Introduction to Reinforced

Concrete Design
Concrete
and
Reinforced Concrete
Concrete
is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed
rock, or other aggregates held together
in a rocklike mass with a paste of
cement and water.
Admixtures are sometimes added to
change the characteristics of the
concrete such as workability, durability,
and time of hardening
Reinforced Concrete
a combination of concrete and steel
wherein the steel reinforcement
provides the tensile strength lacking in
the concrete
Advantages and
Distadvantages
of
Reinforced Concrete
as a
Structural Material
Reinforced Concrete
Advantage

good resistance to weather & chemical, and

good sound and thermal insulation
the structure system is more rigid, thus, less
severe problem associated with sway
deflection, floor vibration, and local column
buckling
higher fire resistance
minimal maintenance is required
Reinforced Concrete
Advantage

materials required to make concrete are readily

available in the local market, thus no pre-
ordering is necessary
local contractors are firmly familiar with RC
construction
can be cast into any versatile shape, thus, allow
more flexible design
Reinforced Concrete
Advantage

fairly tolerable on last minute changes from

Client and Architect
waterproofing can be easily applied with
different degree of waterproofing
can produce a good finished surface, thus, no
painting is necessary
Reinforced Concrete
Disadvantage

generally heavier and hence result to more

expensive foundation
special care must be taken to ensure
aesthetic appearance against cracks induced
by creeping and shrinkage effects
intensive amount of falsework and shuttering
are required
easily affected by weather condition, this will
prolong construction time
Steel
Advantage

fast construction, weather independent

flooring can be cast at the same time where
formwork are provided by un-propped corrugated
steel decking
lightweight, thus, less expensive foundation can be
designed (i.e. shallow foundation.)
assembly is simple, since all members can be pre-
fabricated prior to delivery to site
structure tends to be shallower in structural depth,
thus, more space will be provided for service routing
with high strength to weight ratio, suitable for long
span construction.
Steel
Disadvantage

Long pre-ordering and delivery time would be

required since majority of the members are to
be imported from overseas
Early decision on member size & connection
details are required so as to allow for
ordering and shop drawing preparation.
Steel members require special treatment and
protection from fire & corrosion.
Special surface treatments are needed
Steel
Disadvantage

frequent maintenance is required

skillful labors are required for fabrication,
erection, and welding
large area on site is required for storage of
structural member prior to erection
sensitive to temperature change and vibration
steel members will deflect appreciably under
total load, needs pre-cambering
fabrication needs heavy plant and crane
Compatibility of
Concrete and Steel
 Compatibility of concrete and steel

concrete steel
good in compression good in tension
covers and provides subject to corrosion
protection to steel
fire resistant not fire resistant
coeffecient for thermal coeffecient for thermal
expansion per unit length expansion per unit length
per oF ---0.000004-0.000007 per oF ---0.0000065
DesignCodes
ACI American Concrete Institute
AASHTO American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials
AREA American Railway Engineering
Association
NSCP National Structural Code of the
Philippines
National Building Code
Components of Concrete
Cement
Types of Portland Cement
Type I Cement

is the common all-purpose cement used for

general construction
 Type II Cement
a modified cement that has a lower heat of
hydration
can withstand some exposure to sulfate attack

Heat of hydration the heat given off during chemical

reaction as the cement hydrates

Hydration the chemical reaction that takes place between

water and cement, and concrete will changes from a plastic
to a solid state (in about 2 hours).
Type III Cement

a high strength cement that will produce in

the first 24 hours
a concrete with a strength about twice that
of Type I cement
higher heat of hydration
it is very finely ground and sets rapidly,
making it useful for cold weather jobs.
Type IV Cement

a low-heat cement that produces a concrete

which dissipates heat very slowly.
used for very large concrete structures
Type V Cement

a cement used for concrete that are to be

exposed to high concentrations of sulfate
If the desired type of cement is not available,
various admixtures may be used with Type I
cement to produce the desired effect
Aggregate - sand, gravel, crushed rock
Aggregates

Aggregates occupy 60 to 80 percent of

the volume of concrete.
Sand, gravel and crushed stone are the
primary aggregates used.
All aggregates must be essentially free of
silt and/or organic matter.
must be strong, durable and clean
Aggregates

ACI Specs:
maximum size of aggregate for RC
1/5 x narrowest dimensions
1/3 x slab depth
3/4 x min. clear spacing between bars
Water
 Water
Good water is essential for quality
concrete.
It should be good enough to drink--free of
trash, organic matter and excessive
chemicals and/or minerals.
The strength and other properties of
concrete are highly dependent on the
amount of water and the water-cement
ratio.
Admixtures

added to the concrete mixture

immediately before or during mixing
used to improve the performance of
concrete
Air Entraining admixtures
used to increase concretes resistance to
freezing and thawing
provide resistance to the deteriorating
action of de-icing salts
Retarding admixtures:

are used to slow the rate of concrete

hardening
retard temperature increase
They are useful for concrete that is placed
during hot weather
consist of various acids or sugars or sugar
derivatives
Accelerating admixtures

such as calcium chloride, are used to

increase the rate of hardening--usually
during cold weather
reduces the time required for curing and
protection of the concrete
Superplasticizers

made from organic sulfonates

reduces the water concrete in concretes
while increasing their slump
produces workable concretes with
considerably higher strengths while using
the same amount of cement
Waterproofing materials

usually applied to hardened concrete

surfaces
as admixture, it consist of some type of
soap or petroleum products, as asphalt
emulsions
retards the penetration of water into
porous concretes
Concrete

structural lightweight concrete

28-day strenght 2500 psi
air-dry weight 115 lb/ft3
aggregates used are made from
shales of volcanic origin, fired
clays, or slag
Concrete

all-lightweight concrete
lightweight aggregates are used
for both fine and coarse
aggregates
sand-lightweight concrete
if coarse aggregates are replaced
with lightweight aggregates
Concrete

high-strength concrete
high performance concretes
compressive strength > 6000 psi
used for both precast prestressed
members
Propeties of Reinforced
Concrete
Compressive Strength fc
defined as the measured maximum resistance of
a concrete or mortar specimen to an axial load
at an age of 28-days.
determined by testing to failure 28-day-old 6x12
in concrete cylinders at a specified rate of
loading
determined by testing 200 mm (7.87 in) cube
specimen
conretes compressive strength depends of
many factors
- quality and proportions of the
ingredients
- the curing environment
Compressive Strength fc
fc ranges from 2500 psi to 20,000 psi
for ordinary application
3000 psi fc 4000 psi
for prestressed construction
5000 psi fc 6000 psi
for columns of the lower stories of
high-rise building
9000 psi fc 10,000 psi
Compressive Strength fc
cube test

cube must be oiled before placing the concrete

cube samples are cured for 7, 14 , 28 days

before testing for compressive strength
Compressive Strength fc
cube test

cube is placed in a compression test machine

to determine the compressive strength
Compressive Strength fc
cylinder test

cylinder is placed in a compression test machine to determine

the compressive strength
Compressive Strength fc
cylinder test

concrete cylinder is
loaded to failure

concrete cylinder after

testing
Compressive Strength fc
failure modes of compression testing
Compressive Strength fc
stress-strain curves of 28-day-old
concrete of varying strengths
Compressive Strength fc
the curves are roughly straight while the load is
increased from zero to about 1/3 to 1/2 the
concretes ultimate strength
Compressive Strength fc
At higher stresses, the behavior of concrete is
nonlinear.
Compressive Strength fc
Regardless of strengths, all the concretes reach
their ultimate strengths at strains of about 0.002
Compressive Strength fc
concrete does not have definite yield strength;
rather, the curve runs smoothly the point of
rupture at strains from 0.003 to 0.004.
Compressive Strength fc
it will be assumed, for calculation purposes, that
concrete fails at 0.003
Compressive Strength fc
tests show that stress-strain curves of concrete
cylinders are almost identical to those for the
compression sides of beams
Compressive Strength fc
notice that the weaker grades of concrete are less
brittle than the stronger ones
the weaker ones take larger strains before breaking
Static Modulus of Elasticity

modulus of elasticity of concrete varies

with different concrete strengths, concrete
age, type of loading, and the
characteristics and proportions of the
cement and aggregates
Static Modulus of Elasticity
Initial Modulus the slope of the stress-strain
diagram at the origin of the curve.
Tangent Modulus the slope of a tangent to
the curve at some point along the curve.
Secant Modulus the slope of a line drawn
from the origin to a point on the curve
somewhere between 25% and 50% of its
ultimate compressive .
Apparent Modulus or Long-Tem Modulus
determined by using the stresses and strains
obtained after the load has been applied for a
certain length of time.
Static Modulus of Elasticity
ACI Code Specs:
Customary Units SI Units

Weight or mass
of Concrete 90 155 lb/ft3 1500 2500 kg/m3
Modulus of
Elasticity

where:
Ec modulus of elasticity
wc weight of concrete
fc 28-day compressive strength of concrete
Static Modulus of Elasticity
secant modulus with the line drawn from
the origin to a point on the stress-strain
curve correspoding to the stress 0.45 fc
that would occur under the estimated
dead and live load the structure must
support.
Static Modulus of Elasticity
ACI Code Specs:
Customary Units SI Units

Weight or mass
of Concrete 145 lb/ft3 2320 kg/m3
Modulus of
Elasticity

*** the weight density of reinforced concrete using normal

aggregates is about 150 lb/ft3 (pcf)
5 pcf for the steel
145 pcf for concrete
*** In SI Units mass density of reinforced concrete is 2340 kg/m3
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity
the dynamic modulus of elasticity , which
corresponds to very small instantaneous
strains, is usually obtained by sonic tests
generally 20-40% higher than the static
modulus and is approximately equal to
the initial modulus
used to structures analyzed for seismic or
impact loads
Poissons Ratio

ratio of lateral expansion to the longitudinal

shortening
0.11 for higher strength concretes
0.21 for weaker-grade concretes
0.16 average
Shrinkage

happens when after the concrete has

been cured and begins to dry, the extra
mixing water that was used begins to
work its way out of the concrete to the
surface, where it evaporates. As a result,
the concrete shrinks and cracks.
Shrinkage
shrinkage continues for many years but
90% of it occurs during the first year

amount of shrinkage is dependent on the

type of exposure during curing
humid atmopshere less shrinkage
wind shrinkage is greater
dry shrinkage is even greater
Shrinkage
to minimize shrinkage:
keep the amount of mixing water to a minimum
cure the concrete well
place the concrete for walls, floors, and other
large items in small sections (thus allowing
some of the shrinkage to take place before the
next section is placed)
use construction joints to control the position of
cracks
use shrinkage reinforcement
use appropriate dense and nonporous
aggregates
Creep
the additional deformation after the initial
deformations occurs.
75% of the total creep will occur during the first
year.
in a beam, the additional long term deflection
due to creep can be as much as 2-3 times the
initial elastic deflection
Creep
amount of creep is dependent on the
amount of stress
if f < fc , creep stress
if f > fc, creep will increase rapidly

A member loaded with a sustained load

of, say 85% of its ultimate compression
strength, fc, may very well be satisfactory
for a while, but may fail later
Creep
Factors affecting the amount of creep:
curing time: the longer the concrete
cures before loads are applied, the smaller
will be the creep.
concrete strength: higher strength
concretes have less creep
temperature: creep increases with
higher temperatures
Creep
Factors affecting the amount of creep:
humidity: the higher the humidity, the
smaller will be the free pore water which
can escape from the concrete
water-cement ratio: concrete with the
highest percentage of cement-water paste
have the highest creep because the paste,
not the aggregate, does the creeping
Creep
Factors affecting the amount of creep:
compression steel: addition of
reinforcing to the compression areas of
concrete will reduce the creep because
steel exhibits very little creep at ordinary
stresses
volume-to-surface area ratio: large
concrete members will creep
proportionately less than smaller thin
members where the free water has
smaller distances to travel to escape
Tensile Strength
tensile strength of concrete varies from
8-15% of its compressive strength. A
major reason for this small strength is the
fact that concrete is filled with fine cracks.
indirect tests to measure concretes
tensile strength:
modulus of rupture
split-cylinder test
 Tensile Strength
modulus of rupture defined as the
flexural tensile strength of concrete
applied load

6x6x30 unreinforced
rectangular beam with simple
supports placed 24 in on center is
loaded to failure with equal
concentrated loads at its one-third
points
Tensile Strength
modulus of rupture defined as the
flexural tensile strength of concrete

beam sample loaded to failure

Tensile Strength
modulus of rupture, fr

since
c = h/2
I = 1/12 bh3

modulus of rupture
Tensile Strength
ACI Code Specs:
Customary Units SI Units

Modulus of
Rupture
 Tensile Strength
split-cylinder test
Front Elevation
Side Elevation Of The Cylinder LOAD

cylinder is placed on its side in the testing machine, and a compressive

load is applied uniformly along the length of the cylinder, with support
supplied along the bottom for the cylinders full length.
Tensile Strength
split-cylinder test

cylinder loaded to failure the cylinder will split in

half from end to end
when tensile strength is
reached
Tensile Strength
split-cylinder test

where:
P maximum compressive force
L length
D diameter of the cylinder
Shear Strength

tests of concrete shearing strengths

through the years have yielded values
from 1/3 to 1/5 of the ultimate
compressive strengths.
one of the properties that is extremely
difficult in testing to obtain pure shear
failures unaffected by other stresses
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
fiber used are made from steel, plastics,
glass, and other materials
fibers used vary in length from 1/4 to 3,
in diameter from 0.01 to 0.03
fibers are hooked and crimped the
improve their bond with the cement paste
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
experiments show that the addition of
fibers in convenient quantities (normally
up to about 1-2% by volume) to
conventional concretes can appreciably
improve their characteristics
the strengths of fiber-reinforced concretes
are not significantly greater than they
would be if the same mixes were used
without the fibers
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
greater resistance to cracking
use of fibers increased the versatility of
concrete by reducing its brittleness
ductility and toughness is increased
increase fatigue life of beams
lessen the widths of cracks
Concrete Mix Design
Relationships
 Workability
the property that determines the ease with which
freshly mixed concrete can be placed, compacted
and finished without segregation
factors affecting workability:
method and duration of transportation
quantity and characteristics of cementing materials
concrete consistency (slump)
aggregate grading, shape and surface texture
% entrained air
water content
temperature
admixtures
Slump Test

test to determine the workability of

concrete mix
Slump Test

most concrete mixes have slumps 2-5-in

Durability

If acceptable materials are used, the

properties of concrete, such as durability,
freeze/thaw resistance, wear resistance,
and strength depend on the cement
mixture.
A mixture with a sufficiently low ratio of
water to cement plus entrained air, if
specified, is the most desirable.
freeze/thaw resistance
weather is one factor that affects the
durability of concrete

specimen subjected to 150 cycles of freezing and thawing

Consolidation

well consolidated concrete

achieves a dense and
durable concrete

poorly consolidated can

result in early corrosion of
reinforcing steel and low
compressive strength
Curing of Concrete
it retains moisture so that the concrete continues
to gain strength
it delays drying shrinkage until the concrete is
strong enough to resist shrinkage cracking
Proper concrete curing involves keeping newly
placed concrete moist and avoiding temperature
extremes (above 90F or below 50F) for at least
three days.
a seven-day (or longer) curing time is
recommended.
Curing of Concrete

Concrete that has been specified, batched,

mixed, placed, and finished can still be a failure
if improperly or inadequately cured.
Curing has a major influence on the properties
of hardened concrete such as durability,
strength, water-tightness, wear resistance,
volume stability, and resistance to freezing and
thawing.
Curing of Concrete

Methods of Curing:
ponding or immersion,
spraying or fogging, and
covering the concrete with impervious paper
or plastic sheets,
applying membrane-forming curing
compounds.
Curing of Concrete

spraying or fogging
Curing of Concrete

The best curing methods depends on:

cost,
application equipment required,
materials available,
Size and shape of the concrete surface.
Reinforcing Steel
reinforcing bars or rebars
may be in the form of plain or deformed bars or
welded wire fabric
plain bars used for wrapping around
longitudinal bars in columns
deformed bars used for almost all application
have ribbed projections rolled onto their
surfaces to provide better bonding
between the concrete and steel
may be purchased in 60 ft length. Longer
bars have to be specially ordered
Reinforcing Steel
welded wire fabric used for reinforcing slabs,
pavements and shells, and places where there
is normally not sufficient room for providing
the necessary concrete cover required for
regular reinforcing bars
wire mesh made of cold-drawn wires running in
both directions and welded together at the
points of intersection
- is easily placed, has excellent bond with the
concrete, and the spacing of the wires is well
controlled
Reinforcing
Steel
ASTM A615
-deformed and plain
billet steel bars, S
-most widely used
Reinforcing
Steel
ASTM A706
-low alloy deformed
and plain bars, W
-used where
controlled tensile
properties and/or
chemical composition
is required for
welding purposes
Reinforcing
Steel
ASTM A996
-deformed rail steel or
axle steel bars, R
Reinforcing
Steel
When deformed bars are
produced to meet both
the A615 and A706
specifications, S and W
Reinforcing
Steel
Modulus of Elasticity

Es = 29x 106 psi

Reinforcing Steel
Corrosive Environment
when reinforced concrete is subjected to
de-icing salts, seawater, or spray from
these substances, it is necessary to provide
special corrosion protection for the
reinforcement
structures usually exposed to corrosive
environment are:
bridge decks
parking garages
wastewater treatment plants
coastal structures
Corrosive Environment

Sewage Treatment
Plant, Redwood City,
California
 Corrosive Environment
Should the reinforcement be insufficiently protected,

cracks develops in crack continues to increased loss of

concrete. Water deteriorate and structural steel and
migrates to steel corrosion of steel expansive force of
rebar initiating rebar increases corrosion spalls
corrosion concrete
Corrosive Environment

ACI Code requires that for corrosive

environments, more concrete cover must
be provided for the reinforcing; it also
requires that special concrete proportions
or mixes be used
epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are used to
increase the lives of such structures
Loads
Loads