Jher Carlson P.

Atasan
BS CpE 3-1

BANKED CURVES

A banked curve reduces the riders sensation of being thrown sideways by turning the car sideways. The
car is tilted. The trick is to tilt the track just the right amount.
The ideal banked curve is one where no outside forces are needed to keep the car on the track. In other
words, if the banked curve were covered with ice -no friction- and the coaster did not have a
steering mechanism the car would stay on the track. This is the ideal banked curve. These are the
forces acting on the car as the car travels around horizontal banked curves.
 This is for the ideal banked curve where no friction is required to keep the car from sliding to the outside
or inside of the curve. R is the curves radius; v is the car's velocity; g is the acceleratin due to gravity, nad
the angle is the angle with the horizontal as shown in the diagram. On a given curve if the velocity is
greater or less than the design velocity then the cars may need a little frictional help to keep them on the
track.

If your not comfortable with trigonometry functions, the equations can be rewritten and used as shown
below.
 Calculating gs Felt on a Banked Curve
The rider will feel a combination of the force pulling down due to gravity and the sideways force of the
track propelling the rider to the center of the circle. Recall that the gs felt is equal to the normal force
divided by mass to get the acceleration and then divided by g to convert to from m/s2 to gs.

To negotiate turns at high speed, where frictional effects are not sufficient to maintain circular motion, we
often resort to a banked curve. Let's consider some examples.

Example 1. A highway that curves around the base of a large hill is designed so that cars can execute the
curve without the help of friction (along the radial direction). How is this possible?
The force equation for the y direction is

FN, y - mg = 0

FN cos = mg ==>

FN = mg/cos

We can now find the bank angle by looking at the x force equation:

FN, x = mv2/r

FN sin = mv2/r

mg tan = mv2/r ==>

= tan-1[v2/(gr)]

Example 2. Civil engineers generally bank curves on roads in such a manner that a car going around the
curve at the recommended speed does not have to rely on friction between its tires and the road surface
in order to round the curve. Suppose that the radius of curvature of a given curve is , and

that the recommended speed is . At what angle should the curve be banked?

Consider a car of mass going around the curve. The car's weight, , acts vertically downwards.
The road surface exerts an upward normal reaction on the car. The vertical component of the reaction
must balance the downward weight of the car, so
The horizontal component of the reaction, , acts towards the centre of curvature of the road.

This component provides the force towards the centre of the curvature which the car
experiences as it rounds the curve. In other words,

which yields

or

Hence,

Note that if the car attempts to round the curve at the wrong speed then , and
the difference has to be made up by a sideways friction force exerted between the car's tires and the road
surface. Unfortunately, this does not always work--especially if the road surface is wet!

WORK AND ENERGY

The work done by an agent exerting a constant force ( ) and causing a displacement ( ) equals the
magnitude of the displacement, s, times the component of along the direction of . In Figure 5.1, the
work done by is:

W = s Fcos .

Figure 5.1: Work

Note:

If =0 W = 0. (ie: no work is done when holding a heavy box, or pushing against a wall).
 W = 0 if (ie: no work is done by carrying a bucket of water horizontally).
The sign of W depends on the direction of relative to : W > 0 when component of
along is in the same direction as , and W < 0 when it is in the opposite direction. This sign is
given automatically if we write as the angle between and and write W = Fscos .
If acts along the direction of then W = Fs , since cos = cos 0 = 1.
Work is a scalar.
The SI units of work are Joules (J) (1 Joule = 1 Newton meter). In cgs units: 1 erg = 1 dyne
cm.

Kinetic Energy and the Work Energy Theorem

Idea: Force is a vector, work and energy are scalars. Thus, it is often easier to solve problems using
energy considerations instead of using Newton's laws (i.e. it is easier to work with scalars than vectors).

Definition: The kinetic energy ( KE ) of an object of mass m that is moving with velocity v is:

(1)
KE = mv 2.
Note:

Kinetic energy is a scalar.

The units are the same as for work (i.e. Joules, J).

Relation bewteen KE and W: The work done on an object by a net force equals the change in kinetic
energy of the object:

W = KEf - KEi. (2)

This relationship is called the work-energy theorem.

Proof (for parallel to ):

1. W = Fs W = (ma)s (by Newton's second law).

2. From the third equation of motion: as = (v 2 - v02)/2 W = 1/2m(v 2 - v02) = KEf - KEi .

Note:

If the speed of an object increases ( vf > vi ) W > 0.

If W < 0 then the object is doing work on the agent exerting the net force.
Interpretation of Eq.(5.2): We can think of KE as the work an object can do in coming to rest.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Definition: Gravitational Potential Energy ( PEg ) is given by:

PEg = mgy, (3)

where m is the mass of an object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and y is the distance the object is
above some reference level.

The term ``energy'' is motivated by the fact that potential energy and kinetic energy are different aspects
of the same thing (mechanical energy).
For Example: When an object is dropped from rest at some height above the earth's surface, it starts with
some PEg but no KE. As the object falls towards the Earth, it loses PEg and gains KE. Just before the
object hits the ground, it has lost all of its initial PEg but gained an equal amount of KE.

Proof: Find the work done by the force of gravity when an object falls from rest at position yi to yf = 0 . We
have W = Fs , F = |m | = mg and s = (yi - yf) = yi . This gives, W = mgyi .

Combining with Eq.(5.2) gives 1/2m(vf2 - 0) = mgyi or PEi = KEf .

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A crane pulls up car having a mass of 1000 kg to a vertical height of 5 m . Calculate the work
done by the crane .

To raise the car , work is done against the gravity .So force required is
F = mg = 1000 *9.8 = 9800 N
Displacement = 5 m
Work Done = F *S = 9800*5 = 49000 J
OR
Directly use the formula from the list = mgh = 1000*9.8*5 = 49000 J .
2. Force of 10 N displace a body by 2 m distance at an angle of 60 to its own direction .Calculate
amount of work .

Formula used W = F * S where S is displacement in the direction of force

Therefore W = FS Cos
Given : F= 10 N , S = 2m , = 60
W = 10*2 Cos 60 = 10*2*.5 = 10 J

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

Principle Of Impulse and Momentum

Impulse is defined as the integral of a force acting on an object, with respect to time. This means that
impulse contains the product of force and time. Impulse changes the momentum of an object. As a result,
a large force applied for a short period of time can produce the same momentum change as a small force
applied for a long period of time. An impulse can act on an object to change either its linear
momentum, angular momentum, or both.

In many real life problems involving impulse and momentum, the impulse acting on a body consists of a
large force acting for a very short period of time for example, a hammer strike, or a collision between
two bodies.

The following problem illustrates the principle of impulse and momentum.

A solid ball of mass m and radius r is rolling without slipping on a flat horizontal surface, at an initial
angular velocity w1. It hits a small bump of height h. What is the angular velocity of the ball immediately
after impact? Also, what is the minimum initial angular velocity w1 so that the ball just makes it over the
bump? What is the minimum initial speed of the ball?

Assume that the ball pivots about the tip of the bump during, and after impact.
Solution

Set up a schematic of this problem, as shown, along with sign convention. Assume the center of
mass G is at the geometric center of the ball. Gravity g is pointing down. During impact the ball is
assumed to pivot about P, as indicated.

Let Fpx be the horizontal impulse force at point P, and Fpy be the vertical impulse force at point P.

We can treat this as a planar motion problem. It can be solved using the principle of impulse and
momentum. Since this problem combines translation and rotation we must apply the equations for linear
momentum and angular momentum.

In an impact of very short time duration (say, between an initial time ti and a final time tf), the impact
force Fimp is typically very large. This means that the impulse term given by
is dominated by the impact force Fimp, since mg (the gravitational force) is much smaller than Fimp.
Therefore, we can ignore gravity for the impulse calculation.

For planar motion in the xy plane, the equations for impulse and linear momentum are:

Where:

vGxi is the velocity of the center of mass G in the x-direction before impact, and vGxf is the velocity of the
center of mass G in the x-direction after impact

vGyi is the velocity of the center of mass G in the y-direction before impact, and vGyf is the velocity of the
center of mass G in the y-direction after impact

The integrals are the impulse terms.

Since the ball initially rolls without slipping,

The negative sign accounts for the fact that positive angular velocity means the ball rolls to the left (in the
negative x-direction).

Since the ball initially rolls on a flat horizontal surface,

Immediately after impact the ball pivots about point P on the tip of the bump with an angular velocity wf.
As a result the velocity of the center of mass (vGf), after impact, is perpendicular to the line joining
point G to point P.
Since the ball pivots about point P immediately after impact:

From geometry we can write

and

Substituting equations (3)-(6) into equations (1) and (2) we get

Now, for planar motion, the equation for impulse and angular momentum is:
Where:

IG is the moment of inertia of the ball about the center of mass G

MG is the sum of the moments about point G

Now, referring to the figure above we can write

Thus,

This can be written as

Substituting the above equation into equation (9) we get

We can combine the three equations (7), (8), and (10) to solve for the three unknowns:

However, we only need to know wf. Solving, we get

Now, by geometry
The moment of inertia of the solid ball about G is:

Substitute the above two equations into the equation for wf and we get

This is the angular velocity of the ball immediately after impact.

We now need to find the necessary initial angular velocity w1 so that the ball just makes it over the bump.
We can use conservation of energy after impact since the only force that does work on the ball after
impact is the gravitational force (which is a conservative force).

In the figure below, lets define position 1 of the ball as its position immediately after impact. Due to the
very short time of impact, this position very closely coincides with the position of the ball just as it touches
the tip of the bump at point P, while rolling on the flat surface. Define the datum as coinciding with the
initial height of the center of mass G of the ball as it is rolling on the flat surface.

In the figure below, lets define position 2 of the ball as its top-most position while it pivots about point P. If
the ball is able to reach this top-most position it will roll down the bump on the other side. We wish to find
the minimum initial angular velocity w1 so that the ball is barely able to make it to the top of the bump.
This corresponds to a kinetic energy of zero at the top of the bump.

Between positions 1 and 2, the equation for conservation of energy is:

Where:

T1 is the initial kinetic energy of the ball

V1 is the initial potential energy of gravity acting on the ball

T2 is the final kinetic energy of the ball

V2 is the final potential energy of gravity acting on the ball

The initial kinetic energy of the ball is:

The initial potential energy of gravity acting on the ball (measured from the datum) is:

The final kinetic energy of the ball is:

The final potential energy of gravity acting on the ball (measured from the datum) is:

Substituting equations (13)-(16) into equation (12) we get

From before,

and

Substitute the above two equations into equation (17), and we get

Solving for wf we get

Substituting this equation into equation (11) and solving for w1 we get

This is the minimum initial angular velocity so that the ball just makes it over the bump.
The minimum initial speed of the ball v1 is:

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

1. If the time of force application is 5s find the impulse of the box given below.

Impulse=Force.Time Interval

Impulse=15N.5s

Impulse=75N.s

2. Find applied force which makes 10m/s change in the velocity of the box in 5s if the mass of the
box is 4kg.

Impulse=Change in momentum

F.t=p2-p1

F.t=m. (V2-V1)

F.t=4kg.10m/s=40kg.m/s Impulse of the box is 40kgm/s

F=40kg.m/s/5s=8N Applied force

3. The graph given below belongs to an object having mass 2kg and velocity 10m/s. It moves on a
horizontal surface. If a force is applied to this object between (1-7) seconds find the velocity of the
object at 7. Second.

Area under the graph gives us

impulse. First, we find the total
impulse with the help of graph
given above then total
impulse gives us the
momentum change. Finally,
we find the final velocity of the
object from the momentum
change.