INTRODUCTION

Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on a field at

the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. Each team takes it in turn to bat,
attempting to score runs, while the other team fields. Each turn is known as an innings. The
bowler delivers the ball to the batsman who attempts to hit the ball with his bat far enough
for him to run to the other end of the pitch and score a run. Each batsman continues batting
until he gets out. The batting team continues batting until ten batsmen are out, at which
point the teams switch roles and the fielding team comes in to bat. In professional cricket
the length of a game ranges from 20 overs of six bowling deliveries per side to Test cricket
played over five days. The Laws of Cricket are maintained by the International Cricket
Council (ICC) and the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) with additional Standard Playing
Conditions for Test matches and One Day Internationals. Cricket was first played in
southern England in the 16th century. By the end of the 18th century, it had developed into
the national sport of England. The expansion of the British Empire led to cricket being
played overseas and by the mid-19th century the first international matches were being
held. The ICC, the game's governing body, has 10 full members. The game is most popular
in Australia, England, the Indian subcontinent, the West Indies and Southern Africa.

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2
 HISTORY

Early cricket was at some time or another described as "a club striking
aball (like) the ancient games of club-ball, stool-ball, trap-ball, stob-
ball".Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16 th-century
England. Written evidence exists of a game known as creag being played by
Prince Edward, the son of Edward I (Longshanks), at Newenden, Kent in 1301
and there has been speculation, but no evidence, that this was a form of
cricket.A number of other words have been suggested as sources for the
term"cricket". In the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598, it is called
cricket. Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east
England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of
Burgundy, the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick(-e),
meaning a stick (crook); or the Old English crick or cryce meaning a crutch or
staff. In Old French, the word croquet seems to have meant a kind of club or
stick. In Johnson's Dictionary, he derived cricket from "cryce, Saxon, a stick".
Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel, meaning a long
low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low wicket
with two stumps used in early cricket. According to Heiner Gillmeister, a
European language expert of Bonn University, "cricket" derives from the
Middle Dutch phrase for hockey, met de (krikket)sen (i.e., "with the stick
chase"). Dr. Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport itself is of
Flemish origi

During the 17th century, numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in
the south-east of England. By the end of the 19th century, it had become an
organised activity being played for high stakes and it is believed that the first
professionals
appeared in the years following the Restoration in 1660. A newspaper report

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survives of "a great cricket match" with eleven players a side that was played
for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 and this is the earliest known reference to a
cricket match of such importance. The game underwent major development in
the 18th century and became the national sport of England. Betting played a
major part in that development with rich patrons forming their own "select
XIs". Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and large crowds
flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury. The single wicket form
of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match. Bowling evolved
around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or
skimming it towards the batsman. This caused a revolution in bat design
because, to deal with the bouncing ball, it was necessary to introduce the
modern straight bat in place of the old "hockey stick" shape. The Hambledon
Club was founded in the 1760s and, for the next 20 years until the formation of
MCC and the opening of Lord's Old Ground in 1787, Hambledon was both the
game's greatest club and its focal point. MCC quickly became the sport's
premier club and the custodian of the Laws of Cricket. New Laws introduced in
the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg
before wicket (lbw).

The 19th century saw underarm bowling replaced by first roundarm and
then overarm bowling. Both developments were controversial. Organisation of
the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs, starting with
Sussex CCC in 1839, which ultimately formed the official County
Championship in 1890. Meanwhile, the British Empire had been instrumental
in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had
become well established in India, North America, the Caribbean, South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand. In 1844, the first international cricket match took
place between the United States and Canada (although neither has ever been
ranked as a Test-playing nation). In 1859, a team of England players went on

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the first overseas tour (to North America). The first Australian team to tour
overseas was a team of Aboriginal stockmen who travelled to England in 1868
to play matches against county teams. In 1862, an English team made the first
tour of Australia and in 1876-77, an
England team took part in the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket
Ground against Australia. W.G. Grace started his long career in 1865; his career
is often said to have revolutionised the sport. The rivalry between England and
Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 and this has remained Test cricket's
most famous contest. Test cricket began to expand in
1888-89 when South Africa played England. The last two decades before the
First World War have been called the "Golden Age of cricket".

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 BIOMECHANIAL ANALYSIS OF FAST BOWLING

Biomechanics refers to the study of the mechanics of a living body,

especially of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on the skeletal
structure. It can as well refer to the mechanics of a part or function of a living
body, such as of the heart or of locomotion. The cricket bowling action can be
separated in to certain distinctive phases and events. The complete action and
its technical components has been highlights as the key component by the
National Cricket Association (NCA) in generating bowling velocity. Higher
velocities are produced with a rhythmic and smooth technique. The run-up
approach to the crease is where the action starts, this should be rhythmical and
athletic making using of the bowler's gait to find a optimal speed. The majority
of sports science studies focus on the action of the delivery stride (Figure1).
Upon landing at the crease from the bound the body must absorb high ground
reaction forces (GRFs) while providing a solid base for the torso to rotate
around. After the front foot is planted the torso rotates quickly bringing the
bowling shoulder up and forward, clearing the path of the bowling arm to
rotate. The pelvis also slightly rotates but not at the same magnitude or velocity
as the torso due to the nature of the hip joints and legs holding the pelvis in
place. The MCC laws of cricket limits the action of the bowling arm and the
joint kinematics of that elbow the elbow must not further flex or extend once
the arm has passed the level of the shoulder, 15 degree elbow extension is
allowed. Studies have suggested that in its rigid lever-like format the bowling arm
contributes between 40 and 50% of a bowler's velocity. Acting like a catapult the lever
(arm) rotates around the shoulder joint picking up momentum and speed which imparts
a force onto the ball through the kinetic chain of movement similar to the swing of a
golf club.

To complete the motion is the ball release and follow through phases, and the
last chance to add extra pace to the delivery. As the bowling arm is reaching the

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release point at the top of its trajectory, the bowler pushes away from the crease
adding extra force to the action. This motion pushes the fallowing leg through the
action and into the follow
through stride towards the target. The bowling arm continues on its circular path and
with the rotation of the torso away from that side, it finishes under the non-bowling
shoulder. Attempts to draw the arm's follow through down the other side of the body
result in
excessive stresses and strains in the bowling shoulder.

COACHES ANALYSING SEQUENCE

(1)Approach Speed

Study conducted on sixty bowlers had a athletic run-up, however in a number

of cases the basic gait (running style) would need to be corrected. Approach velocity
is a key component in the production of force. The quicker a bowler runs into the
wicket, the greater the forces exhibited during both back foot and front foot contacts.
The faster the bowler runs into the wicket, the greater their physical conditioning
needs to be to withstand the ground reaction forces (GRFs), in particularly at front
foot contact. This can be between five to ten times the body weight (BW) of the
bowler for each delivery.

Over half the bowlers analysed had an approach velocity that we

would consider too fast for them to deliver the cricket ball.

(2) Long Arms prior to deliver'

For a number of bowlers analysed the following symptom was very common:

what goes up must come down!" The higher the bound, the greater the force
that is exerted on the body during landing. This can lead to a number of
problems. Momentum is lost due to

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(1) The bowling hand and ball starting in front of the body.

(2) The bowling arm begins to rise high

above the bowler's head

(3) The ball and arm are moving

backwards whilst the body moves
forwards.

Figure 1

As a result the torso leans too far backwards and the bowling action
becomes long and slow. At pre delivery-take-off, the ball is still behind the
bowler. This causes the momentum of the bowler to go upwards and not towards
the wicket and target. There is a loss in horizontal speed in the run-up at this
point. Side-on bowlers are more prone to this problem, since they need
sufficient time in the pre-delivery stride to attain their side-on position.

The unnecessary height of the bound coupled with the loss in horizontal
momentum often creates a pre delivery stride that is too long. In some cases bowlers
were covering over 3 meters in distance with their pre-delivery stride. This creates
undue stress on the body during back foot landing. If this is happening to the legs, the
arms must be correspondingly long and slow. An example of this is given (see Figure

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1) As a coach this is an important consideration, as if you modify the leg action you
MUST modify the arm movement. Ideally the arms in this phase should be compact
and held close to the body. They should only begin to open once the back foot has
made contact with the ground.

(3)Back Foot Collapse

a) There are two main reasons for the back foot collapsing prior to the delivery
stride.
The pre delivery stride is too long or too high. If it is exaggerated it may not
only be inefficient and a waste of effort, but will heighten the risk of injury as
the GRFs at back and front foot contact will be increased. Back foot forces are
in the region of 2-3BW, similar to the GRFs which occurs during the run-up
phase. There are different requirements for side-on and front-on bowlers.
The height of the bound during the pre-delivery stride for a front-on
bowler will not be as high as for a side-on bowler, who needs more time
to rotate into position.
b) The angle of run up several bowlers momentum was directed towards
fine leg. At the moment of Back Foot Collapse the bowler then has to
redirect his momentum towards the target. This takes time and effort! The
more time spent on the back foot, the more energy is expended and the more
momentum is lost through the crease. This also creates unnecessary stress
on the hip and knee joint of the back leg. See figure 2 for examples. The
cause and effort result of a collapsing back leg is a long, slow and high
movement of the front leg (See point 5 for details). Ideally, you would
want to get off the back foot as quickly as possible!

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 Figure 2

(4) Blocking and Opening of the front foot

One reason for bowlers blocking off the body with the front foot is the angle of
run up. If this is combined with the collapsing back leg the bowler has a major
problem. With this angled approach the bowler's momentum is still directed
towards fine leg. At the moment of BFC the bowler is unable to redirect his
momentum towards the target and the front leg ends up going across body. This
creates a tremendous amount of additional stress throughout the lower back. As
a result the torso starts to fall away in order to allow the bowling arm to be
redirected towards the target. In some cases a bowler started with their front leg
aiming towards fine leg, however it is then realigned prior to front foot contact
(FFC) more towards the direction of 1St Or 2nd slip. This can lead to an
excessive amount of lateral flexion "falling away of the torso" prior to the
release of the ball. (See point 6 for details)
Figure 3 below gives an indication of the good and poor alignment. The red
arrow represents a straight line from the bowler's middle stump to the target (batmen's
middle stump). The yellow line is a vertical line drawing. The black arrow indicates

the direction of the feet at FFC. This example highlights the problems of blocking off

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the front foot during the delivery phase. It is very inefficient, plus it increases the
amount of force

around the lower back were injuries could occur very quickly. Figure 3a shows the
black arrow pointing towards fine leg, where as in Figure 3b the black arrow is pointing
directly towards off stump.

Figure 3a

Figure 3b

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(5) Long Delivery Stride

There are three major reasons for

the front foot collapsing prior
to the delivery stage.
(a) Back leg collapsing on BFC, the more the back foot collapses the higher the
front leg
tends to become, the higher it gets, the longer the delivery stride will be. The
longer the delivery stride becomes, the harder it is for the bowler to bowl over a
solid, braced front leg. As a general rule of thumb, the back foot should land
close to the popping crease and the front foot landing on the batting crease.
This is achievable by all bowlers!
(b) Approach velocity (see point 1)
(c) Physical fitness and strength. On many occasions fast bowlers had a front
knee angle that "collapses" during the delivery stride. Ideally the bowler
should have a technique that enables him / her to maintain a constant front
knee angle during the release of the cricket ball.

Figure 4

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 Figure 4 is very inefficient, plus the bowler has lost a tremendous amount
of height. All the bowler's momentum is absorbed by the front leg, instead of
bowling up and over a braced front leg. On many occasions the angle of the
front leg reduced even further after the ball was released. Ideally, the front knee
angle should be constant at the point of release.

(6) Excessive Lateral Flexion

The majority of the bowlers analysed, exhibited an excessive lateral

flexion of the torso at release. The main reason for bowlers falling away and
creating unnecessary forces through their lower back was due to the upper
body being out of alignment with the lower body. Incorrect feet positioning or
hip and shoulder alignment can cause this. The way to look for a potential
problem is to draw a line through the shoulders at the moment of release and
measure the angle created with the vertical. A number of bowlers exhibited angles of
10-20 (see figure 5). It is preferable to have an angle much closer to the horizontal:
approximately 45. It is very important to note by how much the shoulder angle
changes from FFC to RELEASE. It is also important to measure the angle of the
pelvis (hip joint at the moment of release) to the shoulder angle. The greater this
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angle than the more stress is place on the lower back, even if the hip-to-shoulder
angle is low. Strength in the lumbar region is vital in order to prevent injuries in this
area. It is also important to note the position of the head in both images; every effort
must be made with bowlers to keep the head more upright throughout the. delivery
phase. In order to try and minimise these forces it is a good practical principal to
try and get the bowler to release the ball directly above their front foot. Figure 5a
shows the ball being released directly over the front foot. Figure 5b however shows
that at the point of release the ball is outside the front foot (see vertical yellow line).
The red line indicates the amount of lateral flexion is occurring in the spine.

Figure 5

Figure 6

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All coaches should be fully familiar with the phrases Side-on, Front-on, Midway and
Mixed Techniques. The hip-to-shoulder separation angle is used for the classification of
MIXED ACTIONS... It is preferable to view bowlers at both BFC and FFC for hip-to-
shoulder separation angles in order to obtain a more detailed analysis of the bowling
action. However it is during FFC that the loading and hence the forces through the body
are at their maximum.

Figure 6 highlights even though the hip-to-shoulder separation angle may be very small,
there can still be a large degree of lateral flexion in the spine. This over time will create
problems around the lumbar region (lower back) along with rib injuries. Physical
conditioning of this area is vital for the fast bowler.

(7) General Alignment

(Pre-Delivery, Back Foot Contact, Front Foot Contact, First Stride in the
Follow Through) Very few bowlers demonstrated good alignment. In an ideal
technique the pre-delivery stride, BFC, FFC and the first stride in the follow
through should be in a straight line, AIMING TOWARDS THE TARGET. This
should maximise the efficiency of the action; the top half and lower halves of
the body will not be fighting each other. It is a simple procedure for all coaches
to check and should do so on a regular basis.

The image sequence below shows an example of a bowler jumping

outwards towards 2nd slip. The red line follows the path of the feet during the
action. The black arrow shows the target line. The two are totally different.
Every effort should be made to get the run-up on a straight line and thus allow
good alignment to happen naturally. The pre-delivery stride, BFC, FFC and the
first stride in the follow through should be in a straight line, AIMING
TOWARDS THE TARGET follow the black arrow!

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 The Run u

Newton's First Law : states that "An object will remain at rest or continue to
move with constant velocity as long as the net force equals zero". Newton's

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First Law can be applied to the start of the bowling run-up where the run-up
commences when the bowler walks or jogs over his marker as the bowler has
to provide the force to change the state of the ball from rest to motion. This is
achieved by the bowler providing a force that is larger than the inertia present
which results in the bowler gradually increasing his running speed on approach
to the wicket. The idea of running speed leads onto Newton's Second Law
which states "The acceleration of an object is proportional to the net force
acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the object". For this
reason, it is important to find out.

What the main objective of the run-up within the bowling sequence is?

The main objective of the run-up is still unclear with a common belief
being the run-up is used to contribute to the overall ball release speed with the
reasoning surrounding this being the faster a body is travelling, the greater the
speed obtained when an object is released due to the already existing
momentum. Through the study of fast bowlers average speed's at the
penultimate stride of delivery, it can be concluded that the run-up speed has
minimal impact on a bowler's ball release speed with the average run up speed
recorded being 20km/h with Jeff Thompson who perhaps is one of the fastest
bowler's to have played the game of cricket recording a average run-up speed
of 13.7km/h during his penultimate stride.

If the run-up speed has minimal impact on the ball release speed then
what factors contribute to the overall ball release speed and what role does the
run-up play in producing appropriate ball release speed?
Newton's Third Law States that "For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction".
The diagram below highlights the forces and ground reaction forces that are
present when the foot contacts the Earth with horizontal and vertical ground reaction

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forces evident. The Ground reaction forces can be manipulated to aide in the
acceleration if the force generated is large enough to overcome the inertia.

Figure 4: Ground reaction forces that are present,

The answer with the assistance of Newton's Third Law can be found by analyzing
the sporting discipline of javelin which indicates that the run-up generates ball speed
by utilizing the ground reaction forces to decelerate the lower body causing the inertia
of the upper body to rapidly accelerate the shoulders, hips and bowling arm resulting
in appropriate ball release speed being applied (See figure 5 below)
Figure 5: The manipulation of the ground reaction forces to decelerate the lower
body and accelerate the upper body within the javelin throw.
The objective of the run-up within the bowling sequence is to provide a force that is
equal or greater to the mass of the object. Newton's Second Law supports the above
statement with bowlers needing to design the length, speed and rhythm of their run up
so that they can control the deceleration of their body during pre-delivery stride which
will optimize the acceleration of the upper body during delivery stride. This will
result in appropriate ball release speed being applied; however careful
consideration has to be taken into account here as the length, speed and rhythm
of run-ups will vary from bowler to bowler with a side-on action will typically
have a slower run-up speed than a bowler with a front-on action so the length,
speed and rhythm of the side-on bowler will display a large difference to a run
up approach of a front-on bowler.

Pre-delivery stride

The pre-delivery stride which separates the run-up from the delivery
stride starts for a right-handed bowler with a leap off of the left foot and is
completed as the bowler lands on their right foot (back foot) (MCC, 2010).
During the leap, there is an initial trunk rotation and extension away from the
intended direction of the ball causing an impulse-momentum relationship
which results in a braking effect being applied to the trunk .
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The question that you are asking now is why do we apply a braking force?

The answer to this question lies within Newton's Third Law, which states that
"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction". This can be
applied to the trunk rotation and extension during pre-delivery stride as the
braking force away from the intended direction of ball travel enables the trunk
to act like a spring with the increasing pressure placed on the muscles and
tendons within the trunk area causing a propulsive force once the potential
energy is released .

Coaching Implication

A coaching implication that must be considered during this phase is the

difference between the front-on and side-on bowling actions with coaches
needing to understand that side-on bowlers will point their shoulder down the
wicket with the right foot passing in front of the left before landing parallel to
the bowling crease. The front-on bowler is not required to make this
adjustment during the pre-delivery stride as the bowler is already facing
straight down the wicket resulting in the front-on bowler's right foot landing on
or behind the popping crease.

Delivery stride

The delivery stride within the bowling sequence can be broken down
into three key phases with the back foot strike initiating the start of the delivery
stride, followed by the front-strike which sees the summation of forces shifted
predominantly into an acceleration phase leading into final phase of the
delivery stride, ball release.

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 At the start of the delivery stride, the bowler's weight is distributed on
the previously planted back foot with the momentum of the body leaning away
from the batsmen. This leaning back of the trunk is similar to that observed in
some styles of javelin throwing and serves as the purpose of increasing the
acceleration path of the cricket ball.

How can we manipulate the lower body to utilise the large amounts of ground
reaction forces that are present during front foot strike?

The answer to this question can be found by examining how a javelin

thrower obtains the required force to throw a javelin. The delivery stride within the
javelin throw utilizes the ground reaction forces by creating a stable base of support
within the front foot allowing for a braking force to be applied to the lower body,
which in turn accelerates the upper body To aide in the absorption and utilisation of
the ground reaction forces, the front knee provides an important pivot point which
allows for the upper body to be catapulted towards the intended direction of ball
release .The manipulation of the ground reaction forces to decelerate the lower body
and accelerate the upper body within the javelin throw.To aide in the absorption and
utilisation of the ground reaction forces, the front knee provides an important pivot
point which allows for the upper body to be catapulted towards the intended direction
of ball release (refer to figure 7).

Figure 7: The manipulation of the ground reaction forces to be deceralate the lower
body and accelerate the upper body within the javelin throw.

After analyzing the information above, we are able to gauge a basic

understanding of the role that the front knee plays in the absorption and
utilization of forces.

This leads to the next question of what is the optimal knee angle during the
delivery stride and why is this angle beneficial to the bowler?

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 The optimal front knee technique sees the bowler's front knee slightly flex
(10) during the initial front foot contact phase before extending 10 to a near straight
leg position. This technique helps reduce the peak impact forces that are observed
when front foot contact is made, which in turn reduces the stress placed on the lower
back during the delivery stride. The extension following the flexion phase at front
foot contact allows for

The optimal front knee technique sees the bowler's front knee slightly flex
(10) during the initial front foot contact phase before extending 10 to a near straight
leg position. This technique helps reduce the peak impact forces that are observed
when front foot contact is made, which in turn reduces the stress placed on the lower
back during the delivery stride. The extension following the flexion phase at front
foot contact allows for the lower limbs to generate a large amount of muscular
force allowing for a more upright trunk position, which in turn allows for extra
swing and bounce to be achieved due to an increase in the height of ball
release. It is evident through examining the Information above that a ground
reaction force can be used to rapidly decelerate and accelerate certain parts of
the body by applying braking and propulsive forces. The following section will
analyse how the braking and propulsive forces contribute to the production of
an efficient and effective bowling action.

A key factor that contributes to the production of an efficient and effective

bowling action is the role of the trunk within the bowling action. It has already
been stated above that at the end of the pre-delivery stride, the trunk extends
and rotates away from the intended direction of ball travel. Once the bowler
enters the delivery stride, a springlike effect occurs where the previously
stored potential energy from the pre-delivery stride is released now as kinetic
energy resulting in the trunk beginning to rotate and flex forwards pulling the
bowling arm with it. As the trunk nears the end of its range of motion,

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Newton's Third Law comes into effect as there is a braking force applied to
the trunk region which creates an equal and opposite force resulting in the
acceleration of the bowling arm. It must be noted that the degree of trunk
flexion will be dependent on the type of action the bowler uses. A side-on
bowler will display larger degrees of trunk flexion than a front-on bowler due
to the fact that the side-on bowler has to generate the majority of their ball
release speed during the trunk flexion and braking stage. This is different to the
front-on bowler who is able to utilise the run-up more effectively meaning less
force has to be applied for the same results during the trunk flexion and braking stage.
From the information provided above, it is evident that the flexion of the trunk and
resulting braking force that is applied to the trunk not only contributes to a greater ball
release speed, but allows for the generation of rhythm and fluidity within the bowling
action. The information above has allowed us to understand the role the trunk plays
in the generation of an effective and efficient bowling action. This leads to the
next section which will explore the effect that the bowling and non-bowling arm
have on the generation of an effective and efficient bowling action.

Ball Release
Elliott and Foster (1989) stated that the non-bowling arm should be almost
vertical and placed such that the bowler can look over the outside of the arm at the
batsman before front foot strike for a side-on technique and inside the front arm for
a front-on technique. Ferdinands (2005) disagrees with Elliot and Foster's (1989) idea
that the non-bowling arm should be vertical as Ferdinand's believes that the non-
bowling arm should start in position A (see figure 8 below) and be pulled in towards
the trunk so that the anti-clockwise torques that are present are placed on the non-
bowling arm.

This will allow for the centre of gravity of the bowler to be shifted forward allowing
for the hips to more easily rotate the trunk during the delivery stride (Refer to figure 8).
This will result in greater ball release speed and fluency of the bowling action due to
the increased forward momentum that has been utilised. It is important that the pulling
22
in action of the non-bowling arm is stopped as soon as the braking motion of the trunk
is initiated with the non-bowling arm being trusted down to the left-hand side in
conjunction with the landing of the front leg. This allows for the flexion and rotation
of the trunk and bowling arm to occur resulting in a fluent and effective action
being achieved.
This leads to the next question of are there any laws in place that may restrict
how the bowler delivers the ball from the hand?

Figure 8: Change of the centre of Gravity in delivery stride of cricket bowling action.

The MCC (2010) states that a ball is deemed to be classed as an illegal delivery (No
ball) if the ball is deemed to have being thrown during the delivery phase. The MCC
also states that "the ball is deemed to be thrown if bowling arm is straightened during
any portion of the delivery swing which directly precedes the ball leaving the bowler's
hand". This law however allows for the movement of flexion and extension of the
wrist and fingers during the bowling action. This leads to the question of how
can the bowler manipulate the bowling arm to achieve appropriate ball release
speed and swing?
The above question can be easily answered through looking at the role that the
kinetic chain and the angle of release plays in aiding the production of the
optimal bowling action. The kinetic chain can be defined as the complex co-
ordination of individual movements about several joints at the same time with
kinetic chain movements being able to be classified as either a push-like movement or
a throw-like movement. For the analysis of the bowling action, we will look at the
throw-like movement pattern which involves the movement of the joints sequentially
or one after the other. The delivery stride within the bowling action is a good example
of a throw-like pattern with the most proximal segment within the action (the trunk)
being accelerated initially before a braking a force is applied to the trunk region. This
braking force and Newton's Third Law allows for the transfer of energy sequentially
from the most proximal point to the most distal point. Figure 9 (below) displays the
kinetic chain sequence that occurs within the delivery stride of the bowling action.
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Figure 9: Kinetic Chain model during the delivery stride

Coaching Implication

An implication for coaches within the delivery stride and ball release section
is for an effective and efficient bowling action to be achieved, the bowler must
develop a bowling action which allows for the effective summation of sequential
forces to be transferred from the proximal to distal areas with a minimal amount of
effort. It is also important to take into account the role that the angle of release plays
in the production of an efficient bowling action with the first area of examination
being the optimal bowling arm angle in relation to the trunk with Davis and Blanks
by (1976) finding that the ball should be released at an angle of 158 relative to the
trunk. Davis and Blanks by (1976) believe this is the optimal angle of release as
releasing the ball at an angle less than 158 would result in greater height, swing and
ball release speed being achieved due to the decrease in horizontal velocity that is able
to be attained. Releasing the ball at an angle that is greater than 158 would result in
the effective summation of segmental velocities not occurring due to the effective
swing of the arm being negated.

It is evident from the information provided above that the angle of

release plays an important role in determining the height and length of the ball
as well as aiding in the Production of ball speed. The data provided indicates that
bowlers should aim for a front arm to trunk angle of 158, as this will allow for the
largest amount of height, swing and ball release speed to be gained given that all other
ball factors are kept constant. The coach can monitor the angle of release and give the
bowler relevant feedback in regards to the angle that is being achieved and how it
could be increased or decreased to allow for the generation of a more effective and
efficient bowling action to be produced. When observing bowlers like James
Anderson and Nathan Bracken, it is evident that these bowlers are able to deceive
the batsmen by swinging the ball into and away from the batsmen at will which results
in either poor shot selection or the poor execution of a shot by the batsmen.

24
 WHAT IS OUT-SWING?
Out-swing can be defined as the movement of the ball through the
air away from a right handed batsmen. Outs wing can be generated
by one of two ways:

1. The bowler holds the seam straight up and down with the
rough side of the ball pointing towards the offside.
2. The seam of the ball is held at a slight angle (20 ) facing
towards the fielding position of first or second slip.

What is In-swing?

In-Swing can be defined as the movement of the ball through the air
towards a right-handed batsman. In-Swing can be generated by one of
two ways:
1. The bowler holds the seam straight up and down with the shiny side of
the ball pointing towards the leg side.
2. The seam of the ball is held at a slight angle (20 ) facing towards the
fielding position of fine leg.
By the Bowler knowing how the Magnus force works and
what side of the ball is the laminar (Smooth) and Turbulent (Rough) side, the
bowler is able to understand how to generate out-swing or in-swing. This is in
turn allows for the bowler to deceive the batsmen with a larger variety of
deliveries creating uncertainty and doubt within the batsmen's mind. This leads
to the question of how can a bowler manipulate his body and the cricket ball to
achieve the optimal amount of swing?
For a bowler to achieve the optimal amount of swing, he has
to ensure that a turbulent and laminar effect is created. The bowler and his
fielders can ensure this is done shining only one side of the ball and allowing
for the other side to become rough. The optimal ball release speed suggested
by Mehta (2005) to obtain the maximum effect of swing is said to 107.83km,
25
with Mehta also suggesting a seam angle of 20 to obtain the maximum side
force. To achieve optimal levels of swing, Davis and Blanksby (1976)
suggested extending the hand at the wrist as far as possible and then rapidly
flexing the fingers and hand just before the release of the ball allows with optimal
angle of wrist flexion varying between 17 and 24 . Mehta (2005) supports Davis
and Blanks by (1976) statement with the wrist and fingers responsible for imparting
backspin on the ball upon release in order to conserve the angular momentum and
increase the stability of the seam, which in turn allows for more swing to be generated
and the possibility of seam to occur. With the knowledge of how to swing the ball
now understood, what role does the follow through have in the whole bowling
sequence and how does this relate to linear motion?
Follow Through

Foster (1989) suggested that the bowler should ensure that the bowling arm
follows through down the outside of the left thigh (for a right-handed bowler) with the
bowling arm almost brushing the ground. Tyson (1976) suggests that the first stride of
the follow-through should be behind the line of the ball before running off the pitch
with the second and third stride. Hurrion (2004) states that the bowler during follow
through should be aligned with the intended direction of ball travel which is generally
off stump, this is made easier if the run-up, pre-delivery stride and delivery stride
follow a straight line. The sequence of images in figure 10 (below) demonstrate the
effective alignment of the run-up, pre-delivery stride and delivery stride which in turn
allows for the first stride of the follow through to be aiming in a straight line at the
intended target.
Through the General alignment of the bowling sequence following a
linear path, there is a less likely chance of injury due to the reduction on the
rotation of the upper and lower body in different directions. Through using
Newton's Third Law which states "For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction" we are effectively able to sum up that the follow through
should be as long as needed to slow down the body without exerting any

26
sudden forces which can cause injury and minimise the effectiveness of the
action .
The Answer
The biomechanical principles that are required for a medium pace bowler to
bowl in-swing and out-swing are Newton's First Law which allows the bowler
to start his run up, maintain a constant velocity throughout his run up and then
allows for the bowling action to come to rest. Newton's Second Law allows
for the bowler to understand how to achieve maximum efficiency within his
run-up through understanding the force required to generate the optimum
amount of acceleration (113km). Newton's Third Law and the Impulse-
Momentum relationship exists within the bowling sequence by allowing the
bowler to understand how the manipulation of a braking and propulsive force
can be used to generate ball release speed with the least amount of effort
allowing for the bowler to bowl a greater number of overs under minimal
strain. It is evident within the bowling
sequence that the bowler can manipulate the base of support to increase or
decrease his stability within the bowling action to prevent injury and increase
or decrease ball release speed. The biomechanical principle of linear motion
allows for the bowler to understand the importance of maintaining a linear path
throughout the bowling sequence to increase the summation off Oresund
eventual ball release speed, as well as prevent injuries from occurring due to
the unnecessary rotation of the body during the bowling sequence. The kinetic
chain allows for the sequential acceleration of the trunk, torso and limbs during
the bowling action resulting in a fluent and effective action being produced
which allows the bowler to generate greater height, ball release speed and
swing. The kinetic chain also assists the bowler in generating the optimal
angular momentum and angle of release particularly during the ball release
stage where braking and propulsive forces are applied to the proximal areas
allowing for the distal areas such as the wrist and fingers to achieve greater
height and acceleration. This in turn results in the generation of more swing,
27
speed and height for the bowler. Through the bowler understanding the
influence that the Magnus Force has on the cricket ball, the bowler is able to
understand how to swing the ball into and away from the batsmen, which in
turn allows for the bowler to be unpredictable to the batsmen, which in turn
could lead to the poor execution of the selected batting stroke. It is evident that
the understanding and mastery of the biomechanical principles above will lead
to the efficient and effective bowling delivery being produced. It is the role of
the coach to understand the above biomechanical principles and be able to
express and apply these principles to an athlete's chosen sport to maximise the
effectiveness and efficiency of the chosen skill sequence while minimizing the
chance of injury occurring, which is ultimately the role of the coach. This
leads onto the final question of how else can this information be used?

28
 Figure 8

Figure 9

29
 Physics of swing bowling

The Philadelphians' Bart King helped to perfect swing bowling in the early
20th century. The essence of swing bowling is to get the cricket ball to
deviate sideways as it moves through the air towards or away from the
batsman. In order to do this, the bowler makes use of five factors:

The raised seam of the cricket ball

The wear and tear on the ball

The polishing liquid used on the ball

The speed of the delivery

The bowler's action

30
 The asymmetry of the ball is encouraged by the constant polishing of
one side of the ball by members of the fielding team, while allowing the
opposite side to deteriorate through wear and tear. With time, this
produces a marked difference in the aerodynamic properties of the two
sides.

Both turbulent and laminar airflow contribute to swing. Air in

laminar flow separates from the surface of the ball earlier than air in turbulent
flow, so that the separation point moves toward the front of the ball on the
laminar side. On the turbulent flow side it remains towards the back,
inducing a greater lift force on the turbulent airflow side of the ball. The
calculated net lift force is not enough to account for the amount of
swing observed. Additional force is provided by the pressure-gradient force.

To induce the pressure-gradient force the bowler must create regions

of high and low static pressure on opposing sides of the ball. The ball is then
"sucked" from the region of high static pressure towards the region of low
static pressure. The Magnus effect utilizes the same force but by
manipulating spin across the direction of motion. A layer of fluid, in this case
air, will have a greater velocity when moving over another layer of fluid than
it would have had if it had been moving over a solid, in this case the surface
of the ball. The greater the velocity of the fluid, the lower its static pressure.

When the ball is new the seam is used to create a layer of turbulent air
on one side of the ball, by angling it to one side and spinning the ball along
the seam. This changes the separation points of the air with the ball; this
turbulent air creates a greater coverage of air, providing lift. The next layer
of air will have a greater velocity over the side with the turbulent air due to
the greater air coverage and as there is a difference in air velocity, the static
pressure of both sides of the ball are different and the ball is both 'lifted'
and 'sucked' towards the turbulent airflow side of the ball.

31
 When the ball is older and there is an asymmetry in roughness the seam
no longer causes the pressure difference, and can actually reduce the swing of
the ball. Air turbulence is no longer used to create separation point
differences and therefore the lift and pressure differences. On the rough
side of the ball there are scratches and pits in the ball's surface. These
irregularities act in the same manner as the dimples of a golf ball: they trap the
air, creating a layer of trapped air next to the rough side of the ball, which
moves with the surface of the ball. The smooth side does not trap a layer
of air. The next layer of air outward from the ball will have a greater
velocity over the rough side, due to its contact with a layer of trapped air,
rather than solid ball. This lowers the static pressure relative to the shiny side,
which swings the ball. If the scratches and tears completely cover the
rough side of the ball, the separation point on the rough side will move to the
back of the ball, further than that of the turbulent air, thereby creating more
lift and faster air flow. This is why a slightly older ball will swing more than
a new ball. If the seam increate the turbulent air on the rough side, the
tears will not fill as quickly as they would with laminar flow, dampening
the lift and pressure differences.

Reverse swing occurs in exactly the same manner as conventional

swing, despite popular misconception. Over time the rough side becomes too
rough and the tears become too deep - this is why golf ball dimples
are never below a certain depth, and so "conventional" swing weakens
over time; the separation point moves toward the front of the ball on the rough
side. When polishing the shiny side of the ball, numerous liquids are used,
such as sweat, saliva, sunscreen, hair gel (which bowlers may apply to their
hair before a game) and other illegal substances like Vaseline (applied to the
clothing where the ball is polished). These liquids penetrate the porous
surface of the leather ball. Over time the liquid expands and stretches the
surface of the ball (which increases the surface area meaning more lift) and

32
creates raised bumps on the polished side, due to the non-uniform nature of
the expansion. The valleys between the bumps hold the air in the same
manner as the tears on the rough side. This creates a layer of air over the
shiny side, moving the separation point towards the back of the ball on the
shiny side. The greater air coverage is now on the shiny side, giving rise to
more lift and faster secondary airflow on that side. These is therefore lower
static pressure on the shiny side, causing the ball to swing towards it, not
away from it as in conventional swing.

The rough side tears hold the air more easily than the shiny side
valleys, so to maintain the air within the valleys the initial air layer must have
a very high velocity, which is why 'everse swing is primarily, but not
necessarily, achieved by fast bowlers. Due to the less static nature of the
initial air layer it takes longer for the swing to occur, which is why it occurs
later in the delivery. This is why conventional and reverse swing can occur in
the same delivery.

Cold and humid weather tend to enhance swing, due to the lift force
increasing with the density of the air. Colder
air is more dense than warm air. The humidity is
a measure of the water content in the air;
although water vapour does not increase the
mean density of the air since water molecules
weigh less than nitrogen or oxygen
molecules, tiny suspended droplets of
condensed liquid water will certainly do
so since water is 1000 times more dense than air

33
34
 CONVENTIONAL SWING

Typically, a swing bowler aligns the seam and the sides of the ball to reinforce the
swing effect. This can be done in two ways:

An in swinger presents relatively fewer dangers to the batsman, but on

some particular days can be devastating due to risk of being bowled or
leg_before_wicket.Shane_Bondwas considered a great exponent of in swing
bowling.

An in swinger combined with a Yorker can be especially difficult for the

batsman to defend against, especially if used as a surprise delivery after a
sequence of out swingers.

There has been a distinct lack of left-arm swing bowlers in the game. Some
of the most famous left-arm bowlers were Pakistan's WasimAkram, India's
Zaheer Khan, Australia's Alan Davidson and Sri Lanka's ChamindaVaas.

35
 REVERSE SWING

Normal swing occurs mostly when the ball is fairly new. As it wears
more, the aerodynamics of the asymmetry change and it is more difficult to
extract a large amount of swing. When the ball becomes very oldaround
40 or more overs oldit begins to swing towards the shine. This is known as
reverse swingmeaning a natural out swinger will become an in swinger and
vice versa. In essence, both sides have turbulent flow, but here the seam
causes the airflow to separate earlier on one side. The result is always a
swing to the side with the later separation, so the swing is away from the seam.

Reverse swing tends to be stronger than normal swing, and to occur

late in the ball's trajectory. This gives it a very different character from
normal swing, and because batsmen experience it less often, they
generally find it much more difficult to defend against. It is also possible for
a ball to swing normally in its early flight, and then to alter its swing as it
approaches the batsman. This can be done in two ways. one for the ball to
reverse its direction of swing, giving it an 'S' trajectory: the other is for it to
adopt a more pronounced swing in the same direction in which the swing is
already curving; either alteration can be devastating for the batsman. In
the first instance, he is already committed to playing the swing one way,
which will be the wrong way to address swing which is suddenly coming
from the opposite direction: in the second instance, his stance will be one
which is appropriate for the degree, or extent, of the expected swing, and
which could suddenly leave him vulnerable to LBW, being caught behind,
or bowled.

Two back-to-back deliveries from WasimAkram, one of each type, were

considered to be the turning point of the 1992 World Cup Final.

36
Pioneers and notable practitioners of reverse swing have mostly been
Pakistani fast bowlers. In the early days of reverse swing, Pakistani
bowlers were suspected of ball tampering to achieve the conditions of the
ball that allow reverse swing, although the accusations were baseless.
Former Pakistan international Sarfraz Nawaz and SikanderBakht were the
founders of reverse swing during the late 1970s, and they passed the
knowledge on to former team-mate Imran Khan, who in turn taught the duo
of WasimAkram and WaciarYounis. The English pair of Andrew Flintoff and
Simon Jones, having been taught by Troy Cooley and the Indian bowlers like
Zaheer Khan and AjitAgarkar, are also well known for the ability to reverse
swing the ball.
Playing swing bowling

Playing swing bowling is considered to be a hallmark of a batsman's

skill. While often a to play defensively and not being over tentative to
understand the swing, in many instances he may be skilled enough to attack.
Firstly, a batsman needs good eye reflexes which are considered to be the
major thing in playing swing bowling. Secondly a batsman often needs to
anticipate beforehand what the ball will do and adjust accordingly to play
swing bowling. This can be done by observing the bowler's grip and action
(which may have a marked difference depending on which type of swinger
is to be delivered), by observing the field set, which may depend on the
types of deliveries expected (as a rule outswingers will have more slips
assigned) or by means of prior knowledge of the bowler; many can bowl or
are proficient in only one type of swing. Traditional methods include the
batsmen playing the ball as late as possible, and not playing away from
the body. Other effective measures for combating swing bowling include
standing well outside the crease, thus giving the ball less time to swing; and
guessing the direction of swing based on the seam position observed in the
ball's flight.

37
Since reverse occurs at faster speeds, later in the trajectory of the ball and
with no real obvious change in action and grip (WaqarYounis from
Pakistan for example had the same action and grip for nearly all his
deliveries), batsmen with a quick eye and reflexes will do well. In his
autobiography WasimAkram mentions four batsmen Rahul Dravid, Brian
Lara, Aravinda De Silva and Martin Crowe who had such reflexes and who
were exceedingly difficult to bowl to.

Controversy regarding reverse swing has never left modern cricket, as

the Pakistani team was accused of ball tampering by the controversial
Australian umpire Darrell Hair during the fourth test against England in
2006 when the ball began to reverse swing after the 50th over. His co-
umpire Billy Doctrove fully supported him in this action. A hearing
subsequently found that there was insufficient evidence to convict
anyone of ball tampering

38
 CONCLUSION

Swing bowling is an art evolved a lot form conventional swing

bowling in swing & out swing by early 90's reversing came into existence.

I hope this study of mine on swing bowling will be

helpful for all aspiring fast bowlers.

39
 REFERENCE

1. Wikipedia

2. www.humankinetics.org

3. Library

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