2 Exploration

Schlumberger Confidential
Exploration
Amine Ennaifer
RE & CSV Training Manager
ELC, Schlumberger
Exploration
Exploration activities aim at discovering new

volumes of hydrocarbons, replacing the portfolio
of volumes being produced.
The success in exploration efforts of oilfield

operators determines their prospects of
remaining in business in the long term.
2
Overview
I. Hydrocarbon Accumulations
II. Exploration Methods and Technologies
3
I- Conditions Necessary
for the Existence of
Hydrocarbon Accumulations
4
Overview
Fig. Processes necessary for the existence of hydrocarbon accumulations
(Courtesy of Jahn et al., 2007)
Creation of Hydrocarbon Bearings
5
Overview
Several conditions need to be satisfied for the existence of a
hydrocarbon accumulation (Jahn et al., 2007):
1. The first of these is an area in which a suitable sequence of rocks has
accumulated over geologic time, the sedimentary basin.
2. Within that sequence there needs to be a high content of organic
matter, the source rock.
3. Through elevated temperatures and pressures these rocks must have
reached maturation, the condition at which hydrocarbons are expelled
from the source rock.
4. Migration describes the process which has transported the generated
hydrocarbons into a porous type of sediment, the reservoir rock.
5. Only if the reservoir is deformed in a favorable shape or if it is laterally
grading into an impermeable formation does a trap for the migrating
hydrocarbons exist.
6
Summary
Overview
Sedimentary Basins
Source Rocks
Maturation Process
Migration Process
Reservoir Rocks
Structural Modifications & Traps
7
Plate Tectonics - Theory
The crust of the Earth is made up of plates

Plates constantly move
New plates being formed and old ones destroyed
Types of Plate Boundaries
Extensional (divergent)
Compressional (convergent)
Transform
8
Plate Tectonics Extensional Systems
At divergent boundaries, new crustal rocks (lithosphere) form.
9
Plate Tectonics Compressional Systems
At convergent boundaries, crustal plates are subducted and consumed.
Commonly continental plates override oceanic plates density difference.
Causes volcanoes, mountains, deep-sea trenches and earthquakes.
10
Plate Tectonics Transform Systems
Does not cause new crust formation nor old crust consumption.
Causes earthquakes.
11
Sedimentary Basins
Fig. Sedimentary basins (Courtesy of Jahn et al., 2007)
Both Compressional and Extensional movements form large scale

depressions into which sediments from the surrounding elevated
areas (highs) are transported.
These depressions are termed sedimentary basins.
The basin fill can attain a thickness of several km.
12
Sedimentary Environments
Understanding sedimentary environments helps understanding the
quality and the geometry of the rock formation.
Transportation Energy:
When a river is flowing fast,
only the larger rocks settle.
When a river reaches the

sea and loses its energy,
deltas would form and
finer rock particles would
settle.
13
Sedimentary Environments Rock quality
River Delta
10 to 1000 mdarcys
.1 to 10 mdarcys
.01 to .1 mdarcys
.0001 to .01 mdarcys
In channels, larger rock particles settle, providing a favorable

environment for good hydrocarbon reservoirs.
The channel width changes due to changing water level through time.
In these areas, water flow would be limited, resulting in the deposition
of smaller particles.
14
Source Rock
Conditions for the deposition of source rocks:
Abundant organic material
Lack of oxygen to prevent decomposition
Continuous sedimentation resulting in burial
Organic matter:
plant remnants leading
often to waxy crudes
or phytoplankton (marine
algae living in the upper
layers of oceans and
sinking after death
onto seabed)
15
Maturation
Maturation is the conversion of organic matter into petroleum
Maturation process:
1. At 50C (~1-2km): Conversion into
kerogen
2. 80-120 C : Conversion into
petroleum. Temp. rises as sediments
subsides.
3. Above 130C (even for short periods):
Conversion into gas. Initially rich in
C4-C10 (wet gas and condensate)
4. Above 140C: gas tends to lighter
components C1-C3 (dry gas)
16
Migration
Accumulation Trap
Seal/Cap
Rock
Reservoir
Rock
Migration
Temp
Window Generation Source
17 ZK Rock
migration of hydrocarbons from the deeper, hotter parts of the basin into
suitable structures
17
Migration
Migration process:
1. During primary migration, the very process of kerogen
transformation causes micro-fracturing of the impermeable and low
porosity source rock allowing hydrocarbons to move into more
permeable strata.
2. In the second stage of migration, fluids move more freely along
bedding planes and faults into a suitable reservoir structure.
Migration can occur over considerable distances of

several tens of km.
18
Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks are either:
Clastic (silicates usually sandstone)
Carbonate (biogenetically derived detritus, such as coral or shell fragments)
The reservoir quality, lateral heterogeneity, and
interaction with fluids depend on the above classification.
Reservoir quality is mainly determined by:

Porosity: space between rock grains in which oil and gas
accumulates (reserves)
Permeability: ease with which oil and gas can move through the
pore space between the grains (recovery)
Why Migration from Source to Reservoir Rock is needed?
19
Traps
Hydrocarbons can seep to
surface if no sealing structure
is present during migration.
On seabed surveys in some
offshore areas crater like
features (pock marks) can be
detected (escape of oil and
gas to the surface).
Fig. Petroleum seep near the Kora in Slovakia
A structural and stratigraphic configuration that focuses oil

and gas into an accumulation is then needed: a trap.
20
Structural Modifications
Rocks may be subjected to
deformation under stress
effects.
Two types of deformation:
Folds
plastic deformation
Faults
plastic limit exceeded
21
Structural Modifications (Cont.)
Folds:
Anticline
Syncline
Faults:
Normal
Reverse
Strike-slip
22
Traps: Structural / Statigraphic
Anticline Fault
Hydrocarbons accumulate at the An impermeable layer can line up
high points due to their lower with a permeable layer, blocking
gravity compared to water flow. Some faults are leaky.
Salt dome Unconformity

Salt is impermeable. Hydrocarbons After structural modification and
can be trapped by salt dome on erosion, hydrocarbons can be
the side, and another impermeable trapped by an impermeable layer
layer on the top. formed later on.
23
ZK
Other Constraints
The sequence of events is crucial.

For instance, the deformation of a strata into a suitable trap should
precede migration.
Conversely a fault may have developed early and prevented
petroleum migration.
If a leak occurs in the trap through geological time, small

amounts of hydrocarbons are encountered.
Biodegradation (bacteria) may destroy light fractions (e.g.

heavy oil accumulations in Venezuela).
24
Petroleum System Elements
Source Rock: rock with abundant hydrocarbons-prone organic matter
Reservoir Rock: a rock in which oil and gas accumulates
Porosity: space between rock grains in which oil and gas accumulates
Permeability: ease with which oil & gas can move through the pore space
between the grains
Seal Rock: a rock through which oil and gas cannot move effectively
(such as mudstone or anhydrite)
Migration Route: avenues through which oil and gas move from
source rock to trap
Trap: the structural and stratigraphic configuration that focuses oil and
gas into an accumulation. Trap must be available before/during
migration.
25
II- Exploration Methods
& Technologies
26
Exploration Costs
The objective of any exploration venture is to find new
volumes of hydrocarbons:
in a short period of time
at a low cost
Exploration budgets are in
direct competition with:
acquisition opportunities
investment in market
Reducing exploration costs enables:

more profitability
to pursue further exploration and develop smaller prospects
27
Exploration Uncertainty
In very mature areas, only every 1/3rd exploration

well will, in average, encounter substantial
amounts of hydrocarbons.
In real wildcat areas, basins which have not

been drilled previously, only every 1/10th well is,
on average, successful.
28
Sequence of Exploration Activities
1. Identifying a basin
Gravity and Magnetic surveys
2. Identifying a structure of potential accumulation
2-D seismic survey covering a wide area
3. Suggesting multiple exploration plays then Defining a prospect:

a subsurface structure with a reasonable probability of containing all the elements of
a petroleum accumulation (detailed investigations needed)
4. Proving the validity of a prospect

Drilling an exploration well (discoveries of oil/gas or dry well)
5. Carrying out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and

contingency plans
29
Gravity Surveys
Measure small (~10-6 g)

variations of the earths
gravity field caused by
density variations in
geological structures
Must be corrected for the

elevation of the recording
stations
Fig. Principle of Gravity surveys (Courtesy of Jahn et al., 2007)
Used to obtain large scale structures (e.g. basins)

Can be obtained from public domain or bought as non-exclusive surveys
30
Magnetic Surveys
Detect changes in earths
magnetic field caused by
variations in magnetic
properties of rocks
The method is airborne
(plane or satellite) enabling
rapid surveying and
mapping with good areal
coverage Fig. Principle of Magnetic surveys (Courtesy of Jahn et al., 2007)
Used to obtain large scale structures (e.g. basins)

Based on gravity and magnetic mapping, seismic surveys are planned.
31
Seismic Surveys - Animation
32
Seismic Surveys
The objective of seismic surveying

is to produce an acoustic (coarse)
image of the subsurface
Seismic is used in:
Exploration: to determine structures,
stratigraphic traps to be drilled, and
large faults
Field appraisal and development: for
reserves estimation
Production: for reservoir and fluids
surveillance (4-D seismic)
33
34
Seismic Surveys: Principle
Source: Vibrating engines
or airguns
Reflections occur at all
layers in the subsurface
(change in acoustic
impedance)
2 attributes measured:
Reflection time
Amplitude
Hundreds of thousands of Fig. Principle of Seismic surveys (Courtesy of Jahn et al., 2007)
acoustic traces require heavy
processing Seismic Survey
35
Geochemistry
Analyzing the distribution of
elements and compounds
related to petroleum occurrences
from downhole fluid samples or
soil samples (leak) Fig. Analysis of crude oil components
Used to:
Classify crude oil
Determine source rocks, their maturity and possible migration paths
Determine oils from different drainage areas or accumulations
Verify cross flow and preferential depletion during production
36
Outcrops
A predictive tool to model:
presence, maturity and distribution of
source rock
porosity and permeability of a
reservoir
lateral continuity of sands and shales
vertical and lateral heterogeneity
detailed reservoir framework, including flow units, barriers and baffles to

fluid flow frequency, orientation and geological history of fractures and
sub-seismic faults
quantitative description for numerical reservoir simulations
37
Mudlogging
The Rate of Penetration (ROP) gives an idea about the formation
porosity (ROP higher in porous sandstones than in shales)
Formation cuttings provide information about the lithology and
qualitative indication of the formation porosity
Hydrocarbons show as stains in cuttings and traces in mud.
Fig. Example of a Mudlog

38

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Schlumberger Confidential

Exploration activities aim at discovering new

The success in exploration efforts of oilfield

Creation of Hydrocarbon Bearings

The crust of the Earth is made up of plates

Both Compressional and Extensional movements form large scale

When a river reaches the

In channels, larger rock particles settle, providing a favorable

Maturation is the conversion of organic matter into petroleum

Migration can occur over considerable distances of

Reservoir quality is mainly determined by:

Why Migration from Source to Reservoir Rock is needed?

A structural and stratigraphic configuration that focuses oil

Salt dome Unconformity

The sequence of events is crucial.

If a leak occurs in the trap through geological time, small

Biodegradation (bacteria) may destroy light fractions (e.g.

Reducing exploration costs enables:

In very mature areas, only every 1/3rd exploration

In real wildcat areas, basins which have not

2. Identifying a structure of potential accumulation

3. Suggesting multiple exploration plays then Defining a prospect:

4. Proving the validity of a prospect

5. Carrying out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and

Measure small (~10-6 g)

Must be corrected for the

Used to obtain large scale structures (e.g. basins)

Used to obtain large scale structures (e.g. basins)

The objective of seismic surveying

Reflections occur at all

detailed reservoir framework, including flow units, barriers and baffles to

Fig. Example of a Mudlog

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