Introduction

The goal of this research is to explain aspect of porosity zonation and units in carbonate reservoir

and explain in plain language how and where carbonate rocks form, how they do, or do not,

become reservoirs, how to explore for carbonate reservoirs or aquifers in the subsurface, and

how develop them once they have been found. The book is organized around a genetic

classification of carbonate porosity and ways it can be employed in exploration and

development. The genetic categories include three end members depositional pores, diagenetic

pores, and fractures. Genetic pore categories are linked with geological processes that created,

reduced, or enlarged pores during lithification and burial. In the end, a chronology of pore origin

and evolution is developed to put in the larger stratigraphic context for identification of reservoir

flow units, baffles, and barriers. Connectivity can be evaluated by determining the range of

porosity and permeability values for the different pore categories within reservoirs. Connected

pore systems can be correlated stratigraphically to identify reservoir zones that have the highest

combined porosity and permeability and the least resistance to the passage of fluids. But different

in that rock units that impede flow are defined as baffles and units that prevent flow are defined

as barriers. Each endmember reservoir type generally has characteristic pore scale features

(porosity and permeability) that correspond to petrologic and stratigraphic properties (borehole -

scale features). When the zones with good, fair, and poor connectivity are identified, the

characteristic petrologic and stratigraphic features that correspond with them can become proxies

for connectivity . The larger scale features, or proxies, are generally easier to identify in borehole

cores, on wireline log traces, and in some sequence stratigraphic stacking patterns. When

mode and time of origin of the proxies are known, geological concepts can be formulated to

predict the spatial distribution of reservoir flow units at field scale. In other words, the
fundamental rock properties that correspond to good, fair, and poor combined values of porosity

and permeability can be identified and put in larger stratigraphic context, or scaled - up. Then

the temporal and genetic characteristics of the large scale petrologic and stratigraphic

properties (proxies) are used for reservoir prediction and flow unit mapping. Carbonate reservoir

porosity usually represents the combined effects of more than one geological process. Sometimes

it reflects multiple episodes of change during burial history; therefore particular care must be

given to identification of the sequence of events that led to the final array of rock properties and

pore characteristics. Usually it is possible to identify cross - cutting relationships between rock

properties so that their relative times of origin are distinguishable. Reservoir porosity governed

only by depositional rock properties, a rather uncommon occurrence, will not exhibit cross -

cutting relationships because rock texture, fabric, porosity, and permeability share a single mode

and time of origin. In that case, reservoir architecture and spatial distribution conform to

depositional facies boundaries. Diagenesis and fracturing do not always follow depositional unit

boundaries. Although carbonate reservoirs exist in which diagenetic porosity corresponds with

depositional rock properties in many instances it does not. In the latter case, it is especially

important to identify the type of alteration, how it was formed, when it was formed, and what

cross - cutting relationships it shares with other diagenetic and fracture attributes. Fractures cut

across most rock boundaries but there are some fundamental rock properties that dictate how and

where fractures will form. Fractures happen as a result of brittle failure under differential stress,

usually in conjunction with faulting or folding. Fault and fold geometry can be determined;

therefore it follows that associated fracture patterns can also be determined. In short, there are

many rock and petrophysical characteristics in carbonates that expose a wealth of information

about the origin and architecture of carbonate reservoirs.

Preface

Any rock possessing both the porosity and the permeability necessary both to contain and to

yield oil , gas , or both in commercial quantities, Abundant types of reservoirs are clastic,

carbonate and fractured reservoirs. Carbonate reservoirs are the result of depositional and

diagenetic processes may be heterogeneous and exhibit lateral and vertical variation in porosity

and permeability, their development and production present geologist and engineers with a

different set of problems. To determine reservoir volume and producibility, quantitative estimates

are required of the litho facies (calibrated to porosity and permeability), geometry, orientation,

spatial distribution, and proportion connectedness of permeable and impermeable rock bodies .

Reservoir parameters

To evaluate reservoir character and identification of capacity and producibility of the

hydrocarbon one must explain porosity and permeability and other parameters and their relation

with reservoir development.

Formation temperature

The temperature of the earth usually increases with depth, when a well is drilled into the earth,

shows persistent rise in temperature with depth, which is usually expressed in terms of

temperature gradient or called "Thermal Gradient" that is in Co increase per kilometer of depth.
Formation pressure

Pressure is the force per unit area acting on a surface, measured in kg/cm2 or psi, the several

types of subsurface pressure classified as, overburden pressure includes lithostatic and fluid

pressure, hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures represent two types of fluid pressure. The

formation pressure is the pressure under which the subsurface formation fluids, and gases are

confined, in most geological basins the pressure at which pore fluids are found increase from the

normal (is hydrostatic pressure due to the weight of the fluid column above the formation) to

moderately over pressured (any pressure above the normal for a particular depth). The two types

of fluid pressure are hydrostatic and hydrodynamic; the hydrostatic pressure is imposed by a

column of fluid at rest, for a column of water with salinity of 88,000 ppm of dissolved salts the

hydrostatic gradient is about 0.465 psi/ft, The second type of fluid gradient is the hydrodynamic

pressure gradient, or fluid potential gradient, which is caused by fluid flow, when a well is

drilled; pore fluid has a natural tendency to flow into the well bore which is inhibited by the

density of the drilling mud. Subnormal pressures are those pressures that are less than the

hydrostatic pressure, while that pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure is supernormal

pressure.
Porosity

Porosity can be defined as the ratio of voids to the total volume of rock. Porosity is the first of

the two essential attributes of a reservoir, pore spaces or voids within a rock generally filled with

connate water, but contains oil or gas within a field. Measurement porosity is important in

petroleum engineering to know the size of hydrocarbons in the reservoir. It is necessary to

separate the total porosity and effective porosity. Total porosity is the ratio of the volume

porosity to bulk volume. Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected pores to the volume of

the material.
Classification of porosity

Pores are classified based on morphological view point:

Interconnected pore: these pores have more than one throat connected with other pores.
 Dead end pores: these pores have one throat with other pores.

Closed or Isolated pore: these pores are closed. And do not have throats with other pores.
Classification of porosity based on their time deposition

Reservoir pores are commonly two type primary porosity, and secondary porosity.

Primary porosity: that is developed in the deposition of materials. The primary porosity

are more uniform in their characteristics. For example intergranular porosity of

sandstone.
 Secondary porosity: it is formed in the reservoir after deposition by some geological

process after that to deposition of the rock.

Permeability

Is the property of a medium of allowing fluids to pass through it without change in the structure

of the medium or displacement of its parts, or is the second essential requirement for a reservoir

rock. It is the ability of fluids to pass through a porous material. Measured by millidarcy unit and

generally referred by letter (K).

Classification of permeability:

Absolute permeability: the permeability of the rock to the fluid when the rock is 100%

saturated with the fluid.

 Effective permeability: is defined as apparent permeability to a phase ( oil, gas, water)

or saturation with more than one phase.

Relative permeability: it is used in reservoir calculation. It is defined as the ratio of

effective permeability to absolute permeability.

Saturation

Saturation of any given fluid in pore space is the volume of fluid to the total pore space volume,

saturation is the percentage or fraction of total capacity to hold fluids (porosity) that actually

holds any particular fluid. Saturation and hydrocarbon movability has been determined to show

which permeable zones have potential interest, drive a fairly accurate value of water saturation

and give same valuable information about hydrocarbon movability. Saturation is depended on

pore size and pore throat size. And there is commonly two types of saturation water saturation,

and hydrocarbon saturation.

Water saturation

Is the amount of pore volume in a rock that is occupied by formation water, it is represented as

decimal fraction or as percentage and has the symbol (Sw).

Hydrocarbon saturation

Is the amount of pore volume in a rock that is occupied by hydrocarbon, is usually determined by

the difference between unity and water saturation.