Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acid

Organic molecules are the chemicals of life, compounds composed of more than one type of
element, that are found in, and produced by, living organisms.

The feature that distinguishes an organic from inorganic molecule is that organic molecules
contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, whereas inorganic molecules do not. The four major classes of
organic molecules include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates
The term carbohydrate is actually a descriptor of what these molecules are composed of; carbon
hydrates, in a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water molecule (CH2O)n. The word
saccharide is a handy synonym for carbohydrate, because it can be preceded with a prefix
indicating the size of the molecule (mono-, di-, poly-):

Monosaccharides: The simplest, single sugars. Examples: Glucose and fructose are
monosaccharides.

Disaccharides: Double sugars that are a combination of two monosaccharides. Example: Sucrose
(table sugar) is made of glucose and fructose together.

Polysaccharides: These are polymers composed of several sugars. They can be one type of
monomer (many of same monosaccharide) or mixture of monomers. Example: Starch is a
polysaccharide composed of many glucose molecules.

Proteins
Also known as polypeptides, these large organic molecules have many roles within living cells.
They are part of cell membranes, act as enzymes in cellular reactions, and are vital molecules of
our immune system, protecting us from invading microbes.
Proteins are composed of monomers called amino acids joined together with peptide bonds.

These peptide chemical bonds link amino acids together into chains, like the beads on a long
necklace. A dipeptide has two amino acids linked together, a polypeptide, more than two.

Although there are hundreds of different amino acids, most organisms use only 21 to build
proteins.

Nucleic Acids
Your genetic material is made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the molecule which contains the
code for making an operating your cells and your entire body. Nucleic acids are polymers made
up of nucleotide monomers. Each monomer of nucleic acid is a nucleotide, and consists of 3
portions:
a pentose sugar
one or more phosphate groups
one of five cyclic nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine & uracil)

Nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds between the phosphate of one

nucleotide and the sugar of next, forming a phosphate-sugar backbone.
Nitrogenous bases extend from the backbone like teeth of a comb.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single stranded molecule involved in the
production of cellular proteins.

In contrast, DNA molecules are

double stranded, with hydrogen
bonds attracting the complimentary
bases that hold the two phosphate-sugar strands together.
The hydrogen bonds also twist the phosphate-deoxyribose
backbones into a double helix.
Lipids
Lipids are molecules that are generally hydrophobic (not attracted to water) because the non-
polar covalent bonds linking their carbons and hydrogens aren't attracted to the polar bonds of
water. The four major groups of lipids include fats, phospholipids, waxes and steroids.

1. Fats: These lipids are the fats and oils that we are familiar with as part of our diet. They are
made from a combination of two kinds of molecules:

- glycerol
(a type of alcohol)
- three fatty acids
(making the molecule a
triglyceride)

2. Phospholipids: These lipids have

hydrophobic (water hating) hydrocarbon
tails at one end, and a hydrophilic (water
loving) phosphate group at the other end.

This means that they are soluble in both

water and oil. Our cell membranes are
made mostly of phospholipids arranged in
a double layer, with the tails from both layers
facing inward and the heads facing outward; an arrangement known as a lipid bilayer.

3. Waxes: Wax lipids are esters of alcohol, insoluble in water and difficult to break down. Wax
forms protective and waterproof layers on some plants, bacteria, animal
fur and integuments of insects.

4. Steroids: Cholesterol is one example of a steroid. The central

core of a cholesterol molecule consists of four fused rings,
a chemical arrangement that is shared by all steroids.
Cholesterol is precursor to our sex hormones and
Vitamin D. Our cell membranes also contain cholesterol, which helps to keep
the membrane flexible and fluid even when our cells are
exposed to cooler temperatures.
Toluene, also known as methylbenzene, is an organic chemical compound. It is categorized as
such because of the presence of carbon (C) atoms in its chemical formula, C7H8. You may notice
that the chemical formula of toluene (C7H8), has seven carbon (C) atoms and eight hydrogen (H)
atoms. This is significant because it means that it is classified as a hydrocarbon, a compound that
only contains carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms.

Additionally, toluene is considered an aromatic compound because a benzene ring is present in

its chemical structure. A benzene ring is present when there are six carbon (C) atoms that connect
to one another with alternating double bonds, creating a hexagonal 'ring'. In the case of toluene,
the carbon atoms are at each edge of the hexagon.

Because toluene is both an aromatic compound and a hydrocarbon, these name qualifiers may be
combined, making the compound an aromatic hydrocarbon. The chemical structure also shows
that there is a methyl group, which is -CH3 attached to the benzene ring, the reason why it is also
called methylbenzene.

Structure and Formula

To make it a little clearer, here's the
chemical structure for toluene. The
benzene ring is highlighted by the red
box.
The following illustration shows two
ways of drawing the structure of
toluene; both are possibilities of how
the benzene ring can be illustrated. On
the left, the benzene ring is shown as a
hexagon that has three double bonds,
and on the right, the benzene ring is
shown also as a hexagon, but with a
circle inside.
Common Uses of Toluene
Toluene has many uses in a lot of commercial products and industrial applications. Let's take a
look at the common uses of toluene in various fields.

Toluene is a very good solvent because, unlike water, it can dissolve many organic compounds.
In many commercial products, toluene is used as a solvent that is present in paint thinners, nail
polish remover, glues, and correction fluid.
Where is Toluene found?
Toluene can be released into the air, water, and soil at places where it is produced or used.
Toluene is commonly found in air, particularly when there is heavy vehicular traffic. Monitoring
data of outdoor air in the United States shows that toluene is present at average levels of
approximately 135 parts per billion by volume (ppbv). Indoor air samples can contain higher
levels of toluene in places where products such as paint thinners, solvents, or tobacco products
are used.

Toluene can enter surface waters and groundwater (wells) from solvent and petroleum products
spills. Toluene can also leak from underground storage tanks at gasoline stations and other
facilities. When toluene-containing products are placed in landfills or waste disposal sites,
toluene can enter the soil and water near the waste site. It is possible for toluene to be broken
down in subsurface (below ground) water primarily by anaerobic microorganisms. Toluene will
readily evaporate into the air or be degraded by microorganisms in surface waters. Leaking
underground storage tanks can contaminate the soil with toluene and other petroleum-product
components. Toluene in surface soils rapidly evaporates into the air. Toluene is readily broken
down to other chemicals by microorganisms in the soil.
How Toluene can affect your health?
A serious health concern is that toluene may have an effect on your nervous system (brain and
nerves). Nervous system effects can be temporary, such as headaches, dizziness, or
unconsciousness. However, effects such as incoordination, cognitive impairment, and vision and
hearing loss may become permanent with repeated exposure, especially at concentrations
associated with intentional solvent abuse. High levels of toluene exposure during pregnancy,
such as those associated with solvent abuse, may lead to retardation of mental abilities and
growth in children. Other health effects of potential concern may include immune, kidney, liver,
and reproductive effects.

Single exposures to toluene or repeated exposures over a few weeks can cause headaches and
sleepiness, and can impair your ability to think clearly. Whether or not toluene does this to you
depends on the amount you take in, how long you are exposed, and your genetic susceptibility
and age. One very dangerous activity is to expose yourself to a large amount of toluene in a short
time by deliberately inhaling/sniffing paint or glue. At first, you will feel light-headed. If
exposure continues, you can become dizzy, sleepy, or unconscious, and you might even die.
Toluene causes death by interfering with the way you breathe and the way your heart beats.
When exposure is stopped, the sleepiness and dizziness will go away and you will feel normal
again.