LEARNING AND MEMORY

WHAT IS LEARNING?

It is a process of acquiring changes in the present knowledge, skills, habits,

behavior, or tendencies through experience, practice, or formal education.

A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience.

Characteristics of learning

Learning is purposeful

Learning occurs because it is planned, it is desired or even forced but no

matter what, there is always a purpose why a person seeks to gain more
knowledge.

example:

A student reviews his/her lesson in order to receive a high grade and avoid
being reprimanded by his/her professor. (Short term goal)

A bachelors degree graduate enrolled in graduate studies and spend

additional ten (10) more years in formal education in order to receive higher
salary and be promoted. (Long term goal)

LEARNING IS A RESULT OF EXPERIENCE

Experience is the best teacher.

example:

A college student is required to have an On-the-job training or OJT, before

he/she graduate. During his/her OJT, the student became exposed to real-life
situations and have been able to apply all the knowledge she get from
studying for years.

learning is multifaceted

Learning is not totally focused on intellectual knowledge alone. There are

incidental knowledge, skills, and attitudes that should also be taught and
developed.

Example:
 In physical education, the objectives are not purely on psychomotor domain;
the development of affective domain is emphasized like teamwork and
sportsmanship.

learning is an active process

Learners should not be mere passive receivers of knowledge. Active

participation in class activities must be solicited in order to fully grasp the
knowledge.

example:

Teachers always involved his/her students during class discussion. Because

according to the principle of teaching, the students should be made as the
center of the learning process.

Types of learning

Associative learning Social learning Associative

learning

Associative learning is the process by which someone learns an

association between two stimuli, or a behavior and a stimulus. The two
forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning. In the
former, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented, together
with a reflex eliciting stimuli, until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a
response on its own. In operant conditioning, a certain behavior is either
reinforced or punished, which alters the probability that the behavior will
reoccur.

Social learning theory (Albert Bandura) posits that learning is

a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur
purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of
motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.[1] In addition to the
observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of
rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement.
The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior
 is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the
important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.

Associative learning occurs when you learn something based on a new

stimulus. The most famous example is Ivan Pavlov's use of dogs to
demonstrate that a stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, leads to a
reward, or food. Two types of associative learning exist: classical
conditioning, such as in Pavlov's dog; and operant conditioning, or the use
of reinforcement through rewards and punishments.

Theories of learning

Connectionism theory

Formed by Edward Lee Thorndike

It states that learning is a product of the relationship between stimuli and

response. Learning take place when a certain stimulus is meaningful or
have strong connection to the person.

Consist of three laws of learning (Law of effect, Law of exercise and Law of
readiness) that is commonly used in the field of education.

Law of effect

Law of effect suggested that if the consequence or the effect is positive,

then connection between stimuli and response is strengthened.

On the other hand, if the consequences or the effect is negative, then

connection between stimuli and response is weakened.

Law of exercise

It states that the more you perform or practice a certain behavior then the
stronger the connection between stimuli and response will be.

Taken from the famous clich Practice makes perfect.

Law of readiness
 It states that learning is likely to take place only when an organism is
ready for it. Readiness is both physical and mental.

Classical conditioning theory

Formulated by Ivan Pavlov.

Sometimes referred to as Pavlonian Conditioning.

It is a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus is brought

with a stimulus that results to a certain response.

Learning is automatic and non-conscious.

Contiguous conditioning theory

Formulated by Edwin R. Guthrie.

It said that learning was a one shot process of association.

He claims that people are likely to repeat their previous action when they
encounter similar situation.

His one-shot learning rules out improvement through practice.

He said that practice does not improve performance because of the

repetition of an act but because new stimulus-response is formed.

Operant conditioning theory

Formed by Burrhus Frederic Skinner based on Edward Lee Thorndikes

operant conditioning.

Also known as Instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning.

Operant conditioning is a form of learning that takes place through

rewards and punishment.

His theory asserts that the best way to understand ones behavior is to
look first at the causes of an action and its consequences.

Components of operant frequency. There are two

conditioning types of reinforcers namely:

1. Reinforcement the a) Positive - Satisfying

outcome, consequence, or outcomes, consequences or
result that strengthens the results, and reward that are
behavior to occur with higher
 presented after the display of by application. It is
behavior and;
something that is applied
b) Negative - Involves taking
out, stopping, or removing to remove or reduce
uncomfortable and certain behavior.
unfavorable events after the
display of behavior.

b) Negative punishment

also called as punishment by

removal. It involves

2. Punishment the removing of something

employment or administering
that is rewarding, pleasing, or
of a painful or unpleasant
reinforce after an unwanted desirable after a behavior
response. There are two types
of punishment namely: has occurred.

a) Positive punishment

also called as punishment

 Drive reduction theory

Formed by Clark Hull

It states that reduction of drives

is the impetus behind every behavior,

learning, and motivation.

Learning takes place when a certain

individual have been able to control the drives after undergoing the
reduction of drives.

Gestalt theory

Gestalt is a German term meaning pattern, form, shape, or

configuration. It is used to refer to unified whole of entire structure.

It came from the work of Max Wertheimer.

It adheres to the principle the whole is greater than the sum of all its
parts.

It applies holistic approach and rejects the stimulus-response model.

It put emphasis on the cognitive processes in which the mind look for
patterns in things, its contribution to learning, most especially in the
development of perception.

Laws introduced by gestalt psychologist:

1. Law of proximity it states that objects or shapes that are close to one
another appear to form groups.

2. Law of closure it states that when shapes or objects are shown with
missing parts or not closed, the learner will attempt to look for what is
lacking instead of following the instruction.

3. Law of symmetry it states that when shapes and objects are not
balance, not smooth, and unnatural, the learner will spend time
identifying the cause of the problem instead of obeying the instruction.

4. Law of similarity it states that shapes or objects that appears to be

similar are grouped together naturally in mind of the learner.
5. Law of good continuation it stats that incomplete shapes when
perceived are naturally completed in mind of the learner.

Memory

Similar to computers, human go through a process in terms of

storing memory. These processes are

1. Encoding process of transforming information into storable form.

2. Storing process of keeping the information.

3. Retrieving process of taking the memory out of the storage and applying
on how it is originally used.

Unlike computers, in human memory, there are informations,

which cannot be permanently deleted and are stored for a
lifetime. These are three types of memory namely:

1. Sensory Memory (SM) the memory that is perceived by our senses. It

records what we see, hear, feel and smell.

2. Short Term Memory (STM) the memory that is currently active while
doing simple task like writing a letter, cleaning shoes, or reading a
newspaper.

3. Long Term Memory (LTM) the memory that is more or less stable and
practically unquantifiable in storage capacity.

Two kinds of long-term memory

Declarative long-term memory - the memory of ideas, concepts,

or events. It has two classifications namely:

1. Semantic theoretical or abstract memory.

2. Episodic something acquired from experience at some point of time and

place.

Procedural long-term memory is the memory of how things are done or

handled.

Forgetting

Forgetting cannot be forced nor conditioned, it will happen naturally.

 Forgetting is a sign of getting old.

Forgetting is a sign of senility.