Leonhard Euler

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Leonhard Euler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Leonhard Euler (German pronunciation: [l]; English Leonhard Euler

approximation, "Oiler"[1] 15 April 1707 18
September 1783) was a pioneering Swiss
mathematician and physicist. He made important
discoveries in fields as diverse as infinitesimal calculus
and graph theory. He also introduced much of the
modern mathematical terminology and notation,
particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the
notion of a mathematical function.[2] He is also
renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics,
optics, and astronomy.
Euler spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg,

Russia, and in Berlin, Prussia. He is considered to be
the preeminent mathematician of the 18th century, and
one of the greatest of all time. He is also one of the
most prolific mathematicians ever; his collected works
fill 6080 quarto volumes.[3] A statement attributed to
Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on
mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is our teacher
in all things," which has also been translated as "Read
Portrait by Emanuel Handmann 1756(?)
Euler, read Euler, he is the master of us all."[4]
Born 15 April 1707
Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10- Basel, Switzerland
franc banknote and on numerous Swiss, German, and
Died 18 September 1783 (aged 76)
Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was
[OS: 7 September 1783]
named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the
St. Petersburg, Russia
Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on 24
May he was a devout Christian (and believer in Residence Prussia, Russia
biblical inerrancy) who wrote apologetics and argued Switzerland
forcefully against the prominent atheists of his time.[5] Nationality Swiss
Fields Mathematician and Physicist
Contents Institutions Imperial Russian Academy of
Sciences
1 Life Berlin Academy
1.1 Early years
1.2 St. Petersburg Alma mater University of Basel
1.3 Berlin Doctoral
Johann Bernoulli
1.4 Eyesight deterioration advisor
1.5 Return to Russia Doctoral Nicolas Fuss
students Johann Hennert
2 Contributions to mathematics and physics
2.1 Mathematical notation Joseph Louis Lagrange
2.2 Analysis Stepan Rumovsky
2.3 Number theory Known for See full list
2.4 Graph theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler 5/23/2011
2.5 Applied mathematics

Signature
2.6 Physics and astronomy
2.7 Logic
3 Personal philosophy and religious beliefs
Notes
4 Selected bibliography
He is the father of the mathematician Johann Euler
5 See also
He is listed by academic genealogy authorities as
6 References and notes
the equivalent to the doctoral advisor of Joseph
7 Further reading
Louis Lagrange.
8 External links
Life
Early years
Euler was born on April 15, 1707, in Basel to Paul Euler, a

pastor of the Reformed Church. His mother was Marguerite
Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters named
Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of
Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen,
where Euler spent most of his childhood. Paul Euler was a friend
of the Bernoulli familyJohann Bernoulli, who was then
regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually Old Swiss 10 Franc banknote
be the most important influence on young Leonhard. Euler's honoring Euler
early formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live
with his maternal grandmother. At the age of thirteen he enrolled
at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received his Master of Philosophy with a dissertation that
compared the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon
lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible talent for
mathematics.[6] Euler was at this point studying theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in
order to become a pastor, but Bernoulli convinced Paul Euler that Leonhard was destined to become a
great mathematician. In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title
De Sono.[7] At that time, he was pursuing an (ultimately unsuccessful) attempt to obtain a position at the
University of Basel. In 1727, he entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, where the
problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. He won second place, losing
only to Pierre Bouguera man now known as "the father of naval architecture". Euler subsequently
won this coveted annual prize twelve times in his career.[8]
St. Petersburg
Around this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian
Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. On July 10, 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a
year in Russia, and when Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he
recommended that the post in physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November
1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to St Petersburg while he
unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel.[9]
Euler arrived in the Russian capital on 17 May 1727. He was

promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the
academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged

with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he often worked in close
collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled into life in St
Petersburg. He also took on an additional job as a medic in the
Russian Navy.[10]
The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great,

was intended to improve education in Russia and to close the
scientific gap with Western Europe. As a result, it was made
especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler. The academy
1957 stamp of the former Soviet possessed ample financial resources and a comprehensive library
Union commemorating the 250th drawn from the private libraries of Peter himself and of the
birthday of Euler. The text says: 250 nobility. Very few students were enrolled in the academy in
years from the birth of the great order to lessen the faculty's teaching burden, and the academy
mathematician, academician emphasized research and offered to its faculty both the time and
Leonhard Euler. the freedom to pursue scientific questions.[8]
The Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the

progressive policies of her late husband, died on the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then
gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II. The nobility were suspicious of the
academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut funding and caused other difficulties for Euler and his
colleagues.
Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the
academy and was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up
with the censorship and hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the
head of the mathematics department.[11]
On 7 January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (17071773), a daughter of Georg Gsell, a painter from
the Academy Gymnasium.[12] The young couple bought a house by the Neva River. Of their thirteen
children, only five survived childhood.[13]
Berlin
Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St.

Petersburg on 19 June 1741 to take up a post at the Berlin
Academy, which he had been offered by Frederick the Great of
Prussia. He lived for twenty-five years in Berlin, where he wrote
over 380 articles. In Berlin, he published the two works which he
would be most renowned for: the Introductio in analysin
infinitorum, a text on functions published in 1748, and the
Institutiones calculi differentialis,[14] published in 1755 on
differential calculus.[15] In 1755, he was elected a foreign Stamp of the former German
member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Democratic Republic honoring Euler
In addition, Euler was asked to tutor the Princess of Anhalt- on the 200th anniversary of his death.
Dessau, Frederick's niece. Euler wrote over 200 letters to her, In the middle, it shows his polyhedral
which were later compiled into a best-selling volume entitled formula V + F E = 2.
Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy
Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's
exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics, as well as offering valuable
insights into Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This book became more widely read than any of
his mathematical works, and it was published across Europe and in the United States. The popularity of
the 'Letters' testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay audience, a
rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.[15]
Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave
Berlin. This was partly because of a conflict of personality with Frederick, who came to regard Euler as
unsophisticated, especially in comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the
Academy. Voltaire was among those in Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a prominent
position in the king's social circle. Euler, a simple religious man and a hard worker, was very
conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the direct opposite of Voltaire. Euler had
limited training in rhetoric, and tended to debate matters that he knew little about, making him a
frequent target of Voltaire's wit.[15] Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical
engineering abilities:
I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels
necessary to raise the water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels,
finally spurting out in Sanssouci. My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise
a mouthful of water closer than fifty paces to the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of
geometry![16]
Eyesight deterioration
Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career.

Three years after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735 he became
nearly blind in his right eye, but Euler rather blamed his
condition on the painstaking work on cartography he performed
for the St. Petersburg Academy. Euler's sight in that eye
worsened throughout his stay in Germany, so much so that
Frederick referred to him as "Cyclops". Euler later suffered a
cataract in his good left eye, rendering him almost totally blind a
few weeks after its discovery in 1766. Even so, his condition
appeared to have little effect on his productivity, as he
compensated for it with his mental calculation skills and
photographic memory. For example, Euler could repeat the
Aeneid of Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation, and
for every page in the edition he could indicate which line was the
first and which the last. With the aid of his scribes, Euler's
productivity on many areas of study actually increased. He A 1753 portrait by Emanuel
produced on average one mathematical paper every week in the Handmann. This portrayal suggests
year 1775.[3] problems of the right eyelid, and
possible strabismus. The left eye
Return to Russia appears healthy; it was later affected
by a cataract.[17]
The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the accession
to the throne of Catherine the Great, and in 1766 Euler accepted
an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. His second
stay in the country was marred by tragedy. A fire in St. Petersburg in 1771 cost him his home, and
almost his life. In 1773, he lost his wife Katharina after 40 years of marriage. Three years after his wife's
death Euler married her half sister, Salome Abigail Gsell (17231794).[18] This marriage would last
until his death.
In St Petersburg on 18 September 1783, after a lunch with his family, during a conversation with a
fellow academician Anders Johan Lexell about the newly-discovered Uranus and its orbit, Euler suffered
a brain hemorrhage and died a few hours later.[19] A short obituary for the Russian Academy of
Sciences was written by Jacob von Shtelin and a more detailed eulogy[20] was written and delivered at a
memorial meeting by Russian mathematician Nicolas Fuss, one of the Euler's disciples. In the eulogy
written for the French Academy by the French mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet,
he commented,
...il cessa de calculer et de vivre ... he ceased to calculate and to live.[21]
He was buried next to Katharina at the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island. In 1785, the
Russian Academy of Sciences put a marble bust of Leonhard Euler on a pedestal next to the Director's
seat and, in 1837, placed a headstone on Euler's grave. To commemorate the 250th anniversary of
Euler's birth, the headstone was moved in 1956, together with his remains, to the 18th-century
necropolis at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.[22]
Contributions to mathematics and

physics
Euler's grave at the Alexander

Nevsky Monastery
Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry,

infinitesimal calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, as Part of a series of articles on
well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. The mathematical
He is a seminal figure in the history of mathematics; if printed, his constant e
works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy
between 60 and 80 quarto volumes.[3] Euler's name is associated
with a large number of topics.
Mathematical notation
Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions

through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most
notably, he introduced the concept of a function[2] and was the first
to write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He
also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions,
Natural logarithm Exponential function
the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as
Euler's number), the Greek letter for summations and the letter i Applications in: compound interest Euler's
identity & Euler's formula half-lives &
to denote the imaginary unit.[23] The use of the Greek letter to exponential growth/decay
denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also
Defining e: proof that e is irrational
popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him.[24] representations of e LindemannWeierstrass
theorem
Analysis People John Napier Leonhard Euler
Schanuel's conjecture
The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of
18th century mathematical research, and the Bernoullisfamily friends of Eulerwere responsible for
much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence, studying calculus became the major
focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of
mathematical rigour[25] (in particular his reliance on the principle of the generality of algebra), his ideas
led to many great advances. Euler is well-known in analysis for his frequent use and development of
power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as
Notably, Euler directly proved the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function.
(Indirect proof via the inverse power series technique was given by Newton and Leibniz between 1670
and 1680.) His daring use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 (he
provided a more elaborate argument in 1741):[25]
Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and

logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express
various logarithmic functions using power series, and he
successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex
numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical
applications of logarithms.[23] He also defined the exponential
function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the
trigonometric functions. For any real number , Euler's formula
states that the complex exponential function satisfies
A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,

A geometric interpretation of Euler's
formula
called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard Feynman, for its single uses of the
notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important
constants 0, 1, e, i and .[26] In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most
Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever".[27] In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five
formulae in that poll.[27]
De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.
In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma
function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate
integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis, and
invented the calculus of variations including its best-known result, the EulerLagrange equation.
Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he
united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number
theory. In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series,
hyperbolic trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he
proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic
methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area
led to the development of the prime number theorem.[28]
Number theory
Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the
St. Petersburg Academy. A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre
de Fermat. Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas, and disproved some of his conjectures.
Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the
reciprocals of the primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta
function and the prime numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta
function.
Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and
he made distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function
(n) which is the number of positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n.
Using properties of this function, he generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's
theorem. He contributed significantly to the theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated
mathematicians since Euclid. Euler also made progress toward the prime number theorem, and he
conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The two concepts are regarded as fundamental theorems of
number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss.[29]
By 1772 Euler had proved that 231 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained the
largest known prime until 1867.[30]
Graph theory
In 1736, Euler solved the problem known as the

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg.[31] The city of
Knigsberg, Prussia was set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected
to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem is to decide whether it is possible to
follow a path that crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point. It is not possible:
there is no Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory,
specifically of planar graph theory.[31]
Euler also discovered the formula V E + F = 2 relating the number of vertices, edges, and faces of a
convex polyhedron,[32] and hence of a planar graph.

The constant in this formula is now known as the
Euler characteristic for the graph (or other
mathematical object), and is related to the genus of
the object.[33] The study and generalization of this
formula, specifically by Cauchy[34] and L'Huillier,
[35] is at the origin of topology.
Applied mathematics
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving

real-world problems analytically, and in describing
numerous applications of the Bernoulli numbers,
Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, the Map of Knigsberg in Euler's time showing the
constants e and , continued fractions and integrals. actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the
He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with
river Pregel and the bridges.
Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed tools
that made it easier to apply calculus to physical
problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what
are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these approximations are Euler's
method and the EulerMaclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential equations, in
particular introducing the EulerMascheroni constant:
One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he
wrote the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of
mathematics. This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as
too mathematical for musicians and too musical for mathematicians.[36]
Physics and astronomy
Euler helped develop the EulerBernoulli beam equation,

which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from Classical mechanics
successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in
classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to Newton's Second Law
celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized
History of classical mechanics
by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of his
career. His accomplishments include determining with Timeline of classical mechanics
great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial Branches
bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating
Statics Dynamics / Kinetics Kinematics
the parallax of the sun. His calculations also contributed to
Applied mechanics Celestial mechanics
the development of accurate longitude tables.[37]
Continuum mechanics
In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. Statistical mechanics
He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in
Formulations
the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His
1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory Newtonian mechanics (Vectorial
of light proposed by Christian Huygens would become the

dominant mode of thought, at least until the development mechanics)
of the quantum theory of light.[38] Analytical mechanics:
Lagrangian mechanics
In 1757 he published an important set of equations for Hamiltonian mechanics
inviscid flow, that are now known as the Euler equations.
Fundamental concepts
Logic Space Time Velocity Speed Mass
Acceleration Gravity Force Impulse
He is also credited with using closed curves to illustrate Torque / Moment / Couple Momentum
syllogistic reasoning (1768). These diagrams have become
Angular momentum Inertia
known as Euler diagrams.[39]
Moment of inertia Reference frame
Energy Kinetic energy Potential energy
Personal philosophy and religious Mechanical work Virtual work
beliefs D'Alembert's principle
Core topics
Euler and his friend Daniel Bernoulli were opponents of
Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff. Rigid body Rigid body dynamics
Euler insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics)
basis of precise quantitative laws, something that Motion Newton's laws of motion
monadism and Wolffian science were unable to provide. Newton's law of universal gravitation
Euler's religious leanings might also have had a bearing on
his dislike of the doctrine; he went so far as to label Wolff's Equations of motion
ideas as "heathen and atheistic".[40] Inertial frame of reference
Non-inertial reference frame
Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be Rotating reference frame Fictitious force
deduced from his Letters to a German Princess and an Linear motion
earlier work, Rettung der Gttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen Mechanics of planar particle motion
die Einwrfe der Freygeister (Defense of the Divine
Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers). Displacement (vector) Relative velocity
These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who Friction Simple harmonic motion
believed the Bible to be inspired; the Rettung was primarily Harmonic oscillator Vibration Damping
an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture.[5] Damping ratio Rotational motion
Circular motion Uniform circular motion
There is a famous anecdote inspired by Euler's arguments Non-uniform circular motion
with secular philosophers over religion, which is set during
Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg academy. The Centripetal force Centrifugal force
French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting Russia on Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame)
Catherine the Great's invitation. However, the Empress was Reactive centrifugal force Coriolis force
alarmed that the philosopher's arguments for atheism were Pendulum Rotational speed
influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked Angular acceleration Angular velocity
to confront the Frenchman. Diderot was later informed that
Angular frequency Angular displacement
a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the
existence of God: he agreed to view the proof as it was Scientists
presented in court. Euler appeared, advanced toward
Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton
Diderot, and in a tone of perfect conviction announced,
Jeremiah Horrocks Leonhard Euler
"Sir, , hence God existsreply!". Diderot, to Jean le Rond d'Alembert Alexis Clairaut
whom (says the story) all mathematics was gibberish, stood Joseph Louis Lagrange
dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court.

Embarrassed, he asked to leave Russia, a request that was Pierre-Simon Laplace
graciously granted by the Empress. However amusing the William Rowan Hamilton
anecdote may be, it is apocryphal, given that Diderot was a Simon-Denis Poisson
capable mathematician who had published several
mathematical treatises of his own.[41]
Selected bibliography
Euler has an extensive bibliography. His best known books
include:
Elements of Algebra. This elementary algebra text starts

with a discussion of the nature of numbers and gives a
comprehensive introduction to algebra, including formulae
for solutions of polynomial equations.
Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748). English
translation Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite by John
Blanton (Book I, ISBN 0-387-96824-5, Springer-Verlag
1988; Book II, ISBN 0-387-97132-7, Springer-Verlag
1989).
Two influential textbooks on calculus: Institutiones calculi
differentialis (1755) and Institutionum calculi integralis
(17681770).
Lettres une Princesse d'Allemagne (Letters to a German
Princess) (17681772). Available online (in French).
English translation, with notes, and a life of Euler,
available online from Google Books: Volume 1, Volume 2 The title page of Euler's Methodus
Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive inveniendi lineas curvas.
proprietate gaudentes, sive solutio problematis
isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti (1744). The Latin
title translates as a method for finding curved lines enjoying properties of maximum or minimum,
or solution of isoperimetric problems in the broadest accepted sense.[42]
A definitive collection of Euler's works, entitled Opera Omnia, has been published since 1911 by the
Euler Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences. A complete chronological list of Euler's works is
available at the following page: The Enestrm Index (PDF).
See also
List of topics named after Leonhard Euler
References and notes

1. ^ The pronunciation /julr/ is incorrect. "Euler", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, Oxford
University Press, 1989 "Euler", MerriamWebster's Online Dictionary, 2009. "Euler, Leonhard", The
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
2000. Peter M. Higgins (2007). Nets, Puzzles, and Postmen: An Exploration of Mathematical Connections.
Oxford University Press. p. 43.
2. ^ a b Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America.
p. 17.
3. ^ a b c Finkel, B.F. (1897). "Biography- Leonard Euler". The American Mathematical Monthly 4 (12): 300.
doi:10.2307/2968971. JSTOR 2968971.
4. ^ Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. xiii.
"Lisez Euler, lisez Euler, c'est notre matre tous."
5. ^ a b Euler, Leonhard (1960). Orell-Fussli. ed. "Rettung der Gttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwrfe
der Freygeister". Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia (series 3) 12.
6. ^ James, Ioan (2002). Remarkable Mathematicians: From Euler to von Neumann. Cambridge. p. 2. ISBN 0-
521-52094-0.
7. ^ Translation of Euler's dissertation in English by Ian Bruce
8. ^ a b Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia
Mathematica 23 (2): 156. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015.
9. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia
12. ^ Gekker, I.R.; Euler, A.A. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's family and descendants". In Bogoliubov, N.N.;
Mikhalov, G.K.; Yushkevich, A.P.. Euler and modern science. Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN 0-88385-564-X., p. 402.
13. ^ Fuss, Nicolas. "Eulogy of Euler by Fuss". http://www-history.mcs.st-
and.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Euler_Fuss_Eulogy.html. Retrieved 30 August 2006.
14. ^ "E212 Institutiones calculi differentialis cum eius usu in analysi finitorum ac doctrina serierum".
Dartmouth. http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/pages/E212.html.
15. ^ a b c Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America.
xxivxxv.
16. ^ Frederick II of Prussia (1927). Letters of Voltaire and Frederick the Great, Letter H 7434, 25 January
1778. Richard Aldington. New York: Brentano's.
18. ^ Gekker, I.R.; Euler, A.A. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's family and descendants". In Bogoliubov, N.N.;
Mikhalov, G.K.; Yushkevich, A.P.. Euler and modern science. Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN 0-88385-564-X., p. 405.
19. ^ A. Ya. Yakovlev (1983). Leonhard Euler. M.: Prosvesheniye.
20. ^ "Eloge de M. Leonhard Euler. Par M. Fuss.". Nova Acta Academia Scientarum Imperialis Petropolitanae
1: 159212. 1783.
21. ^ Marquis de Condorcet. "Eulogy of Euler Condorcet".
http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/historica/condorcet.html. Retrieved 30 August 2006.
22. ^ Leonhard Euler at Find a Grave
23. ^ a b Boyer, Carl B.; Uta C. Merzbach (1991). A History of Mathematics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 439445.
ISBN 0-471-54397-7.
24. ^ Wolfram, Stephen. "Mathematical Notation: Past and Future".
http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/talks/mathml/mathml2.html. Retrieved August 2006.
25. ^ a b Wanner, Gerhard; Harrier, Ernst (March 2005). Analysis by its history (1st ed.). Springer. p. 62.
26. ^ Feynman, Richard (June 1970). "Chapter 22: Algebra". The Feynman Lectures on Physics: Volume I.
p. 10.
27. ^ a b Wells, David (1990). "Are these the most beautiful?". Mathematical Intelligencer 12 (3): 3741.
doi:10.1007/BF03024015.
Wells, David (1988). "Which is the most beautiful?". Mathematical Intelligencer 10 (4): 3031.
doi:10.1007/BF03023741.
See also: Peterson, Ivars. "The Mathematical Tourist".
http://www.maa.org/mathtourist/mathtourist_03_12_07.html. Retrieved March 2008.
28. ^ Dunham, William (1999). "3,4". Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America.
29. ^ Dunham, William (1999). "1,4". Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America.
30. ^ Caldwell, Chris. The largest known prime by year
31. ^ a b Alexanderson, Gerald (July 2006). "Euler and Knigsberg's bridges: a historical view". Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society 43: 567. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-06-01130-X.
32. ^ Peter R. Cromwell (1997). Polyhedra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 189190.
33. ^ Alan Gibbons (1985). Algorithmic Graph Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 72.
34. ^ Cauchy, A.L. (1813). "Recherche sur les polydrespremier mmoire". Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique
9 (Cahier 16): 6686.
35. ^ L'Huillier, S.-A.-J. (1861). "Mmoire sur la polydromtrie". Annales de Mathmatiques 3: 169189.
37. ^ Youschkevitch, A P; Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 19701990).
38. ^ Home, R.W. (1988). "Leonhard Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of Light". Annals of Science 45 (5): 521
533. doi:10.1080/00033798800200371.
39. ^ Baron, M. E.; A Note on The Historical Development of Logic Diagrams. The Mathematical Gazette: The
Journal of the Mathematical Association. Vol LIII, no. 383 May 1969.
41. ^ Brown, B.H. (May 1942). "The Euler-Diderot Anecdote". The American Mathematical Monthly 49 (5):
302303. doi:10.2307/2303096. JSTOR 2303096.; Gillings, R.J. (February 1954). "The So-Called Euler-
Diderot Incident". The American Mathematical Monthly 61 (2): 7780. doi:10.2307/2307789.
JSTOR 2307789.
42. ^ E65 Methodus... entry at Euler Archives
Further reading
Lexikon der Naturwissenschaftler, (2000), Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.
Bogolyubov, Mikhailov, and Yushkevich, (2007), Euler and Modern Science, Mathematical
Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-564-X. Translated by Robert Burns.
Bradley, Robert E., D'Antonio, Lawrence A., and C. Edward Sandifer (2007), Euler at 300: An
Appreciation, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-565-8
Demidov, S.S., (2005), "Treatise on the differential calculus" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed.,
Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 19198.
Dunham, William (1999) Euler: The Master of Us All, Washington: Mathematical Association of
America. ISBN 0-88385-328-0
Dunham, William (2007), The Genius of Euler: Reflections on his Life and Work, Mathematical
Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-558-5
Fraser, Craig G., (2005), "Leonhard Euler's 1744 book on the calculus of variations" in Grattan-
Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 16880.
Gladyshev, Georgi, P. (2007), Leonhard Eulers methods and ideas live on in the thermodynamic
hierarchical theory of biological evolution, International Journal of Applied Mathematics &
Statistics (IJAMAS) 11 (N07), Special Issue on Leonhard Paul Eulers: Mathematical Topics and
Applications (M. T. A.).
Gautschi, Walter (2008). "Leonhard Euler: his life, the man, and his works". SIAM Review 50 (1):
333. Bibcode 2008SIAMR..50....3G. doi:10.1137/070702710.
Heimpell, Hermann, Theodor Heuss, Benno Reifenberg (editors). 1956. Die groen Deutschen,
volume 2, Berlin: Ullstein Verlag.
Krus, D.J. (2001). "Is the normal distribution due to Gauss? Euler, his family of gamma functions,
functions, and their place in the history of statistics". Quality and Quantity: International Journal
of Methodology 35: 44546. http://www.visualstatistics.net/Statistics/Euler/Euler.htm.
Nahin, Paul (2006), Dr. Euler's Fabulous Formula, New Jersey: Princeton, ISBN 978-0-691-
11822-2
du Pasquier, Louis-Gustave, (2008) Leonhard Euler And His Friends, CreateSpace, ISBN 1-4348-
3327-5. Translated by John S.D. Glaus.
Reich, Karin, (2005), " 'Introduction' to analysis" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings
in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 18190.
Richeson, David S. (2008), Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology.
Princeton University Press.
Sandifer, Edward C. (2007), The Early Mathematics of Leonhard Euler, Mathematical
Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-559-3
Sandifer, Edward C. (2007), How Euler Did It, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-
88385-563-1
Simmons, J. (1996) The giant book of scientists: The 100 greatest minds of all time, Sydney: The
Book Company.
Singh, Simon. (1997). Fermat's last theorem, Fourth Estate: New York, ISBN 1-85702-669-1
Thiele, Rdiger. (2005). The mathematics and science of Leonhard Euler, in Mathematics and the
Historian's Craft: The Kenneth O. May Lectures, G. Van Brummelen and M. Kinyon (eds.), CMS
Books in Mathematics, Springer Verlag. ISBN 0-387-25284-3.
"A Tribute to Leohnard Euler 17071783". Mathematics Magazine 56 (5). November 1983.
External links
Weisstein, Eric W., Euler, Leonhard (17071783) from ScienceWorld.
Encyclopedia Britannica article
Leonhard Euler at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
How Euler did it contains columns explaining how Euler solved various problems
Euler Archive
Euler Committee of the Swiss Academy of Sciences
References for Leonhard Euler
Euler Tercentenary 2007
The Euler Society
Leonhard Euler Congress 2007St. Petersburg, Russia
Project Euler
Euler Family Tree
Euler's Correspondence with Frederick the Great, King of Prussia
"Euler 300th anniversary lecture", given by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 9 May 2007 (can
download as video or audio files)
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Leonhard Euler", MacTutor History of Mathematics
archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-
andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Euler.html.
Euler Quartic Conjecture
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Leonhard Euler - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 14

Leonhard Euler (German pronunciation: [l]; English Leonhard Euler

Euler spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg,

2.5 Applied mathematics

Euler was born on April 15, 1707, in Basel to Paul Euler, a

Euler arrived in the Russian capital on 17 May 1727. He was

academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged

The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great,

The Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the

Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St.

Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career.

...il cessa de calculer et de vivre ... he ceased to calculate and to live.[21]

Contributions to mathematics and

Euler's grave at the Alexander

Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry,

Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions

Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and

A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,

De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.

In 1736, Euler solved the problem known as the

convex polyhedron,[32] and hence of a planar graph.

Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving

Physics and astronomy

Euler helped develop the EulerBernoulli beam equation,

of light proposed by Christian Huygens would become the

dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court.

Elements of Algebra. This elementary algebra text starts

References and notes

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"

This page was last modified on 18 May 2011 at 23:03.

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Leonhard Euler (German pronunciation: [l]; English Leonhard Euler