cells.
o It is the solvent in which many important ions and molecules required for metabolic
reactions are dissolved. They are only able to move when in aqueous solution as can
they diffuse across and between cells.
o Metabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution.
o Water itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions e.g. Cellular
respiration
For optimal functioning of cells it is reliant on their water content being kept within a very
narrow range. The concentration water inside the cell (intracellular fluid) must match the
concentration of water outside the cell (interstitial fluid). This is called isotonic.
If these concentrations do not match, water will move by osmosis from the area of higher
concentration to lower concentration. This leaves cells venerable to losing or gaining to
much water.
Cell metabolism is controlled by enzymes.
Each enzyme requires specific conditions for optimal efficiency, e.g. Specific ph, temp., ion
concentrations.
A change in the concentration of water in cells could interfere with the functioning of
enzymes and metabolism would be disrupted.

3.2 Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity:
Cells are the site of many metabolic reactions.
These metabolic activity keeps the cell functioning
Many metabolic reactions produce wastes that if left to accumulate, would poison and
eventually kill the cell.
Like carbon dioxide other waste products are to be removed for example, excess salts,
excess water and nitrogenous wastes.
Waste accumulation is toxic and can disrupt metabolic activity, e.g. High levels of
ammonia or urea will kill cells and excess water will change concentrations affection
enzyme activity.
Carbon dioxide is removed in air exhaled by lungs
Nitrogenous wastes removed in urine produced by kidneys.
3.3 Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals:
The primary role is osmoregulation.
This is the regulation of salt and water levels in the body
Freshwater Fish
o The kidney is an excretory organ that filters blood and
removes nitrogenous wastes.
o High filtration rate
o Produces large amount of very dilute urine as water tends
to enter the fish via osmosis
Saltwater Fish
o The kidney is an excretory organ that filters blood and
removes nitrogenous wastes.
o Low filtration rate
o Small quantity of concentrated urine produced as water
tends to leave the fish via osmosis
Mammals
o The kidney is an excretory organ that filters blood and removes nitrogenous wastes.
o Has many nephrons
o High blood pressure in glomerulus forces ultra filtration
o Amount and concentrations of urine depends upon water intake and activities
Birds
o Excretes nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid
o This white paste help to conserve water

3.4 Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved
nitrogenous wastes in some organisms:
Osmosis: The tendency of water to pass through a semi-permeable membrane into a
solution where the solvent concentration is higher, thus equalizing the concentrations of
materials on either side of the membrane.
Diffusion: The spreading of something more widely.
Diffusion and osmosis are both examples of passive transport, and will not occur unless a
sufficient concentration gradient is present.
Diffusion is too slow for the normal functioning of the body and is not able to selectively
reabsorb useful solutes.
Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to move
out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes.
In the kidney, some useful products are reabsorbed into the body this would not be
possible with diffusion (active transport needed).
Osmosis without active reabsorption of water would result in excess water loss.
The kidney functions by using excreting all the blood substances in the nephron outside
the body and then selectively (actively) reabsorbing useful materials.
3.5 Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in
the mammalian kidney:
Active transport requires an input of energy for the movement of materials across a cell
membrane.
Passive transport does not require an input of energy for movement across a membrane,
e.g. Osmosis and diffusion.
In the mammalian kidney, both active and passive transport processes occur.
o Passive transport: Once filtration has occurred in Bowman's capsule, water returns
via the interstitial fluid from the tubule to the capillary in the process of osmosis. This
occurs along the length of the tubule.
o Active transport: Depending on their concentration, the ions in the blood (Na +, K+,
Cl- , H+ and HCO3) can be transported to cells in the nephron tubule and then
secreted by the cells into the tubule. Some poisons and certain drugs are eliminated
from the body in this manner.

3.6 Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate
body fluid composition:
Filtration and reabsorption are the processes that
perform the complex balancing of retaining essential
substances and removing wastes from blood.
Ultrafiltration occurs when high blood pressure in the
glomerulus forces water ions and small molecules into
Bowmans capsule.
By filtration, substances are removed from blood if
they are small enough to be forced through the
membrane of Bowmans capsule.
Blood cells and proteins are too large to be removed.
This filtering process is non-selective and therefore
many valuable components of the blood must be
recovered by reabsorption.
3.7 Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use
of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products:
Materials
Sheep/lamb kidney Newspaper
Dissecting board Magnifying glass
Scalpel Probe
Rubber gloved
Method
1) Observe the outer shape of the kidney and the capsule.
2) Identify the tubes entering the kidney ureter, renal
artery and renal vein use the magnifying glass to check
the thickness of the walls of the blood vessel.
3) Cut the kidney lengthwise using the scalpel.
4) Use the magnifying glass to observe the internal structure
of the kidney and draw observations.
5) Use the probe to follow the pathway from ureter into
pelvis of kidney.
6) Record observations
7) Draw a labelled diagram of observations
8) Wrap the dissected kidney in newspaper and dispose of it appropriately.
Safety
Be careful when using the scalpel as the blade could cut skin leading to potential
infection.

3.8 Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of
renal dialysis with the function of the kidney:
Kidney
Removes waste from blood
Natural process
Continuous removal of wastes
Rapid process
Uses passive & active transport
Uses filtration & reabsorption
Main filter is glomerulus
Wastes & some metabolites are removed in
filtration
Internal process
Urination occurs
Renal Dialysis
Removes waste from blood
Artificial process
Removes wastes only when patient is
hooked up to the dialysis machine
Slow process
Depends on passive transport only
Uses filtration only
Filter is dialysis tubing
Wastes & water removed in filtration,
metabolites stay in blood
Usually external
Some to No urination occurs
3.9 Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (antidiuretic hormone) in the
regulation of water and salt levels in blood:
Aldosterone:
Produced and released by the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys.
Controls the amount of salt in the blood by regulating the reabsorption of salt in the
nephrons.
High Salt Levels:
o High blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing in.
o Levels of aldosterone decreased.
o Less salt reabsorbed, less water diffusing in
o Salt level decreased, blood volume and pressure decreases
Low Salt Levels:
o Low blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing out.
o Levels of aldosterone increased.
o More salt reabsorbed, more water diffusing in
o Salt levels increase, blood volume and pressure increase

ADH (Anti-Diuretic Hormone):

Also called vasopressin
Controls the reabsorption of water by adjusting the permeability of the collecting ducts
and the distal tubules.
It is made in the hypothalamus in the brain, but stored in the pituitary gland
Receptors in the hypothalamus monitor the concentration of the blood:
o High Salt Concentration: ADH levels increased, collecting ducts and distal tubules
become more permeable to water, more water reabsorbed, concentration returns
to normal. (Concentrated urine)
o Low Salt Concentration: ADH levels reduced, collecting ducts and distal tubules less
permeable, less water absorbed, concentration returns to stable state. (Dilute urine)
ADH does not control the levels of salt in the blood. It only controls the concentration of salt
through water retention.

3.10 Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people
who cannot secrete aldosterone:
Hormone replacement therapy: a treatment given when a gland is not producing enough
of a particular hormone.
The adrenal gland secretes aldosterone.
Without aldosterone, the body would not be able to reabsorb salt (specifically sodium ions)
and this would cause severe dehydration, and excessive potassium.
This would result in brain damage and death
Fludrocortisone is an artificial hormone which can be used as a treatment for people who
cannot secrete aldosterone (due to a damaged adrenal gland; Addisons disease). It does
the job of aldosterone.
3.11 Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in
urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish:
Urine Terrestrial mammal Saltwater fish Freshwater fish
Concentration varied
greatly depending on
Concentration of urine Concentrated urine Dilute urine
environment and
water availability
Amount varies greatly
Amount of urine depending on Very little urine Copious amounts of
released environment and produced urine produced
water availability
Body solute
Water availability on Body solute
concentration is
land depends on the concentration is less
higher than the
Reason for amount ecosystem. Rainforests than the surrounding
surrounding
and concentration has abundant water, environment, so water
environment, so water
while deserts have moves out of the fish
moves into the fish by
limited water by osmosis
osmosis

3.12 Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and
the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects
and terrestrial mammals:
Ammonia
o Is very toxic.
o Must be excreted immediately and in a dilute form.
o Commonly secreted by aquatic invertebrates and fish that live in freshwater where
the availability of water is not a limiting factor.
Urea
o Most common form of nitrogenous waste excreted by terrestrial mammals.
o Not as toxic as ammonia and can be excreted in a less dilute form, resulting in less
water loss.
o But, requires more energy for its production.
Uric Acid
o Least toxic form of nitrogenous waste means it can be secreted with minimal water
loss.
o Excreted as a semi-solid, whitish paste to help conserve water.
o Uses a lot of energy to be mad, but has the smallest amount of water loss.
3.13 Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in
maintaining appropriate salt concentrations:
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to
variations in the environment.
In an environment such as an estuary where the salt and water concentrations rise and fall,
the survival of the species depends on their ability to either AVOID these changes or
TOLERATE them.
One example of enantiostasis is when a change in salt concentration in the body fluid,
which reduces the efficiency of an enzyme, is compensated for by a change in pH, which
increases the efficiency of the same enzyme.
In an estuary the daily changes in tides affect the salinity of the environment in the
following ways:
o At high tides: sea water flows into the river mouth creating an environment with
higher salt concentrations than the cytoplasm of cells and body fluids in organisms.
This salt water has tendency to draw water out of the cells by osmosis.
o At low tides: sea water flows out of the river mouth and fresh water flows in. Plants
and animals which are subjected to this freshwater environment with a high water
potential face the challenge of water tending to move into living tissue.
Living organisms use one of the following strategies in enantiostasis:
Osmoconformers Osmoregulators
Organisms that tolerate the changes in the Organisms that avoid changes in their internal
environment. environment
They modify the salt concentration in their
They maintain a constant salt concentration
body to match fluctuations in external
in their despite environmental fluctuations.
conditions.
Metabolism and cell functioning are able to Their cell metabolism and physiology is not
continue within a broad range of salinity. able tolerate a range of salt concentrations.
Mechanism: their body fluids are similar to
those in a marine environment, so when
exposed to freshwater, the water tends to
Mechanism: they use small organism
accumulate by osmosis. To counteract the
molecules to vary the solute concentrations in
changes, the animal produces more dilute
their cells to match that of the surroundings.
urine to reduce the internal water
concentration to a level at which cells can
function
Result: A higher osmotic pressure is
Result: The osmotic pressures inside the body
maintained inside the body than in the
and outside the body are the same.
external environment.
3.14 Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to
discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments:
Plants that are adapted to saline environments are called halophytes.
The plants either use salt tolerance or salt avoidance as strategies to survive in
environments where they are exposed to high salt concentrations
Examples of halophytes:
Saltbush:
o Is an excluder it actively transports excess sodium and chloride ions into bladder
cells situated on the tip of hairs on the surface of leaves.
o When the bladder cell reaches capacity it bursts, releasing the salts into the
environment.
Palmers grass:
o Actively secretes salts from specialised cells to avoid high salt concentration within
cells.
Succulents:
o Minimise the salt toxicity through increasing water content in large vacuoles, where
the accumulation of excess salt is balanced with additional water drawn into the
cells.
Pickleweed:
o Uses the above method and also actively transports salts from the cytoplasm by a
sodium potassium pump on the vacuole membrane.
Pigface:
o A succulent that grows on coastal sand dunes, tolerates salt by increasing water
uptake to dilute the salt.
o It also stores excess salt in a location away from sensitive cells.
Mangroves:
o Survive in high salt concentrations by means of exclusion, secretion and
accumulation.
o Special tissues in their roots and lower stem exclude salt uptake but allow water to
pass through.
o Secretion occurs as salt can be concentrated and then excreted through special
glands within their leaves.
o Salt is accumulated in older tissues, such as leaves and branches which are then
discarded.

3.15 Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising
water loss:
Plant Feature How feature minimises water loss
Stomates on underside are protected
Leaf can coil around
Spinifex grass from, wind etc and water loss by
underside
transpiration is reduced.
Hakea Multilineata Leaves are long, thin Long, thin blades reduces SA:V. This
(Grass Leaf hakea) blades reduces water loss by transpiration.
Thick, succulent leaves store water
Carpobrotus Rossii
Leaves are thick, succulent allowing plants to grow in arid areas and
(Pigface)
have water available when needed.
Leave have dense
Actinotus Spp (Flannel
covering of pale woolly Dense covering of woolly
flower)
hairs
3.16 Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist
the conservation of water:
Materials
A variety of plant species
Plant identification book
Pencil
Magnifying glass
Microscope
Method
1) Analyse the plant material provided to identify the structures present that assist with
minimising water loss.
Results (structures and features in plant to help reduce water loss)
Wide dense root network to obtain as much water as possible
Succulents store water in stems, leaves or trunks
Leaves have reduced SA
Sunken Stomates create a humid environment outside the pore
Thick waxy cuticle prevent water loss and maintain leaf shape even if cells are dehydrated
Reduced flower size or flowers with no petals