General Awareness: Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Introduction

The word biodiversity is used to explain the variety of life on Earth, and is considered at
different levels of biological organization including genes, species and ecosystems. Biodiversity
is most often understood in terms of the number of species or other taxa and can be considered
at different spatial scales such as Whittakers definitions of alpha, beta and gamma diversity.
Biodiversity is not distributed evenly over the world, leading to Myers concept of biodiversity
hotspots.

The importance of biodiversity was one of the key subjects of the 1992 World Summit held in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which resulted in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The
goals of the CBD are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic
resources. Nevertheless, human actions have caused huge losses in biodiversity, including the
disruption of ecosystem processes, habitat destruction, species extinction and the eroding of
genetic diversity within species.

In order to understand and conserve biodiversity we need to measure it effectively, with species
richness being the most frequently used measure of biodiversity. At the moment around 1.75
million species have been identified and estimates for the total number vary from 3 to 100
million. Identifying, naming and examining the relationships between species depends on
highly skilled taxonomists and the general lack of taxonomic expertise and infrastructure has
been called the taxonomic impediment. The Global Taxonomy Initiative has developed a
programme of work that attempts to reverse this impediment, whilst molecular techniques such
as DNA bar-coding provide an important way forward.

Measuring biodiversity

In order to think about fundamental questions associated with biodiversity, such as where it
occurs, how fast it is disappearing or how it can be maintained; we first need to be able to
measure it. This is actually very difficult to do as biodiversity is a multidimensional concept that
cannot be reduced to a single number (Purvis & Hector 2000). Imagine two islands with
different organisms: island A has 6 reptiles, 1 bird and 1 mammal. Island B has 4 reptiles and 4

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mammals. We could say that island A is more diverse as it has 3 different taxa whilst island B
has only 2, but island B has a more even spread of the two taxa. Neither measure is wrong as
richness and evenness are both facets of biodiversity and no single number can incorporate
both without loss of information. Purvis & Hector (2000) describe three facets of biodiversity
that can be measured:

Numbers: e.g. the number of genes, populations, species or taxa in an area.

Evenness: a site containing 1000 species may not seem very diverse if 99.9% of the
species are the same. Many diversity indices have been developed such as Simpsons and
Shannons diversity indices that attempt to convey the extent to which individuals are
distributed among species. There are also equivalent measures for genetic diversity such
as measures of heterozygosity that incorporate both allele number and relative
frequencies.
Difference: some pairs of alleles, populations, species or taxa may be very similar whilst
others are very different. For example, if populations within a species are very different
they may be considered as different sub-species, management units or evolutionary
significant units. Some differences may be considered to be more important than others,
for example, ecological differences between species may be important for ecosystem
function. All of these kinds of differences are likely to be at least partly reflected by
phylogenetic diversity among organisms, which is the sum total of the branch lengths in
the evolutionary tree (phylogeny) that links the organisms together. If you sample the
phylogeny in different places you will find different things.

Although biodiversity can be measured in lots of different ways the most commonly used
measure is that of species richness, there are a number of reasons for this:

1. Species often keep their genes to themselves and thus can have independent
evolutionary trajectories and unique histories; it thus makes biological sense to measure
species richness rather than a higher taxonomic grouping.
2. It is often easier to count the number of species compared to other measures of
biodiversity. Humans tend to be able to recognise species and these are the units
typically used in folk knowledge, practical management and political discourse. Humans
can visualise variation in biodiversity as variation in species richness.
3. There is a substantial body of information already available on species, for example, in
museums and herbaria.
4. Species richness can act as a surrogate for other measures of biodiversity. In general as
long as the number of species involved is moderate, greater numbers of species will tend

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to have more genetic diversity and will tend to have greater ecological diversity as more
niches, habitats or biomes will be represented.

There are however some disadvantages in the use of species richness as a measure of
biodiversity. One of these is that the number of species that you count depends on the species
concept that you adopt. For example, using the biological species concept 40 42 species of
birds-of-paradise are recognised in Australasia; if the phylogenetic species concept is used this
increases to 90 species (Gaston & Spicer 2004). Another limitation arises if species richness is
used synonymously with biodiversity without emphasising the fact that species richness
represents just one element of what biodiversity is.

We also need to consider the spatial scale over which species richness can be considered, with a
distinction commonly being made between alpha, beta and gamma diversity. Alpha diversity
refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem and is typically measured
as the number of species within that area. Beta diversity is the species diversity between areas
and involves comparing the number of species that are unique to each area. Gamma diversity is
a measure of the overall diversity across a region .

Loss of biodiversity:

Humans have increased the species extinction rate by as much as 1,000 times over background
rates typical over the planets history. 1030% of mammal, bird, and amphibian species are
currently threatened with extinction . If we assume that there are around 14 million species on
Earth at present, then each year the tree of life grows by an extra 14 Myr of branch length. The
average age of extant species is nearly 5 Myr (this data is from primates and carnivores, species
in other groups may well be older). So the tree can afford at most about three species
extinctions per year without shrinking overall. There have been roughly this many documented
species extinctions per year since 1600 and many extinctions will not have been documented.
Last century saw the extinction of 20 mammalian species, a pruning of the mammalian tree that
would require at least 200 centuries to redress.

The largest assessment of the effect of humans on the Earths ecosystems was started in 2000
and called the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). It found that over the past 50 years,
humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period
of time in human history and that this has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss
in the diversity of life on Earth. It stresses that the loss of species and genetic diversity decreases
the resilience of ecosystems, and that human impacts such as over-harvesting, climate change,

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invasive species, and nutrient loading push ecosystems toward thresholds that they might
otherwise not encounter.

Causes of biodiversity loss:

1) Habitat change:

Humans have had an effect on every habitat on Earth, particularly due to the conversion of land
for agriculture. Cultivated systems (areas where at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands,
shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture) now cover one
quarter of Earths terrestrial surface. Habitat loss also occurs in coastal and marine systems,
though these changes are less well documented. Trawling of the seabed, for instance, can
significantly reduce the diversity of benthic habitats.

2) climate change:

Observed recent changes in climate, especially warmer regional temperatures, have already had
significant impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, including causing changes in species
distributions, population sizes, the timing of reproduction or migration events, and an increase
in the frequency of pest and disease outbreaks. By the end of the twenty-first century, climate
change and its impacts are likely to be the dominant direct driver of biodiversity loss and
changes in ecosystem services globally

3) Invasive species:

The spread of invasive alien species has increased because of increased trade and travel. While
increasingly there are measures to control some of the pathways of invasive species, for
example, through quarantine measures and new rules on the disposal of ballast water in
shipping, several pathways are not adequately regulated, particularly with regard to
introductions into freshwater systems

4) over-exploitation:

For marine systems, the dominant direct driver of change globally has been overfishing.
Demand for fish as food for people and as feed for aquaculture production is increasing,
resulting in increased risk of major, long-lasting collapses of regional marine fisheries. 50% of
the worlds commercial marine fisheries are fully exploited whilst 25% are being overexploited.

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For example, the Atlantic cod stocks off the east coast of Newfoundland collapsed in 1992,
forcing the closure of the fishery, the depleted stocks may not recover even if harvesting is
significantly reduced or eliminated.

5) pollution:

Since 1950, human mediated increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and other nutrients
(nutrient loading) has emerged as one of the most important drivers of ecosystem change in
terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal ecosystems, and this driver is projected to increase
substantially in the future. For example, humans now produce more biologically available
nitrogen than is produced by all natural pathways combined. Aerial deposition of reactive
nitrogen into natural terrestrial ecosystems, especially temperate grasslands, shrub-lands, and
forests, leads directly to lower plant diversity; excessive levels of reactive nitrogen in water
bodies, including rivers and other wetlands, frequently leads to algal blooms and eutrophication
in inland waters and coastal areas (figure 9). Similar problems have resulted from phosphorus,
the use of which has tripled between 1960 and 1990. Nutrient loading will become an
increasingly severe problem, particularly in developing countries and particularly in East and
South Asia.

Conserving biodiversity:

The following actions that have been at least partly successful in reducing biodiversity loss and
can be further strengthened in the future:

Protected areas.
Species protection and recovery measures for threatened species.
Ex situ and in situ conservation of genetic diversity (e.g. genebanks).
Ecosystem restoration.
Payments and markets for biodiversity and ecosystem services (e.g. for ecotourism or
carbon sequestration).
Incorporating considerations of biodiversity conservation into management practices in
sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.
Capture of benefits by local communities (i.e. ensuring local people benefit from the
conservation of the biodiversity around them).
Increased co-ordination among multilateral environmental agreements and between
environmental agreements and other international economic and social institutions (i.e.
ensuring that ecosystem services are considered in all international agreements and

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treaties and that those concerning biodiversity co-ordinate with those focusing on other
areas such as economics and trade).
Public awareness, communication, and education.
Enhancement of human and institutional capacity for assessing the consequences of
ecosystem change for human well-being and acting on such assessments.
Increased integration of sectoral responses (i.e. biodiversity issues in agriculture, fishery,
and forestry management in many countries are the responsibility of independent
ministries, these ministries need to establish processes that encourage the development
of cross-sectoral policies).
Elimination of subsidies that promote excessive use of ecosystem services.
Sustainable intensification of agriculture.
Slowing and adapting to climate change.
Addressing unsustainable consumption patterns.
Slowing the global growth in nutrient loading.
Correction of market failures and internalization of environmental externalities that lead
to the degradation of ecosystem services. (Because many ecosystem services are not
formally traded, markets fail to provide appropriate signals that might otherwise
contribute to their efficient allocation and sustainable use. In addition, many of the
harmful trade-offs and costs associated with the management of one ecosystem service
are borne by others and so are not weighed in sectoral decisions regarding the
management of that service).
Integration of biodiversity conservation and development planning.
Increased transparency and accountability of government and private-sector
performance in decisions that affect ecosystems, including through greater involvement
of concerned stakeholders in decision-making.
Scientific findings and data need to be made available to all of society.

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CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

Life exhibits varying degrees of organization. Atoms are organized into molecules, molecules

into organelles, and organelles into cells, and so on. According to the Cell Theory, all living

things are composed of one or more cells, and the functions of a multicellular organism are a

consequence of the types of cells it has. Cells fall into two broad groups: prokaryotes and

eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells are smaller (as a general rule) and lack much of the internal

compartmentalization and complexity of eukaryotic cells. No matter which type of cell we are

considering, all cells have certain features in common, such as a cell membrane, DNA and RNA,

cytoplasm, and ribosomes. Eukaryotic cells have a great variety of organelles and structures.

Cell Size and Shape

The shapes of cells are quite varied with some, such as neurons, being longer than they are wide
and others, such as parenchyma (a common type of plant cell) and erythrocytes (red blood cells)
being equidimensional. Some cells are encased in a rigid wall, which constrains their shape,
while others have a flexible cell membrane (and no rigid cell wall).

The size of cells is also related to their functions. Eggs (or to use the latin word, ova) are very

large, often being the largest cells an organism produces. The large size of many eggs is related
to the process of development that occurs after the egg is fertilized, when the contents of the egg

(now termed a zygote) are used in a rapid series of cellular divisions, each requiring

tremendous amounts of energy that is available in the zygote cells. Later in life the energy must

be acquired, but at first a sort of inheritance/trust fund of energy is used.

The Cell Membrane

The cell membrane functions as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing a very few molecules across
it while fencing the majority of organically produced chemicals inside the cell. Electron
microscopic examinations of cell membranes have led to the development of the lipid bilayer
model (also referred to as the fluid-mosaic model). The most common molecule in the model is

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the phospholipid, which has a polar (hydrophilic) head and two nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails.
These phospholipids are aligned tail to tail so the nonpolar areas form a hydrophobic region
between the hydrophilic heads on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane. This layering
is termed a bilayer since an electron microscopic technique known as freeze-fracturing is able to
split the bilayer.

The Cell Wall

Not all living things have cell walls, most notably animals and many of the more animal-like

protistans. Bacteria have cell walls containing the chemical peptidoglycan. The cell wall is

located outside the plasma membrane. Plasmodesmata are connections through which cells

communicate chemically with each other through their thick walls. Fungi and many protists

have cell walls although they do not contain cellulose, rather a variety of chemicals (chitin for

fungi).is able to split the bilayer.

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The nucleus, shown in Figures 6 and 7, occurs only in eukaryotic cells. It is the location for most

of the nucleic acids a cell makes, such as DNA and RNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, is the

physical carrier of inheritance and with the exception of plastid DNA (cpDNA and mDNA,

found in the chloroplast and mitochondrion respectively) all DNA is restricted to the nucleus.

Ribonucleic acid, RNA, is formed in the nucleus using the DNA base sequence as a template.

RNA moves out into the cytoplasm where it functions in the assembly of proteins. The

nucleolus is an area of the nucleus (usually two nucleoli per nucleus) where ribosomes are

constructed.

Structure of the nucleus, the chromatin, uncoiled DNA that occupies the space within the

nuclear envelope.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the material between the plasma membrane (cell membrane) and the nuclear
envelope. Fibrous proteins that occur in the cytoplasm, referred to as the cytoskeleton maintain
the shape of the cell as well as anchoring organelles, moving the cell and controlling internal
movement of structures. Microtubules function in cell division and serve as a "temporary
scaffolding" for other organelles. Actin filaments are thin threads that function in cell division

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and cell motility. Intermediate filaments are between the size of the microtubules and the actin
filaments.

Vacuoles and vesicles:

Vacuoles are single-membrane organelles that are essentially part of the outside that is located
within the cell. The single membrane is known in plant cells as a tonoplast. Many organisms
will use vacuoles as storage areas. Vesicles are much smaller than vacuoles and function in
transporting materials both within and to the outside of the cell.

Ribosomes:

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They are not membrane-bound and thus occur in

both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotic ribosomes are slightly larger than prokaryotic

ones. Structurally, the ribosome consists of a small and larger subunit, as shown in Figure 11. .

Biochemically, the ribosome consists of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and some 50 structural proteins.

Often ribosomes cluster on the endoplasmic reticulum, in which case they resemble a series of

factories adjoining a railroad line.

Structure of the ribosome:

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Endoplasmic reticulum:

Endoplasmic reticulum is a mesh of interconnected membranes that serve a function involving

protein synthesis and transport. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER) is so-named because

of its rough appearance due to the numerous ribosomes that occur along the ER. Rough ER

connects to the nuclear envelope through which the messenger RNA (mRNA) that is the

blueprint for proteins travels to the ribosomes. Smooth ER; lacks the ribosomes characteristic of

Rough ER and is thought to be involved in transport and a variety of other functions.

Golgi Apparatus and Dictyosomes

Golgi Complexes are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs. Italian biologist Camillo Golgi
discovered these structures in the late 1890s, although their precise role in the cell was not
deciphered until the mid-1900s . Golgi function as a packaging plant, modifying vesicles
produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum. New membrane material is assembled in
various cisternae (layers) of the golgi.

Dictyosome consists of flattened membranous sacs. They look like a stack of pita bread. A cell
may have several interconnected stacks. Each cisterna in a stack consists of a membrane. This
membrane separates its internal space from the cytosol. Vesicles concentrated near the Golgi

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apparatus. They are used in the transfer of material between the Golgi and other structures. The
number of dictoysomes may be few hundreds in plant cells. But lower organisms have only 4 or
less dictoysomes.

After leaving the ER, mans transport vesicles travel to the Golgi apparatus. Golgi apparatus is a
center of manufacturing, storing, and transportation. Here. products are modified and then sent
to other parts. The Golgi apparatus are extensive in cells specialized for secretion.

Dictyosome generally has two poles. The membranes of cisternae differ in thickness and
molecular composition at opposite ends of a stack. The two poles of a Golgi stack are:

(a) The cis-face (or forming face): The cis face is located near ER.

(b) The trans face (or maturing face): This end acts as the receiving and shipping departments
of the Golgi apparatus.

Formation of secretions in Dictoysomes: Following steps take place during formation of

secretions: Transport vesicles move .material from the ER to the Golgi. A vesicle buds from the
ER. They forms transport vesicles. This transport vesicle fuses w ith cis face of Golgi apparatus
and transfer its contents to Golgi membrane. The trans face gives rise to secretary vesicles. These
secretary vesicles pinch off and travel to other sites.

Products of the ER are modified during transport from the cis pole to the trans pole of the Golgi
Proteins. Various Golgi enzymes modify oligosaccharide portions of glycoproteins. The
oligosaccharides of glycoproteins are identical in the ER. The Golgi removes some sugar
monomers and substitutes others. So they produce different types of oligo saccharides. The
trans face of the ribosomes budded of as secretary vesicle.

The secretary vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane. This product is finally exported outside.

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Functions of Golgi apparatus:

Golgi complex performs following functions:

I. Cell secretions: Golgi complex are concerned with cell secretions. For example in mammals,
the pancreas secretes granules. These granules contain enzymes that help in digestion.

Transportation: Golgi apparatus transport the proteins or enzymes outside the cell.

Formation of Glyeoproteins and glycolipids: It is the mostimportant function of the Golgi

apparatus. They add carbohydrate to protein and lipids to form glycoprotein and glycolipids.4.
Formation of cell wall: The dictoysomes forms a structure called phragmoplast between the
dividing plant cells. Phragmoplast form new cell wall between dividing cell.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are relatively large vesicles formed by the Golgi. They contain hydrolytic enzymes

that could destroy the cell. Lysosome contents function in the extracellular breakdown of

materials.They are tiny sacs filled with fluid containing enzymes (i.e. proteins that act as

biological catalysts) which enable the cell to process its nutrients and are also responsible for

destroying the cell after it has died. Lysosomes are the main sites of digestion, that is the break-

down of structures, within cells. There are, however, some circumstances (diseases/conditions)

in which lysosomes begin to 'break-down' living cells - not just useless parts of cells or

potentially harmful structures. A defining characteristic of lysosomes is that each one is

bounded by only a single membrane.

Structure of Lysosomes:

The outer surface is formed by a single membrane, a phospholipid bilayer that can fuse with
some other membrane-bound organelles. Approx. spherical shape of diameter ranging up to
one micrometre (1 m). A single lysosome contains many enzyme molecules. The enzymes
contained within lysosomes are known collectively as acid hydrolases and work best at in acidic

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environments, i.e. at low pH. The interior of lysosomes is acidic (about pH 4.8 to 5) compared
with the slightly basic (about pH 7.2) intracellular fluid, which is also called cytosol, that
surrounds organelles such as lysosomes within cells.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the cell,

converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy

"currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. This process is called aerobic

respiration and is the reason animals breathe oxygen. Without mitochondria (singular,

mitochondrion), higher animals would likely not exist because their cells would only be able to

obtain energy from anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen), a process much less

efficient than aerobic respiration. In fact, mitochondria enable cells to produce 15 times more

ATP than they could otherwise, and complex animals, like humans, need large amounts of

energy in order to survive.

The number of mitochondria present in a cell depends upon the metabolic requirements of that
cell, and may range from a single large mitochondrion to thousands of the organelles.
Mitochondria, which are found in nearly all eukaryotes, including plants, animals, fungi, and
protists, are large enough to be observed with a light microscope and were first discovered in

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the 1800s. The name of the organelles was coined to reflect the way they looked to the first
scientists to observe them, stemming from the Greek words for "thread" and "granule." For
many years after their discovery, mitochondria were commonly believed to transmit hereditary
information.

Plastids

Plastids are also membrane-bound organelles that only occur in plants and photosynthetic
eukaryotes. Leucoplasts, also known as amyloplasts store starch, as well as sometimes protein or
oils. Chromoplasts store pigments associated with the bright colors of flowers and/or fruits.

Starch grains in a fresh-cut potato tuber:

Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in eukaryotes. They contain chlorophyll, the green
pigment necessary for photosynthesis to occur, and associated accessory pigments (carotenes
and xanthophylls) in photosystems embedded in membranous sacs.Chloroplasts contain many
different types of accessory pigments, depending on the taxonomic group of the organism being
observed.

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Structure of the chloroplast.

Levels of Organization

In unicellular (single-celled) organisms, the single cell performs all life functions. It functions
independently. However, multicellular (many celled) organisms have various levels of
organization within them. Individual cells may perform specific functions and also work
together for the good of the entire organism. The cells become dependent on one another.

Multicellular organisms have the following 5 levels of organization ranging from simplest to
most complex:

LEVEL 1 Cells:

Are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.

May serve a specific function within the organism. Examples- blood cells, nerve cells,
bone cells, etc.

LEVEL 2 Tissues:

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Made up of cells that are similar in structure and function and which work together to

perform a specific activity. Examples - blood, nervous, bone, etc. Humans have 4 basic

tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and nerve.

LEVEL 3 Organs:

Made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. Examples - heart,
brain, skin, etc.

LEVEL 4 - Organ Systems:

Groups of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function for the
organism.

Examples - circulatory system, nervous system, skeletal system, etc. The Human body
has 11 organ systems - circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory (urinary),
immune(lymphatic), integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and
skeletal.

LEVEL 5 Organisms:

Entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes. Meaning they can take in
materials, release energy from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the environment,
and reproduce. Usually made up of organ systems, but an organism may be made up of
only one cell such as bacteria or protist. Examples - bacteria, amoeba, mushroom,
sunflower, human

1. CLASSIFICATION OF THE PLANT KINGDOM (Plantae)

The plant kingdom is classified into a number of divisions, viz.,

1.1 Rhodophyta (Red algae) Are mostly multicellular marine plants (some 2500 species)
ranging from simple filaments to large plants (even 10 ft long). Reproduction is mainly

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sexual through complex reproductive systems. They are found attached to rocks or other

algae. Their reddish colour is due to a pigment called phycaerythrin.

1.2 Phaeophyta (Brown alage) are multicellular marine plants growing on rocks or attached
to sea shores, ranging from a few millimeter to massive plants up to 200 ft. Reproduction
in these plants is both sexual and asexual. Their brownish colour is due to xanthophylls
pigment called fucoxanthin.

1.3 Chlorphyta (Green algae) Are a group of bright green (some 3700 species) mostly
aquatic plant, unicellular, colonial and multicellular. Reproduction in these plants is both
sexual and asexual. They are found in abundance in fresh water as well as sea water, on
tree trunks, moist rocks, leaf surfaces and soil.

1.4 Bryophyta Simple, non-vascular small plants grow in moist places. The plant body is
thallus-like and remains attached to the soil by rhizoids. They lack roots, flowers and
seeds. Reproduction is mainly through vegetative means or sexual, e.g., liverworts,
hornworts, mosses, etc.

1.5 Lycopodophyta (Club mosses) Multicellular terrestrial plants with vascular tissues. Their
body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. Stem not joined; spores are produced
in the axis of fertile leaves, mostly aggregated into club like terminal cones.

1.6 Arthophyta ( Horsetails) Are multicellular pants with vascular tissues. The plant body is
divided into root, stem and small whorled leaves. They have upright stems which grow
from underground branches. Arthopthyta are largely an extinct group represented by a
single living genus, the Equisetum (the horsetails).

1.7 Pterophyta (Ferns) Are multicellular plants with vascular tissues; the body is
differentiate into root, stem and leaves; contain spores for reproduction which are
produced usually in the lower surface of the leaves or on their margins. Seeds are not
produced.

1.8 Cycadophyta Are multicellular terrestrial plants with vascular tissues (without vessels).
The plant body is divided into root, stem and leaves. The stem is large and woody, leaves
are large and fern like, e.g., Cycas (sago palm), Zamia (sago tree). etc.

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1.9 Coniferophyta (Conifers) Are multicellular plants with well-developed tissues. The main
plant body is large and woody, leave are simple, smaller than Cycadophyta and needle
like. Examples: Cedrus (deodar). Taxus (yew).

1.10 Anthrophyta (Angiosperms) More advanced flowering plants with well- developed
vascular tissues, predominantly saprophytic with a well-differentiated body of roots,

stem and leaves. They occur in almost all places and make up more than half of all

known species of plants about 200,000 species. They range in size from minute

floating duck weeds to giant eucalyptus and silk cotton trees, and include plants of a

great variety of forms cacti, water lilies, sunflowers, orchids, pitcher plants, Indian

pipe, etc. The reproductory organ of these plants are flowers, and the seeds are enclosed

within an ovary which develops into a fruit-wall. The distinct parts of the body of these

plants are:

Root is the descending and positively geotropic parts of the plant, which develops from the
radical or the primary root. It anchors the plant to the soil and absorbs water and minerals
and salts from the soil.
Stem is the ascending and negatively geotropic part of the plant. It bears nodes and
internodes and supports leaves, flowers and fruit.
Leaves are generally green and carry out the function of synthesis of food (photosynthesis)
Flower is the reproductive organ of angiosperms. It generally consists of four whorls: Sepals,
Petals, stamens and pistils. After pollination and fertilization and ovary of the pistil develops
into fruit and the ovules into seeds. Some flowers are found in groups or a clusters which
are called peduncle. The arrangement of flowers on the peduncle is called inflorescence. The
ripened ovary becomes a fruit which generally contains seeds. On the basis of morphology.
Angiosperms are further classified into : (i) herbs, (ii) shrubs and trees On the basis of age,
they are grouped as:

(i) Perennials which live for many years

(ii) Annuals which produce flowers and fruit in the course of a single season.

(iii) Biennials which live for two seasons.

There are two major classes of Angiosperms, viz:

i) Dictoyledons These plants have two cotyledons in their seeds and may be annuals,
biennials, or perennials, e.g., gram.

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ii) Monocotyledon These are mostly annuals and have onlyl one cotyledon in their
seeds.
Other classification
1. Terrestrial plants which grow on soil.

2. Hydrophytes plants which grow in water.

3. Epiphytes plants which perch on other plants but do not take nourishment from them. They
are not rooted in soil but grow upon branches and stems of other plants, e.g., urn plant.

4. Xerophytes are adapted to grow in a dry habitat like deserts and can survive without
moisture, e.g., Cacti.

5. Mesophytes thrive under conditions intermediate between very wet and very dry. The great
variety of crops, e.g., beans, tomatoes, peas, etc., belong to this category.

6. Parasitic which depend on other plants for their nourishment. They lack chlorophyll and
thus cannot make their own food, e.g., bacteria and fungi.

7. Carnivorous Plants which trap insects and other small creatures on their sticky leaves and

digest them to obtain nitrogen and other material essential for their growth. They are also
called insectivorous plants. Bladderwort.

2. Modification of Plant Parts

Sometimes certain parts of a plant are modified to carry out specific functions:

2.1 Root Modifications

(i) Storage Roots Store food material, e.g., carrot, reddish, turnip, sweet potato.
(ii) Aerial Roots are aerial nodes that develop from the stem and go into the soil. Example:
Still roots of sugarcane and maize, prop roots of banyan trees which provide reinforcement
to the stout branches.

(iii) Parasitic Roots Arise from stem and penetrate into the host plant. They are called

Haustoria . Example: Cuscuta.

(iv) Respiratory Roots have pores and are founding plants that thrive in swamps, e.g.,
Rhizophora.

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(v) Assimilatory Roots contain chlorophyll and perform the function of carbon assimilation,
e.g., Trapa roots.

(vi) Epiphytic Roots are aerial roots which absorb moisture from air, e.g., Vanda roots

2.2 Stem Modification In some plants the stem is modified to perform different functions, viz.,
(i) Rhizomes Underground modification of the stem. They bear nodes and store food
material, e.g., ginger, grass and canna.
(ii) Tuber are swollen tips of underground branches that store food, e.g., potato.
(iii) Corm underground stem which bears leaves, e.g., saffron, gladiolus,
(iv) Bulb is a modified underground stem in the form of a disc-like structure that bears
fleshy leaves that store food material, e.g, onion, lilies.
(v) Cladophyll is a modification of the stem into a large, flat green and fleshy structure that
bears leaves into spines. Such stems carry out the function of leaves, e.g., cactus. (vi) Tendril
an aerial modification of the stem where the stem becomes a long, slender, coiling structure
serving as an organ of attachment for certain climbing plants. It helps the plant to climb up
the support, such as graphes.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM (ANIMALAE)

The entire animal kingdom is broadly classified into two main groups, viz.
(1) Protozoa

Single celled microscopic organisms in which all functions are performed within a
single cell itself, e.g., amoeba.
(2) Metazoa

Multicellular organisms in which cells are groups together to form tissues, organs and
systems. All animals, including man, are placed under the Metazoa sub-kingdom.
Metazoa are further classified into two main groups. Viz.
1. Invertebrates They do not possess a vertebral column, and are classified into various
phyla:

a) Porifera are fixed multicellular organisms, aquatic and have a porus and cylindrical body
e.g., Ascom Sycon (sponges).

b) Coelenterata are sac- like multicellular organism, aquatic creatures with tentacles
stinging cells; possess tissues and digestive cavity, e.g., Hydra, Obelia, Aurelia (jelly fish).

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c) Platyhelminthes are both parasitic and free- living organisms that have a flat body, thin,
soft and appear leaf or ribbon- like, e.g., liver fluke, pork tapeworm, blood fluke, etc.

d) Nemathelminthes are both parasitic and free-living organism, with a round body and
possess a mouth and anus, e.g., roundworms, filarial, hooke worms, etc.

e) Annelida These are mostly free-living wormlike organisms having soft, round and
segmented bodies (marked with external rings). e.g., earthworm, leech, sea mouse.

f) Arthropoda is a large group of organisms having joined feet, segmented body and an

external skeleton (exoskeleton) and are classified into four large classes:

(i) Crustaceans Arthropods with limbs attached to most segments, e.g., Palaemon ( prawn)
Dophinai (water flea), Branchipus (Shrimp).

(ii) Insects - Arthropods with three pairs of legs and body divided into three part, e.g.,
Periplanta (cockroach), Pailio (butterfuly) Musca (housefly), Culex (mosquito).

(iii)Arachnids Arthropods with four pairs of legs and body divided into two parts e.g.,
Buthus (scorpion), Lycosa (wolf spider).

(iv) Myriapods Arthropods with body divided into a number of similar segments with one
or two pairs of legs to most segments, e.g., Scolopendra (centipede), Julus (millipede).

(g) Mollusca are shell-bearing organisms having an unsegmented body without

appendages. They possess a ventral muscular organ called a foot for locomotion, e.g.,
Pila (apple or pond snail), Limax (slug) Sepia (cuttlefish).

(h) Echinodermata include spiny-skinned animals built on a five-radial plan. They move my
numerous soft tube-like structures called tube feet, and are marine by habitation, eg.,
Astropecten (Starfish), Antedon (seajelly) Exchinus (sea urchin), etc.

Largest known invertebrate The Giant Squid belongingto Phyla Mollusca, the body of which
measures about 6 m and tentacles may measure up to 10m.

2. Vertebrates The remaining animals with a vertebral column are grouped under this main
class also known as Phylum Chordata. There are however, a few forms that lack backbones
and are considered primitive protochordates. Phylum chordate has three unique
characteristics, viz. (i) A dorsal, hollow tubular nerve cord;

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(ii) a notochord which is ventral to the nerve cord and is replaced by cartilage or bone to
form a vertebral column in higher vertebrates, and (iii) Gill slits in the phyarynx.
Chordata is further divided into the following classes:
1. Pisces (fishes) are aquatic cold-blooded, jawed vertebrates. Their bodies are covered with
scales, they respire through gills, move with the help of fins (no legs) and have a two-
chambered heart, e.g., Labeo (rohu). Hippocampus (sea horse), Torpedo (electric fish).

2. Amphibia (frogs) are cold-blooded vertebrates with four legs and scaleless skin and adapted
to live both in water and on land. Respiration is done by gills or the skin or lungs.
Fertilization is external, i.e., takes place outside the body, generally in the water. In most
amphibians there are two stages of life. In one, larval form, they live only in water and the
other, i.e., adult stage, they live in water as well as land. e.g., Rana (frog), Bufo (toad).

3. Reptiles (creeping creatures) are cold-blooded vertebrates, adapted to life in dry places,
Respiration is by means to lungs. The heart is three chambered, except crocodiles, which
have a four-chambered heart. There is no larval stage in their development. Fertilization is
external, e.g., Testudo (tortoise), Hemidactylus (house lizard), Naja (cobra).

4. Aves (birds) are warm-blooded animals with a body-covering of feathers. Their four legs are

adapted as wings and are usually used to fly. There are, however, a few birds which cannot

or hardly fly,e.g, Ostrich, kiwi, etc. The heart is four-chambered, and the digestive tract has

two additional organs, viz., crop which stores food and gizzard which grinds the food.

Fertilization, is internal, i.e., take place inside the body, e.g., Passer (sparrow), Columba

(pigeon), Pavo (peacock).

5. Mammalia Are warm-blooded vertebrates and usually nourish their young ones with their

milk produced in special glands called mammary glands. The heart is four-chambered and

respiration takes place through the lungs. There is muscular partition (diaphragm) that

separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity. The embryo receives nourishment and

oxygen through the placenta in the females womb and disposes of wastes through the

maternal blood circulation, e.g., Macropus (Kangaroo), Felis (cat), Canis (dog). Balaena

(whale), Homo (man).

Largest known vertebrate The whale, measuring up to 33 m and weighing over 1,35,000kg.

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4. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

1. Photosynthesis Process by which green plants are able to utilize energy of sunlight in order

to covert water and carbon dioxide into food in the form of simple carbohydrates. The

energy from sunlight is trapped in plant cells by choloroplasts which are packed with

chlorophyll (gives green colour to the plant and leaves). Incomeing sunlight generates tine

electric currents in them: These currents covert ADP ( adenosine diphosphate) into ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) and split water molecules in the cells into oxygen and hydrogen

paving the way for the whole complex process of photosynthesis. Thus oxygen is dissipated

into the atmosphere and hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to became glucose, one of

the main fuels used by living organisms.

2. Metabolism All biochemical reactions of processes taking place in the living organisms have
two interwoven aspects, viz.

(i) Anabolism Synthesis of complex organic molecules from simple molecules by the living
organisms. It is the constructive or synthetic phase of metabolism, e.g., the formation of proteins
from amino acids.

(ii) Catabolism (also Katabolism) Breakdown of complex molecules into simple molecules to
release energy, i.e., bearing down of hydrocarbons into simpler forms with the release of energy.
Metabolism takes place in a controlled manner at body temperature. Enzymes act as bio-
catalysts in the process. The energy released in such reactions is stored and used for growth

and development. The elimination of waster products generated in the process is called

excretion.

3. Respiration A term with two distinct meanings, viz., breathing and the transport of oxygen

and carbon dioxide to and from the cells known as external respiration. Internal respiration

or cell respiration occurs within the cell and constitutes the chemical reactions from which

an organism derives energy. Internal respiration using oxygen is termed aerobic while

anaerobic respiration may occur in the absence of oxygen. Both plants and animal respire.

Animals need oxygen to release the energy present in their food and get rid of waste, i.e.,

carbon dioxide.

Skin breathing Carried out through the skin by slow-moving animals.

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Gill breathing Fish possess gills which absorb oxygen from water flowing over them taken in
through the mouth.
Tracheal breathing System developed by insects which include network of tubes which take
oxygen to all parts of the body.
Lung breathing Acquired by evolved animals.
4. Fertilization is the union of two gametes or sex cells to produce a zygote or fertilized egg
which grows into a new offspring.

External and Internal Fertilization

Fertilization in frogs and toads is external, as it is in fishes, most water creatures and lower
plants (e.g. Ferns). By this we mean, the male gamete swims across a watery surface to
fertilize the female gamete or egg. The fertilized egg cell is then able to develop into an
individual creature.

Fertilization in mammals, birds, reptiles and insects is internal. That is to say, the sperms are
shed directly into the females body where they fertilize the egg before these are laid as in
birds and reptiles whereas in mammals the cell develops into an embryo within the female
body.

Fertilization in flowering plants In higher plants it is a complex process involving pollen

grains which are transferred to the egg-bearing organism by wind or insects. The process is
called pollination in plants. On falling on a stigma each pollen grain of the right kind
germinates and sends a pollen tube containing a male reproductive cell down through the
style and into an ovule where the male cell fuses with an egg cell which can develop into an

embryo plant.

5. Transpiration Evaporation of water from the stem and leaves of plants. It serves the purpose
cooling the leaves on hot days, and protects delicate leaf tissue from drying up. It draws
water up from the roots towards the leaves which give out excess water into the atmosphere.

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5. BIOLOGIAL TERMINOLOGY

5.1 Botanical Terms

Adventitious Roots Roots which grow from the stem or leaf rather than from the root
system of a plant. Anabolishm Synthesis of complex organic molecules from simple
molecules during metabolism (See Metabolism).
Algae Lowest aquatic green plants of Thallophyte group.
Anaphase The stage in cell division in which chromatids or chromosomes move towards
opposite poles. It begins with the splitting of the sister chromatids. They separate at their
disk-like centrometres and are pulled apart by the contracting action of the spindle. Annual
Rings Concentric rings seen in a cross section of a tree trunk each representing the age of
the plant.
Annulus A ring-like structure present on the stalk of a mushroom showing the remnant of
the velum.
Anthridium Male sperm-bearing organ of lower plant such as ferns, algae and mosses.
Aquatic Plant (Hydrophytes) Plants grown in water.
Archegonium Female, egg-bearing organ of lower plants like ferns, mosses, etc.
Bark Outermost corky sheath of trees and shrubs.
Basidia The club-shaped cells in the gills of mushrooms which give rise to haploid spores
called basidiospores.
Basidioscarp The fruity body of the mushroom and other fungi.
Biennial Plants which complete their life cycle in two years.
Blight Any of the plant diseases that result in sudden dying of leaving growing tips, or an
entire plant.
Bud A outgrowth on a stem or branch often enclosed in protective scales, comprising a
shortened stem and immature leaves or floral parts; a partially opened immature flower.
Bulb A disc shaped condensed underground stem with fleshy leaves, e.g., onion or turnip,
usually surrounded by scale like modified leaves and containing stored food for the
undeveloped shoots of the new plant enclosed within it.
Cactus Desert plants, most of which lack leaves to minimize water loss. They are
characterized by thick, fleshy often prickly stems that function as leaves.
Callus Thick layer of scar tissue which forms over a wounded area of stem or trunk to
protect the inner tissues from exposure.
Calyx Protective portion of a flower consisting of sepals.
Cambium A layer of cells in between xylem and phloem which increases the growth of the
plant .

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Carnivorous plants Plants which make food from insects, e.g., pitcher plant.
Catabolism The part of metabolism in which chemical substance in living things are broken
down into simpler substances. The process usually releases energy.
Cellulose A kind of carbohydrate, the main component of the cell wall of a plant
Centriole The part of a cell which is important in the formation of a spindle during of a cell
division.
Chlorophyll The green pigment found in all plants (see photosynthesis) capable of
photosynthesis. The molecules of chlorophyll absorb energy from sunlight and make it
available for the synthesis of organic material.
Chloroplast Coloured plastids containing pigments other than chlorophyll. They give colour
to flowers and fruits.
Chloresis Disorder which affects a plants ability to form chlorophyll.
Chromatin Hereditary substance of the nucleus. It is a network of threads in nucleus of a
cell that shows up when the cell is stained with certain dyes.
Cladophyll Modified flattened stem which functions and resembles a leaf. Also called
Cladode, Phylloclade.
Cilia Hair like cell prolongations meant for locomotion.
Citrus fruit Fruit of the citrus (orange) group.
Coennocoetic/ Coenocyte The protoplast or cell containing many nuclei. It is found in
any fungi and some green algae.
Corm A swell on underground stem having buds. It is responsible for vegetative
growth.
Cotyledon An embryonic leaf in a seed which usually stores food matters.
Cryptogam Non-flowering seedless plant which produces sports, e.g, algae, mosses, fungi
and ferns.
Cuticle Non-cellular waxy layer found on the surface of stems and leaves to prevent water
loss. Also strip of hardened skin at the base of a finger nail or toenail.
Deciduous Plants which shed leaves to eliminate water loss. In tropical region it is in the hot
summer and in temperate are it is winter, when such plants shed leaves.
Decumbent stem A creeping stem in which tips turn upward at or near the apex.
Dichotomous Branching A kind of branching in which the main branch or axis tops
growing when lateral branches appear on it.
Dyctyosome Plant cell organelles which are formed of small bag-like folds of membrane and
vesicles that contain metabolite cell.
Ectoderm Layer of tissue in an animal embryo which later develops into cellular material in
the epidermis and nerve cell.
Endocarp Innermost often hard or leathery layer of the fruit wall.

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Endodermis Innermost layer of context surrounding vascular bundles, found in all roots
and stem of certain plants which controls passage of water.
Endosperms The nutritive tissue surrounding and absorbed by the embryo in flowering
plants.
Epidermis The outermost cell layer of an organism.
Epiphyte Plants whose roots grow upon stems or branches of other plants.
Exocarp Outermost layer of the fruit wall which forms the skin in many fleshy fruits.
Ferns A large group of primitive plants of the plant kingdom which grow in moist shady
floors in tropical and sub-tropical climates.
Fossils Remains of an organism preserved in rocks.
Fungus A non-flowering plant which lacks chlorophyll and cannot manufacture its own
food and therefore depends entirely on either living or dead organic substances.
Gamete Mature reproductive cell, i.e., cell sperm or formed in sexual reproduction or
reproductive/germ cell produced by male and female organism.
Gametogenesis The process of formation of gametes.
Gemma A small cup- shaped organ of vegetative reproduction in bryophytes.
Gene Part of the chromosome that determine inheritance.
Geotropism Response to the stimulus of gravity (Adjective : Geotropic).
Germination Initiation of growth in plant spores or seeds.
Grana A stack of membranes found in choloroplast containing chlorophyll.
Gymnosperm Any plant of the class Gymnospermae, Which includes coniferous trees and
other plants having seeds not enclosed within an ovary.
Haploid Characteristic of gametes which contain one set of upaired chromosomes, in the
gamets or sex cells of animals.
Haustoria Specialized organ by which parasitic plants such as fungi obtain food from a host
plant.
Herb Term describing any tiny plant that lacks woody stems above the ground.
Heterochromatin Inactive chromatic found in the nucleus.
Hilium The point at which the seed is attached to the fruit.
Histone Type of protein found in chromosomes in association with the nucleic acid DNA.
Hymenium The outer layer of gill-bearing sports in mushrooms, or the spore bearing layer
of the fruiting body of certain fungi.
Hypodermis Outermost layer of cortical cells beneath epidermis that acts as water-storing or
strengthening tissue.
Hypha Fine- breached or unbranched filament that spread to form a loose network called
mycelium.
Hybrid The plant produced by crossing plants belonging to different species or genera, also
plants and animals that are bred from genetically different parents.

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Hypocotyl Part of the stem of a young seedling that lies between the cotyledons.
Interphase A stage in cell division when the nucleus is not actually undergoing division but
very actively
Interphase A stage in cell division when the nucleus is not actually undergoing division but
very actively involved in the general process. It is the period between two divisions when
nucleus is said to be in interface.
Insectivourous Plants which attract insects and digest them to obtain nitrogen. e.g.,
Pitcher plants.
Isobilateral leaves The monocot leaves having similar structure on both sides.
Leucocyte Any of the white or colourless nucleated cells occurring in blood.
Leucoplast Colurless Plastids, in the cytoplasm of plant cell around which starch collects.
Lignin Complex organic compound found in the cell wall of the plants which gives strength,
particularly in parts of xylem tissue. Lignin forms up to 50 per cent wood in trees. lipid A
fatty compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which oxygen is in lower proportion
than carbohydrates. It includes fats, oils, waxes and related substances.
Liverworts Groups of primitive spore- bearing plants which together with mosses comprise
the group bryophyte.
Matrix Non- cellular ground substance of tissue.
Metaphase Second stage of cell division of cell division of the nucleus during mitosis and
meiosis. The membrane breaks down and a fibrous spindle forms. The spindle has two poles
at opposite sides of the cell; the chromate pairs align along the spindles equator.
Mitosis Mitotically active cells commonly found at the apex of shoot and root or branch.
Mesocarp Middle layer of fruit which becomes fleshy sometimes
Mesoderm The embryonic germ layer lying between the ectoderm and endoderm.
Mesophyll Soft tissue of a leaf in between the upper and lower epidermis, that contains the
chloroplasts and is involve in photosynthesis.
Microsphorophyll Structure in ferns that bears the microsporangia.
Microsome cell particle of the smallest size, typically consisting of a piece of endoplasmic
reticulum to which ribosomes are attached.
Parthenocarphy: The process through which development of fruit takes place without
fertilization.
Pedicel The stalk of a flower which serves as a support.
Peduncle The axis on which flowers are borne in inflorescene.
Pericarp The cashing of the seed or seeds within a fruit, developed from the ovary wall.
Pileus Cap-like part of mushroom and any other fungus.
Pinna A small leaflet of a compound leaf.
Phloem A complex tissue found in plants which conducts food.
Plasmalemma Outer living membrane of the cell (see cell).

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Prophase First stage of cell division in which chromosomes or chromatids get aligned in
the middle line to form a spindle, the chromosomes appear as two sister chromatides, which
coil and then shorten and thicken.
Prothallus Gametophyte of fern which has sex organs.
Protonema The young gametophyte of bryophyte which develops following spore
germination.
Protoplasm The living content of cell which includes cytoplasm and nucleus (See Cell). It is
a jelly like colloidal substance constituting the living matter of plant and animal cells and
performing the basic life functions.
Rachic The axis of a fern leaf from which the pinna originates.
Rhizoid A hair-like short growth found in lower plants which fixes the plant to the soil
and also helps it derive nourishment from the soil.
Rhizoid Underground stem.
Ribosome Any of the numerous spherical cytoplasmic particles consisting of RNA and
protein, that are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
Rot Term describing the breakdown or decomposition of plant tissue usually caused by
bacteria or fungi or sometimes initiated by a drought.
Rust Parasitic fungus which infects a number of plants causing red and black spots on
leaves and stem. It is a plant disease caused by fungi, characterized by reddish or brownish
spots on leaves, stems and other parts.
Sap Watery fluid found in plant tissue and cells. It is transported throughout the plant by
the vascular tissues or conducting tissues xylem and phloem.
Saprophyte The plant which grows and obtains food from dead organic matter like
bacteria or fungus, which lacks chlorophyll and therefore cannot manufacture its own food.
Seedling A stage in the life of a plant which begins with germination and ends with the
emergence of the first true leaves. A protective leaf-like part of a flower(See Flower).
Shrub Term used to describe any plant with several woody stems which grow from a
point near or below ground level.
Spermatophyte Seed- bearing plants which include both angiosperms and gymnosperms.
Sorus A reproductive structure found in ferns containing sporangia which are found on
the placenta.
Spine A leaf modified into thin pointed thorn like structure.
Spindle Structure seen in the cell at the time of cell division.
Spore Microscope reproductive body of plants which is the chief means of reproduction
among ferns, mosses, fungi and other lower plants.
Sporophyte Spore- bearing generation in the life cycle of plants in which each cell has a
nucleus with 2 sets of chromosomes and which can produce reproductive spores with only
one set of chromosomes by reduction division (meiosis).
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Stamen Male reproductive part of a flower which produces male sex comprising stalk plus
head with pollen sacs that burst to release pollen grains.
Stigma Receptive surface area of the carpel or female reproductive organ of a flower. It is the
sticky surface in flower on which pollen grains are stimulated to start their own growth.
Stipe Stalk of mushroom.
Stroma The colourless dense material occurring around the grana in a chloroplast.
Tendril Modified thread like stem or leaf designed to cling to a support.
Tepals Collective term applied to petals and sepals.
Thallus A plant body not differentiate into root, stem and leaves, e.g., in some algae,
bryophyte and fungi.
Transpiration Evaporation of water from the stem and leaves of plant.
Telophase Last astage of cell division in which the nucleus starts returning to the inter
phase stage. A nuclear membrane forms around each pair of daughter chromosomes, thus
creating two complete daughter cells.
Tropism Movement of a plant in response to a particular external stimulus such as gravity
or light. It is a change in position of some part of plant in relation to rest to body, which has
remained fixed.
Tuber Swollen underground stem or root which serves as a storage organ, e.g., potato ( stem
tuber), dahlia (root tuber).
Vascular Tissue Term used to describe xylem and phloem.
Vegetative Propagation Any type of reproduction which does not involve the formation of
spores or seeds, e.g., Reproduction in bacteria, algae, fungi, etc.
velum A covering of hyphae on the young, fruiting body of mushroom.
Vernation Arrangement and folding of leaves in a bud.
Viruses They are nucleoprotein in nature, but a particular virus has either DNA or RNA
never both. Thus they possess the characteristics of both the living and non-living, they are
at the thereshold of life.
Xerophyte Plant adapted to survive long period without moisture, e.g., cati. (See Plant
Classification)
Xylem Complex tissue which conducts water and mineral salts upwards in plants.
Xygot A cell formed by fusion of a male and a female gamete or fertilized egg, i.e., a
fertilized egg or ovum.

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5.2 Zoological Terms

Adipose Animal cellular fat.

Adipose tissue: A type of connective tissue in the body that contains stored cellular fat.
Agnatha: Acquatic Vertebrates lacking jaws.
Amoeba: Simplest known unicellular animal, the largest species of which is just 1 mm in
length and hardly visible to the naked eye.
Amphipoda Group of crustacea, including sandhoppers and fresh water shrimps.
Antennae: Paired sensory organs which stick out from the heads of insects.
Anthropoids: Highly evolved sub-order of primates, e.g., monkey, ape and man. They have
grasping hands and feet and nails on fingers and toes.
Anura: Group of a Amphibia, e.g., frogs and toads.
Aocoelmoate: Animals without coelom and body cavity.
Apes: Family of primates that includes the species closest to man, e.g., gorillas.
Arachnids: Large class of arthropods which include spider, scorpions, etc.
Areolar Tissue: A type of connective tissue in which cells distributes in the matrix, they
contain white and yellow fibres.
Bone: A connective tissue of species matrix which consists of elastin, impregnated by
calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium phosphate and calcium fluoride. They
provide skeletal support to the body and protect delicate organs.
Bovidae: Family of cloven-hoofed mammals with horns, e.g., cattle, sheep and goats.
Brachiopods: A group of large, mostly extinct marine invertebrates with twin shells.
Capillary: Extremely fine blood vessels, walls of which are made up of single cells.
Caterpillar: Insect larva with a slender body, six legs in the front end and a number of soft
prologs, e.g., caterpillar of butterfly and moth.
Cell sap: Fluid present in the cell
Chitin: A non-protein substance which forms an outer exoskeleton of arthropods.
Cold-blooded animals : Animals that are unable to regulate their body temperature, which
therefore, adopt the temperature of their surroundings. Most animals, other than birds and
mammals, are cold-blooded.
Chordata: A phylum of animals having anotochord, tubular nerve cord, pharangeal gills and
a tail at some stage of their life history.
Coelom: The body cavity of coelomate animals is lined on all sides by mesoderm, in which
gut is suspended.
Coleoptera: A large order of insects with horny forewings covering part or all of abdomen.
Commensal: An organism living in association with other animals without causing harm.

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Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous fish the endoskeleton of which is exclusively made of

cartilage.
Crustaceans: A large and varied class of anthropods which include crabs, lobsters, prawns,
crayfish, etc. They have hard external skeleton and are mostly acquatic.
Diapause: Period of suspended development occurring in certain organisms, ofter at certain
seasons.
Diploblastic: Animals, the body of which has two layers ectoderm and endoderm.
Ectoderm: The outer germ layer of the metazoans, or layer of tissue in embryo.
Endoderm: The innermost germ layer of the metazoans, or layer of tissue in embryo.
Flame cells: Excretory cells of helminthes which have a tuft of flickering flagella inside the
hollow cavity of the cell.
Ganglion: A mass of nerve cell bodies.
Gill: An organ of respiration found in fishes, and other aquatic organisms.
(See Respiration)
Green Glands: Excretory organs of crustaceans.
Larva : A stage in the life history of animals which are capable of an independent life.
Mesoderm: The middle layer of the three, primary germ layers of metazoans.
Notochord: A solid cylindrical rod like structure made of vacuolated cells, present in the
mid-dorsal body axis of chordates; and is present during some stage of their life-history.
Nervecord Hollow, tubular cord composed of neurons and usually with ganglia ;forms an
important part of the nervous system.
Placenta: The tube with which the foetus remains attached to the uterus, the foetus gets
nourishment of the mother through this.
Pseudopodi: Temporary outgrowths of protoplasm from the body of the cell. Locomotory
organs of an amoeba.
Thorax: The part of the body between head or neck and abdomen.
Trachea: Breathing tubes of vertebrates and some invertebrates.
Triploblastic: Animals having three primary germ layers.
Viscera: Collective term used for internal organs situated in the body cavity.

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