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1AtomsinMotion
11Introduction
Thistwoyearcourseinphysicsispresentedfromthepointofviewthatyou,thereader,aregoingtobeaphysicist.Thisisnotnecessarilythecaseofcourse,
butthatiswhateveryprofessorineverysubjectassumes!Ifyouaregoingtobeaphysicist,youwillhavealottostudy:twohundredyearsofthemost
rapidlydevelopingfieldofknowledgethatthereis.Somuchknowledge,infact,thatyoumightthinkthatyoucannotlearnallofitinfouryears,andtruly
youcannotyouwillhavetogotograduateschooltoo!
Surprisinglyenough,inspiteofthetremendousamountofworkthathasbeendoneforallthistimeitispossibletocondensetheenormousmassofresultsto
alargeextentthatis,tofindlawswhichsummarizeallourknowledge.Evenso,thelawsaresohardtograspthatitisunfairtoyoutostartexploringthis
tremendoussubjectwithoutsomekindofmaporoutlineoftherelationshipofonepartofthesubjectofsciencetoanother.Followingthesepreliminary
remarks,thefirstthreechapterswillthereforeoutlinetherelationofphysicstotherestofthesciences,therelationsofthesciencestoeachother,andthe
meaningofscience,tohelpusdevelopafeelforthesubject.
Youmightaskwhywecannotteachphysicsbyjustgivingthebasiclawsonpageoneandthenshowinghowtheyworkinallpossiblecircumstances,aswe
doinEuclideangeometry,wherewestatetheaxiomsandthenmakeallsortsofdeductions.(So,notsatisfiedtolearnphysicsinfouryears,youwanttolearn
itinfourminutes?)Wecannotdoitinthiswayfortworeasons.First,wedonotyetknowallthebasiclaws:thereisanexpandingfrontierofignorance.
Second,thecorrectstatementofthelawsofphysicsinvolvessomeveryunfamiliarideaswhichrequireadvancedmathematicsfortheirdescription.Therefore,
oneneedsaconsiderableamountofpreparatorytrainingeventolearnwhatthewordsmean.No,itisnotpossibletodoitthatway.Wecanonlydoitpieceby
piece.
Eachpiece,orpart,ofthewholeofnatureisalwaysmerelyanapproximationtothecompletetruth,orthecompletetruthsofarasweknowit.Infact,
everythingweknowisonlysomekindofapproximation,becauseweknowthatwedonotknowallthelawsasyet.Therefore,thingsmustbelearnedonlyto
beunlearnedagainor,morelikely,tobecorrected.
Theprincipleofscience,thedefinition,almost,isthefollowing:Thetestofallknowledgeisexperiment.Experimentisthesolejudgeofscientifictruth.But
whatisthesourceofknowledge?Wheredothelawsthataretobetestedcomefrom?Experiment,itself,helpstoproducetheselaws,inthesensethatitgives
ushints.Butalsoneededisimaginationtocreatefromthesehintsthegreatgeneralizationstoguessatthewonderful,simple,butverystrangepatterns
beneaththemall,andthentoexperimenttocheckagainwhetherwehavemadetherightguess.Thisimaginingprocessissodifficultthatthereisadivisionof
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laborinphysics:therearetheoreticalphysicistswhoimagine,deduce,andguessatnewlaws,butdonotexperimentandthenthereareexperimental
physicistswhoexperiment,imagine,deduce,andguess.
Wesaidthatthelawsofnatureareapproximate:thatwefirstfindthewrongones,andthenwefindtherightones.Now,howcananexperimentbe
wrong?First,inatrivialway:ifsomethingiswrongwiththeapparatusthatyoudidnotnotice.Butthesethingsareeasilyfixed,andcheckedbackand
forth.Sowithoutsnatchingatsuchminorthings,howcantheresultsofanexperimentbewrong?Onlybybeinginaccurate.Forexample,themassofan
objectneverseemstochange:aspinningtophasthesameweightasastillone.Soalawwasinvented:massisconstant,independentofspeed.Thatlaw
isnowfoundtobeincorrect.Massisfoundtoincreasewithvelocity,butappreciableincreasesrequirevelocitiesnearthatoflight.Atruelawis:ifanobject
moveswithaspeedoflessthanonehundredmilesasecondthemassisconstanttowithinonepartinamillion.Insomesuchapproximateformthisisa
correctlaw.Soinpracticeonemightthinkthatthenewlawmakesnosignificantdifference.Well,yesandno.Forordinaryspeedswecancertainlyforgetit
andusethesimpleconstantmasslawasagoodapproximation.Butforhighspeedswearewrong,andthehigherthespeed,themorewrongweare.
Finally,andmostinteresting,philosophicallywearecompletelywrongwiththeapproximatelaw.Ourentirepictureoftheworldhastobealteredeventhough
themasschangesonlybyalittlebit.Thisisaverypeculiarthingaboutthephilosophy,ortheideas,behindthelaws.Evenaverysmalleffectsometimes
requiresprofoundchangesinourideas.
Now,whatshouldweteachfirst?Shouldweteachthecorrectbutunfamiliarlawwithitsstrangeanddifficultconceptualideas,forexamplethetheoryof
relativity,fourdimensionalspacetime,andsoon?Orshouldwefirstteachthesimpleconstantmasslaw,whichisonlyapproximate,butdoesnotinvolve
suchdifficultideas?Thefirstismoreexciting,morewonderful,andmorefun,butthesecondiseasiertogetatfirst,andisafirststeptoarealunderstanding
ofthefirstidea.Thispointarisesagainandagaininteachingphysics.Atdifferenttimesweshallhavetoresolveitindifferentways,butateachstageitis
worthlearningwhatisnowknown,howaccurateitis,howitfitsintoeverythingelse,andhowitmaybechangedwhenwelearnmore.
Letusnowproceedwithouroutline,orgeneralmap,ofourunderstandingofsciencetoday(inparticular,physics,butalsoofothersciencesontheperiphery),
sothatwhenwelaterconcentrateonsomeparticularpointwewillhavesomeideaofthebackground,whythatparticularpointisinteresting,andhowitfits
intothebigstructure.So,whatisouroverallpictureoftheworld?
12Matterismadeofatoms
If,insomecataclysm,allofscientificknowledgeweretobedestroyed,andonlyonesentencepassedontothenextgenerationsofcreatures,whatstatement
wouldcontainthemostinformationinthefewestwords?Ibelieveitistheatomichypothesis(ortheatomicfact,orwhateveryouwishtocallit)thatall
thingsaremadeofatomslittleparticlesthatmovearoundinperpetualmotion,attractingeachotherwhentheyarealittledistanceapart,butrepellingupon
beingsqueezedintooneanother.Inthatonesentence,youwillsee,thereisanenormousamountofinformationabouttheworld,ifjustalittleimagination
andthinkingareapplied.
Figure11
Toillustratethepoweroftheatomicidea,supposethatwehaveadropofwateraquarterofaninchontheside.Ifwelookatitverycloselyweseenothing
butwatersmooth,continuouswater.Evenifwemagnifyitwiththebestopticalmicroscopeavailableroughlytwothousandtimesthenthewaterdrop
willberoughlyfortyfeetacross,aboutasbigasalargeroom,andifwelookedratherclosely,wewouldstillseerelativelysmoothwaterbuthereandthere
smallfootballshapedthingsswimmingbackandforth.Veryinteresting.Theseareparamecia.Youmaystopatthispointandgetsocuriousaboutthe
parameciawiththeirwigglingciliaandtwistingbodiesthatyougonofurther,exceptperhapstomagnifytheparameciastillmoreandseeinside.This,of
course,isasubjectforbiology,butforthepresentwepassonandlookstillmorecloselyatthewatermaterialitself,magnifyingittwothousandtimesagain.
Nowthedropofwaterextendsaboutfifteenmilesacross,andifwelookverycloselyatitweseeakindofteeming,somethingwhichnolongerhasasmooth
appearanceitlookssomethinglikeacrowdatafootballgameasseenfromaverygreatdistance.Inordertoseewhatthisteemingisabout,wewillmagnify
itanothertwohundredandfiftytimesandwewillseesomethingsimilartowhatisshowninFig.11.Thisisapictureofwatermagnifiedabilliontimes,but
idealizedinseveralways.Inthefirstplace,theparticlesaredrawninasimplemannerwithsharpedges,whichisinaccurate.Secondly,forsimplicity,theyare
sketchedalmostschematicallyinatwodimensionalarrangement,butofcoursetheyaremovingaroundinthreedimensions.Noticethattherearetwokinds
ofblobsorcirclestorepresenttheatomsofoxygen(black)andhydrogen(white),andthateachoxygenhastwohydrogenstiedtoit.(Eachlittlegroupofan
oxygenwithitstwohydrogensiscalledamolecule.)Thepictureisidealizedfurtherinthattherealparticlesinnaturearecontinuallyjigglingandbouncing,
turningandtwistingaroundoneanother.Youwillhavetoimaginethisasadynamicratherthanastaticpicture.Anotherthingthatcannotbeillustratedina
drawingisthefactthattheparticlesarestucktogetherthattheyattracteachother,thisonepulledbythatone,etc.Thewholegroupisgluedtogether,so
tospeak.Ontheotherhand,theparticlesdonotsqueezethrougheachother.Ifyoutrytosqueezetwoofthemtooclosetogether,theyrepel.
Anotherwaytoremembertheirsizeisthis:ifanappleismagnifiedtothesizeoftheearth,thentheatomsintheappleareapproximatelythesizeofthe
originalapple.
Nowimaginethisgreatdropofwaterwithallofthesejigglingparticlesstucktogetherandtaggingalongwitheachother.Thewaterkeepsitsvolumeitdoes
notfallapart,becauseoftheattractionofthemoleculesforeachother.Ifthedropisonaslope,whereitcanmovefromoneplacetoanother,thewaterwill
flow,butitdoesnotjustdisappearthingsdonotjustflyapartbecauseofthemolecularattraction.Nowthejigglingmotioniswhatwerepresentasheat:
whenweincreasethetemperature,weincreasethemotion.Ifweheatthewater,thejigglingincreasesandthevolumebetweentheatomsincreases,andifthe
heatingcontinuestherecomesatimewhenthepullbetweenthemoleculesisnotenoughtoholdthemtogetherandtheydoflyapartandbecomeseparated
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fromoneanother.Ofcourse,thisishowwemanufacturesteamoutofwaterbyincreasingthetemperaturetheparticlesflyapartbecauseoftheincreased
motion.
Figure12
InFig.12wehaveapictureofsteam.Thispictureofsteamfailsinonerespect:atordinaryatmosphericpressuretherecertainlywouldnotbeasmanyas
threewatermoleculesinthisfigure.Mostsquaresthissizewouldcontainnonebutweaccidentallyhavetwoandahalforthreeinthepicture(justsoit
wouldnotbecompletelyblank).Nowinthecaseofsteamweseethecharacteristicmoleculesmoreclearlythaninthecaseofwater.Forsimplicity,the
moleculesaredrawnsothatthereisa120 anglebetweenthehydrogenatoms.Inactualfacttheangleis105 3 ,andthedistancebetweenthecenterofa
hydrogenandthecenteroftheoxygenis0.957,soweknowthismoleculeverywell.
Letusseewhatsomeofthepropertiesofsteamvapororanyothergasare.Themolecules,beingseparatedfromoneanother,willbounceagainstthewalls.
Imaginearoomwithanumberoftennisballs(ahundredorso)bouncingaroundinperpetualmotion.Whentheybombardthewall,thispushesthewallaway.
(Ofcoursewewouldhavetopushthewallback.)Thismeansthatthegasexertsajitteryforcewhichourcoarsesenses(notbeingourselvesmagnifieda
billiontimes)feelonlyasanaveragepush.Inordertoconfineagaswemustapplyapressure.Figure13showsastandardvesselforholdinggases(usedin
alltextbooks),acylinderwithapistoninit.Now,itmakesnodifferencewhattheshapesofwatermoleculesare,soforsimplicityweshalldrawthemas
tennisballsorlittledots.Thesethingsareinperpetualmotioninalldirections.Somanyofthemarehittingthetoppistonallthetimethattokeepitfrom
beingpatientlyknockedoutofthetankbythiscontinuousbanging,weshallhavetoholdthepistondownbyacertainforce,whichwecallthepressure
(really,thepressuretimestheareaistheforce).Clearly,theforceisproportionaltothearea,forifweincreasetheareabutkeepthenumberofmoleculesper
cubiccentimeterthesame,weincreasethenumberofcollisionswiththepistoninthesameproportionastheareawasincreased.
Figure13
Nowletusputtwiceasmanymoleculesinthistank,soastodoublethedensity,andletthemhavethesamespeed,i.e.,thesametemperature.Then,toaclose
approximation,thenumberofcollisionswillbedoubled,andsinceeachwillbejustasenergeticasbefore,thepressureisproportionaltothedensity.Ifwe
considerthetruenatureoftheforcesbetweentheatoms,wewouldexpectaslightdecreaseinpressurebecauseoftheattractionbetweentheatoms,anda
slightincreasebecauseofthefinitevolumetheyoccupy.Nevertheless,toanexcellentapproximation,ifthedensityislowenoughthattherearenotmany
atoms,thepressureisproportionaltothedensity.
Wecanalsoseesomethingelse:Ifweincreasethetemperaturewithoutchangingthedensityofthegas,i.e.,ifweincreasethespeedoftheatoms,whatis
goingtohappentothepressure?Well,theatomshitharderbecausetheyaremovingfaster,andinadditiontheyhitmoreoften,sothepressureincreases.You
seehowsimpletheideasofatomictheoryare.
Letusconsideranothersituation.Supposethatthepistonmovesinward,sothattheatomsareslowlycompressedintoasmallerspace.Whathappenswhenan
atomhitsthemovingpiston?Evidentlyitpicksupspeedfromthecollision.Youcantryitbybouncingapingpongballfromaforwardmovingpaddle,for
example,andyouwillfindthatitcomesoffwithmorespeedthanthatwithwhichitstruck.(Specialexample:ifanatomhappenstobestandingstillandthe
pistonhitsit,itwillcertainlymove.)Sotheatomsarehotterwhentheycomeawayfromthepistonthantheywerebeforetheystruckit.Thereforeallthe
atomswhichareinthevesselwillhavepickedupspeed.Thismeansthatwhenwecompressagasslowly,thetemperatureofthegasincreases.So,underslow
compression,agaswillincreaseintemperature,andunderslowexpansionitwilldecreaseintemperature.
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Figure14
Wenowreturntoourdropofwaterandlookinanotherdirection.Supposethatwedecreasethetemperatureofourdropofwater.Supposethatthejigglingof
themoleculesoftheatomsinthewaterissteadilydecreasing.Weknowthatthereareforcesofattractionbetweentheatoms,sothatafterawhiletheywillnot
beabletojigglesowell.WhatwillhappenatverylowtemperaturesisindicatedinFig.14:themoleculeslockintoanewpatternwhichisice.This
particularschematicdiagramoficeiswrongbecauseitisintwodimensions,butitisrightqualitatively.Theinterestingpointisthatthematerialhasadefinite
placeforeveryatom,andyoucaneasilyappreciatethatifsomehoworotherweweretoholdalltheatomsatoneendofthedropinacertainarrangement,
eachatominacertainplace,thenbecauseofthestructureofinterconnections,whichisrigid,theotherendmilesaway(atourmagnifiedscale)willhavea
definitelocation.Soifweholdaneedleoficeatoneend,theotherendresistsourpushingitaside,unlikethecaseofwater,inwhichthestructureisbroken
downbecauseoftheincreasedjigglingsothattheatomsallmovearoundindifferentways.Thedifferencebetweensolidsandliquidsis,then,thatinasolid
theatomsarearrangedinsomekindofanarray,calledacrystallinearray,andtheydonothavearandompositionatlongdistancesthepositionoftheatoms
ononesideofthecrystalisdeterminedbythatofotheratomsmillionsofatomsawayontheothersideofthecrystal.Figure14isaninventedarrangement
forice,andalthoughitcontainsmanyofthecorrectfeaturesofice,itisnotthetruearrangement.Oneofthecorrectfeaturesisthatthereisapartofthe
symmetrythatishexagonal.Youcanseethatifweturnthepicturearoundanaxisby60 ,thepicturereturnstoitself.Sothereisasymmetryintheicewhich
accountsforthesixsidedappearanceofsnowflakes.AnotherthingwecanseefromFig.14iswhyiceshrinkswhenitmelts.Theparticularcrystalpattern
oficeshownherehasmanyholesinit,asdoesthetrueicestructure.Whentheorganizationbreaksdown,theseholescanbeoccupiedbymolecules.Most
simplesubstances,withtheexceptionofwaterandtypemetal,expanduponmelting,becausetheatomsarecloselypackedinthesolidcrystalandupon
meltingneedmoreroomtojigglearound,butanopenstructurecollapses,asinthecaseofwater.
Nowalthoughicehasarigidcrystallineform,itstemperaturecanchangeicehasheat.Ifwewish,wecanchangetheamountofheat.Whatistheheatin
thecaseofice?Theatomsarenotstandingstill.Theyarejigglingandvibrating.Soeventhoughthereisadefiniteordertothecrystaladefinitestructure
alloftheatomsarevibratinginplace.Asweincreasethetemperature,theyvibratewithgreaterandgreateramplitude,untiltheyshakethemselvesoutof
place.Wecallthismelting.Aswedecreasethetemperature,thevibrationdecreasesanddecreasesuntil,atabsolutezero,thereisaminimumamountof
vibrationthattheatomscanhave,butnotzero.Thisminimumamountofmotionthatatomscanhaveisnotenoughtomeltasubstance,withoneexception:
helium.Heliummerelydecreasestheatomicmotionsasmuchasitcan,butevenatabsolutezerothereisstillenoughmotiontokeepitfromfreezing.Helium,
evenatabsolutezero,doesnotfreeze,unlessthepressureismadesogreatastomaketheatomssquashtogether.Ifweincreasethepressure,wecanmakeit
solidify.
13Atomicprocesses
Figure15
Somuchforthedescriptionofsolids,liquids,andgasesfromtheatomicpointofview.However,theatomichypothesisalsodescribesprocesses,andsowe
shallnowlookatanumberofprocessesfromanatomicstandpoint.Thefirstprocessthatweshalllookatisassociatedwiththesurfaceofthewater.What
happensatthesurfaceofthewater?Weshallnowmakethepicturemorecomplicatedandmorerealisticbyimaginingthatthesurfaceisinair.Figure15
showsthesurfaceofwaterinair.Weseethewatermoleculesasbefore,formingabodyofliquidwater,butnowwealsoseethesurfaceofthewater.Above
thesurfacewefindanumberofthings:Firstofalltherearewatermolecules,asinsteam.Thisiswatervapor,whichisalwaysfoundaboveliquidwater.
(Thereisanequilibriumbetweenthesteamvaporandthewaterwhichwillbedescribedlater.)Inadditionwefindsomeothermoleculesheretwooxygen
atomsstucktogetherbythemselves,forminganoxygenmolecule,theretwonitrogenatomsalsostucktogethertomakeanitrogenmolecule.Airconsists
almostentirelyofnitrogen,oxygen,somewatervapor,andlesseramountsofcarbondioxide,argon,andotherthings.Soabovethewatersurfaceistheair,a
gas,containingsomewatervapor.Nowwhatishappeninginthispicture?Themoleculesinthewaterarealwaysjigglingaround.Fromtimetotime,oneon
thesurfacehappenstobehitalittleharderthanusual,andgetsknockedaway.Itishardtoseethathappeninginthepicturebecauseitisastillpicture.Butwe
canimaginethatonemoleculenearthesurfacehasjustbeenhitandisflyingout,orperhapsanotheronehasbeenhitandisflyingout.Thus,moleculeby
molecule,thewaterdisappearsitevaporates.Butifweclosethevesselabove,afterawhileweshallfindalargenumberofmoleculesofwateramongstthe
airmolecules.Fromtimetotime,oneofthesevapormoleculescomesflyingdowntothewaterandgetsstuckagain.Soweseethatwhatlookslikeadead,
uninterestingthingaglassofwaterwithacover,thathasbeensittingthereforperhapstwentyyearsreallycontainsadynamicandinteresting
phenomenonwhichisgoingonallthetime.Tooureyes,ourcrudeeyes,nothingischanging,butifwecouldseeitabilliontimesmagnified,wewouldsee
thatfromitsownpointofviewitisalwayschanging:moleculesareleavingthesurface,moleculesarecomingback.
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Whydoweseenochange?Becausejustasmanymoleculesareleavingasarecomingback!Inthelongrunnothinghappens.Ifwethentakethetopofthe
vesseloffandblowthemoistairaway,replacingitwithdryair,thenthenumberofmoleculesleavingisjustthesameasitwasbefore,becausethisdepends
onthejigglingofthewater,butthenumbercomingbackisgreatlyreducedbecausetherearesomanyfewerwatermoleculesabovethewater.Thereforethere
aremoregoingoutthancomingin,andthewaterevaporates.Hence,ifyouwishtoevaporatewaterturnonthefan!
Hereissomethingelse:Whichmoleculesleave?Whenamoleculeleavesitisduetoanaccidental,extraaccumulationofalittlebitmorethanordinary
energy,whichitneedsifitistobreakawayfromtheattractionsofitsneighbors.Therefore,sincethosethatleavehavemoreenergythantheaverage,theones
thatarelefthavelessaveragemotionthantheyhadbefore.Sotheliquidgraduallycoolsifitevaporates.Ofcourse,whenamoleculeofvaporcomesfromthe
airtothewaterbelowthereisasuddengreatattractionasthemoleculeapproachesthesurface.Thisspeedsuptheincomingmoleculeandresultsin
generationofheat.Sowhentheyleavetheytakeawayheatwhentheycomebacktheygenerateheat.Ofcoursewhenthereisnonetevaporationtheresultis
nothingthewaterisnotchangingtemperature.Ifweblowonthewatersoastomaintainacontinuouspreponderanceinthenumberevaporating,thenthe
wateriscooled.Hence,blowonsouptocoolit!
Ofcourseyoushouldrealizethattheprocessesjustdescribedaremorecomplicatedthanwehaveindicated.Notonlydoesthewatergointotheair,butalso,
fromtimetotime,oneoftheoxygenornitrogenmoleculeswillcomeinandgetlostinthemassofwatermolecules,andworkitswayintothewater.Thus
theairdissolvesinthewateroxygenandnitrogenmoleculeswillworktheirwayintothewaterandthewaterwillcontainair.Ifwesuddenlytaketheair
awayfromthevessel,thentheairmoleculeswillleavemorerapidlythantheycomein,andindoingsowillmakebubbles.Thisisverybadfordivers,asyou
mayknow.
Figure16
Figure17
Nowwegoontoanotherprocess.InFig.16wesee,fromanatomicpointofview,asoliddissolvinginwater.Ifweputacrystalofsaltinthewater,what
willhappen?Saltisasolid,acrystal,anorganizedarrangementofsaltatoms.Figure17isanillustrationofthethreedimensionalstructureofcommon
salt,sodiumchloride.Strictlyspeaking,thecrystalisnotmadeofatoms,butofwhatwecallions.Anionisanatomwhicheitherhasafewextraelectronsor
haslostafewelectrons.Inasaltcrystalwefindchlorineions(chlorineatomswithanextraelectron)andsodiumions(sodiumatomswithoneelectron
missing).Theionsallsticktogetherbyelectricalattractioninthesolidsalt,butwhenweputtheminthewaterwefind,becauseoftheattractionsofthe
negativeoxygenandpositivehydrogenfortheions,thatsomeoftheionsjiggleloose.InFig.16weseeachlorineiongettingloose,andotheratomsfloating
inthewaterintheformofions.Thispicturewasmadewithsomecare.Notice,forexample,thatthehydrogenendsofthewatermoleculesaremorelikelyto
benearthechlorineion,whilenearthesodiumionwearemorelikelytofindtheoxygenend,becausethesodiumispositiveandtheoxygenendofthewater
isnegative,andtheyattractelectrically.Canwetellfromthispicturewhetherthesaltisdissolvinginwaterorcrystallizingoutofwater?Ofcoursewecannot
tell,becausewhilesomeoftheatomsareleavingthecrystalotheratomsarerejoiningit.Theprocessisadynamicone,justasinthecaseofevaporation,and
itdependsonwhetherthereismoreorlesssaltinthewaterthantheamountneededforequilibrium.Byequilibriumwemeanthatsituationinwhichtherate
atwhichatomsareleavingjustmatchestherateatwhichtheyarecomingback.Ifthereisalmostnosaltinthewater,moreatomsleavethanreturn,andthe
saltdissolves.If,ontheotherhand,therearetoomanysaltatoms,morereturnthanleave,andthesaltiscrystallizing.
Inpassing,wementionthattheconceptofamoleculeofasubstanceisonlyapproximateandexistsonlyforacertainclassofsubstances.Itisclearinthecase
ofwaterthatthethreeatomsareactuallystucktogether.Itisnotsoclearinthecaseofsodiumchlorideinthesolid.Thereisjustanarrangementofsodium
andchlorineionsinacubicpattern.Thereisnonaturalwaytogroupthemasmoleculesofsalt.
Returningtoourdiscussionofsolutionandprecipitation,ifweincreasethetemperatureofthesaltsolution,thentherateatwhichatomsaretakenawayis
increased,andsoistherateatwhichatomsarebroughtback.Itturnsouttobeverydifficult,ingeneral,topredictwhichwayitisgoingtogo,whethermore
orlessofthesolidwilldissolve.Mostsubstancesdissolvemore,butsomesubstancesdissolveless,asthetemperatureincreases.
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14Chemicalreactions
Inalloftheprocesseswhichhavebeendescribedsofar,theatomsandtheionshavenotchangedpartners,butofcoursetherearecircumstancesinwhichthe
atomsdochangecombinations,formingnewmolecules.ThisisillustratedinFig.18.Aprocessinwhichtherearrangementoftheatomicpartnersoccursis
whatwecallachemicalreaction.Theotherprocessessofardescribedarecalledphysicalprocesses,butthereisnosharpdistinctionbetweenthetwo.(Nature
doesnotcarewhatwecallit,shejustkeepsondoingit.)Thisfigureissupposedtorepresentcarbonburninginoxygen.Inthecaseofoxygen,twooxygen
atomssticktogetherverystrongly.(Whydonotthreeorevenfoursticktogether?Thatisoneoftheverypeculiarcharacteristicsofsuchatomicprocesses.
Atomsareveryspecial:theylikecertainparticularpartners,certainparticulardirections,andsoon.Itisthejobofphysicstoanalyzewhyeachonewants
whatitwants.Atanyrate,twooxygenatomsform,saturatedandhappy,amolecule.)
Figure18
Thecarbonatomsaresupposedtobeinasolidcrystal(whichcouldbegraphiteordiamond1).Now,forexample,oneoftheoxygenmoleculescancomeover
tothecarbon,andeachatomcanpickupacarbonatomandgoflyingoffinanewcombinationcarbonoxygenwhichisamoleculeofthegascalled
carbonmonoxide.ItisgiventhechemicalnameCO.Itisverysimple:thelettersCOarepracticallyapictureofthatmolecule.Butcarbonattractsoxygen
muchmorethanoxygenattractsoxygenorcarbonattractscarbon.Thereforeinthisprocesstheoxygenmayarrivewithonlyalittleenergy,buttheoxygen
andcarbonwillsnaptogetherwithatremendousvengeanceandcommotion,andeverythingnearthemwillpickuptheenergy.Alargeamountofmotion
energy,kineticenergy,isthusgenerated.Thisofcourseisburningwearegettingheatfromthecombinationofoxygenandcarbon.Theheatisordinarilyin
theformofthemolecularmotionofthehotgas,butincertaincircumstancesitcanbesoenormousthatitgenerateslight.Thatishowonegetsflames.
Inaddition,thecarbonmonoxideisnotquitesatisfied.Itispossibleforittoattachanotheroxygen,sothatwemighthaveamuchmorecomplicatedreaction
inwhichtheoxygeniscombiningwiththecarbon,whileatthesametimetherehappenstobeacollisionwithacarbonmonoxidemolecule.Oneoxygenatom
couldattachitselftotheCOandultimatelyformamolecule,composedofonecarbonandtwooxygens,whichisdesignatedCO andcalledcarbondioxide.
2
Ifweburnthecarbonwithverylittleoxygeninaveryrapidreaction(forexample,inanautomobileengine,wheretheexplosionissofastthatthereisnot
timeforittomakecarbondioxide)aconsiderableamountofcarbonmonoxideisformed.Inmanysuchrearrangements,averylargeamountofenergyis
released,formingexplosions,flames,etc.,dependingonthereactions.Chemistshavestudiedthesearrangementsoftheatoms,andfoundthateverysubstance
issometypeofarrangementofatoms.
Toillustratethisidea,letusconsideranotherexample.Ifwegointoafieldofsmallviolets,weknowwhatthatsmellis.Itissomekindofmolecule,or
arrangementofatoms,thathasworkeditswayintoournoses.Firstofall,howdiditworkitswayin?Thatisrathereasy.Ifthesmellissomekindofmolecule
intheair,jigglingaroundandbeingknockedeverywhichway,itmighthaveaccidentallyworkeditswayintothenose.Certainlyithasnoparticulardesireto
getintoournose.Itismerelyonehelplesspartofajostlingcrowdofmolecules,andinitsaimlesswanderingsthisparticularchunkofmatterhappenstofind
itselfinthenose.
Figure19
Nowchemistscantakespecialmoleculesliketheodorofviolets,andanalyzethemandtellustheexactarrangementoftheatomsinspace.Weknowthatthe
carbondioxidemoleculeisstraightandsymmetrical:OCO.(Thatcanbedeterminedeasily,too,byphysicalmethods.)However,evenforthevastly
morecomplicatedarrangementsofatomsthatthereareinchemistry,onecan,byalong,remarkableprocessofdetectivework,findthearrangementsofthe
atoms.Figure19isapictureoftheairintheneighborhoodofavioletagainwefindnitrogenandoxygenintheair,andwatervapor.(Whyistherewater
vapor?Becausethevioletiswet.Allplantstranspire.)However,wealsoseeamonstercomposedofcarbonatoms,hydrogenatoms,andoxygenatoms,
whichhavepickedacertainparticularpatterninwhichtobearranged.Itisamuchmorecomplicatedarrangementthanthatofcarbondioxideinfact,itisan
enormouslycomplicatedarrangement.Unfortunately,wecannotpictureallthatisreallyknownaboutitchemically,becausetheprecisearrangementofallthe
atomsisactuallyknowninthreedimensions,whileourpictureisinonlytwodimensions.Thesixcarbonswhichformaringdonotformaflatring,buta
kindofpuckeredring.Alloftheanglesanddistancesareknown.Soachemicalformulaismerelyapictureofsuchamolecule.Whenthechemistwrites
suchathingontheblackboard,heistryingtodraw,roughlyspeaking,intwodimensions.Forexample,weseearingofsixcarbons,andachainof
carbonshangingontheend,withanoxygensecondfromtheend,threehydrogenstiedtothatcarbon,twocarbonsandthreehydrogensstickinguphere,etc.
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3/23/2017 TheFeynmanLecturesonPhysicsVol.ICh.1:AtomsinMotion
Fig.110.Thesubstancepicturedisirone.
Howdoesthechemistfindwhatthearrangementis?Hemixesbottlesfullofstufftogether,andifitturnsred,ittellshimthatitconsistsofonehydrogenand
twocarbonstiedonhereifitturnsblue,ontheotherhand,thatisnotthewayitisatall.Thisisoneofthemostfantasticpiecesofdetectiveworkthathas
everbeendoneorganicchemistry.Todiscoverthearrangementoftheatomsintheseenormouslycomplicatedarraysthechemistlooksatwhathappens
whenhemixestwodifferentsubstancestogether.Thephysicistcouldneverquitebelievethatthechemistknewwhathewastalkingaboutwhenhedescribed
thearrangementoftheatoms.Forabouttwentyyearsithasbeenpossible,insomecases,tolookatsuchmolecules(notquiteascomplicatedasthisone,but
somewhichcontainpartsofit)byaphysicalmethod,andithasbeenpossibletolocateeveryatom,notbylookingatcolors,butbymeasuringwheretheyare.
Andloandbehold!,thechemistsarealmostalwayscorrect.
Itturnsout,infact,thatintheodorofvioletstherearethreeslightlydifferentmolecules,whichdifferonlyinthearrangementofthehydrogenatoms.
Oneproblemofchemistryistonameasubstance,sothatwewillknowwhatitis.Findanameforthisshape!Notonlymustthenametelltheshape,butit
mustalsotellthathereisanoxygenatom,thereahydrogenexactlywhatandwhereeachatomis.Sowecanappreciatethatthechemicalnamesmustbe
complexinordertobecomplete.Youseethatthenameofthisthinginthemorecompleteformthatwilltellyouthestructureofitis4(2,2,3,6tetramethyl
5cyclohexenyl)3buten2one,andthattellsyouthatthisisthearrangement.Wecanappreciatethedifficultiesthatthechemistshave,andalsoappreciate
thereasonforsuchlongnames.Itisnotthattheywishtobeobscure,buttheyhaveanextremelydifficultproblemintryingtodescribethemoleculesin
words!
Howdoweknowthatthereareatoms?Byoneofthetricksmentionedearlier:wemakethehypothesisthatthereareatoms,andoneaftertheotherresults
comeoutthewaywepredict,astheyoughttoifthingsaremadeofatoms.Thereisalsosomewhatmoredirectevidence,agoodexampleofwhichisthe
following:Theatomsaresosmallthatyoucannotseethemwithalightmicroscopeinfact,notevenwithanelectronmicroscope.(Withalightmicroscope
youcanonlyseethingswhicharemuchbigger.)Nowiftheatomsarealwaysinmotion,sayinwater,andweputabigballofsomethinginthewater,aball
muchbiggerthantheatoms,theballwilljigglearoundmuchasinapushballgame,whereagreatbigballispushedaroundbyalotofpeople.Thepeople
arepushinginvariousdirections,andtheballmovesaroundthefieldinanirregularfashion.So,inthesameway,thelargeballwillmovebecauseofthe
inequalitiesofthecollisionsononesidetotheother,fromonemomenttothenext.Therefore,ifwelookatverytinyparticles(colloids)inwaterthroughan
excellentmicroscope,weseeaperpetualjigglingoftheparticles,whichistheresultofthebombardmentoftheatoms.ThisiscalledtheBrownianmotion.
Wecanseefurtherevidenceforatomsinthestructureofcrystals.Inmanycasesthestructuresdeducedbyxrayanalysisagreeintheirspatialshapeswith
theformsactuallyexhibitedbycrystalsastheyoccurinnature.Theanglesbetweenthevariousfacesofacrystalagree,withinsecondsofarc,withangles
deducedontheassumptionthatacrystalismadeofmanylayersofatoms.
Everythingismadeofatoms.Thatisthekeyhypothesis.Themostimportanthypothesisinallofbiology,forexample,isthateverythingthattranlsdo,atoms
do.Inotherwords,thereisnothingthatlivingthingsdothatcannotbeunderstoodfromthepointofviewthattheyaremadeofatomsactingaccordingtothe
lawsofphysics.Thiswasnotknownfromthebeginning:ittooksomeexperimentingandtheorizingtosuggestthishypothesis,butnowitisaccepted,anditis
themostusefultheoryforproducingnewideasinthefieldofbiology.
Ifapieceofsteelorapieceofsalt,consistingofatomsonenexttotheother,canhavesuchinterestingpropertiesifwaterwhichisnothingbuttheselittle
blobs,mileuponmileofthesamethingovertheearthcanformwavesandfoam,andmakerushingnoisesandstrangepatternsasitrunsovercementifall
ofthis,allthelifeofastreamofwater,canbenothingbutapileofatoms,howmuchmoreispossible?Ifinsteadofarrangingtheatomsinsomedefinite
pattern,againandagainrepeated,onandon,orevenforminglittlelumpsofcomplexityliketheodorofviolets,wemakeanarrangementwhichisalways
differentfromplacetoplace,withdifferentkindsofatomsarrangedinmanyways,continuallychanging,notrepeating,howmuchmoremarvelouslyisit
possiblethatthisthingmightbehave?Isitpossiblethatthatthingwalkingbackandforthinfrontofyou,talkingtoyou,isagreatgloboftheseatomsina
verycomplexarrangement,suchthatthesheercomplexityofitstaggerstheimaginationastowhatitcando?Whenwesayweareapileofatoms,wedonot
meanwearemerelyapileofatoms,becauseapileofatomswhichisnotrepeatedfromonetotheothermightwellhavethepossibilitieswhichyouseebefore
youinthemirror.
1.Onecanburnadiamondinair.
Copyright1963,2006,2013bytheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,
MichaelA.Gottlieb,andRudolfPfeiffer
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