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CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF

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 CHAPTER TWENTY

CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

PAULO CSAR LVARES MOTA

MARCELO LYNCE RIBEIRO CHAVES
JOS ROBERTO CAMACHO

Abstract
The aim of this work is to compare methods for the computation of
transmission line tower surge impedance, that are: traditional analytical
method using simplified equations; and the Finite Element Method for the
mapping of electromagnetic fields surrounding the tower. In the latter were
used two different software, the public domain FEMM, and the commercial
software FLUX3D. The first is able to perform calculations based in a 2D
representation of the problem while the second uses a 3D representation of
the problem to perform computations. It is also verified the impedance
variation along the tower height, phenomenon that most of the time is not
considered, and that can provide a direct impact in the performance of
transmission lines facing the atmospheric discharges. With this purpose it
was used the software ATP-EMTP, where it was modeled a simple case who
brought results for immediate comparison.

Keywords: Surge Impedance, Transmission Line, Transmission Tower,

Finite Elements Method, ATP-EMTP.

Introduction
The surge impedance of the structures that compose the transmission
lines is an important parameter related to the analysis of its performance
against lightning. When this parameter is disregarded or inadequately
considered, such analysis is compromised giving rise to erroneous
calculation of the amplitude of surges in transmission lines.
 Chapter Twenty

The surge impedance of towers is not only the addition of another

impedance term in the system since it is a variable that depends on the shape
and height of the structure. Its value can be determined with adequate
mathematical development through the correct equation of electromagnetic
fields generated by lightning, and through Maxwell's equations. Often the
shape of the three-dimensional structure does not facilitate the
determination of appropriate mathematical equations to find a high accuracy
towers surge impedance of a power line.

Surge Impedance of Transmission Line Towers

The estimate of the impedance surge of towers in power lines have been
made by using analytical equations that were developed based on simple
geometric forms in an attempt to represent the actual geometry of the tower
and by applying to them the theory of electromagnetic fields.
However, simple geometric shapes used for conventional formulations
cannot represent all the details of the tower, since they are only considered
as cylindrical and conical shapes. The existence of multiple types of towers,
which may have complex geometric shapes, may cause significant
differences in calculating their surge impedance when using the classical
method using approximate equations.
Another important detail, left out in the classical method, is the variation
of the surge impedance with height of the tower. Several studies using
vertical conductors demonstrate this effect, which was developed with the
intention of finding a generic method for determining such variation [1].
An intuitive analysis can be made on the variation of this parameter with
the height of the transmission tower. For instance, the surge impedance can
be obtained as shown in equation (1).
1
Zt = , (1)
C.v

where, C is the tower capacitance (F/m); and v is the speed of propagation

of the voltage wave through the tower (m/s).
The capacitance of towers has a behaviour in which its value grows with
ground proximity, so that at the point of contact of the tower with the
ground, its value tends to infinity. In contrast, the impedance surge takes an
opposite behaviour, i.e. it assumes high values in its top and decreases with
proximity to the ground until a null value [2].
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

Classical Methodology for Estimation of Towers Surge

Impedance
The surge impedance of transmission towers is closely related to
geometric shapes and dimensions. The variety of structures with different
shapes and sizes results in the lack of a general equation covering all cases.
In order to simplify the calculations and represent the various types of
towers, equations were developed from simple geometric shapes, such as
cylinders and cones [3]. The so-called cylindrical and conical models are
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Geometric shapes for representing towers of transmission lines.

In cases in which the tower is similar to the cylindrical and conical

shapes, the equations (2) and (3) are used, respectively, to calculate the
surge impedance [4]. They are

= 60 [2 ( )] , (2)

where c is the light propagation speed, and

= 60[(2(2 + 2 ))/] (3)

In addition to the cylindrical and tapered models there are other more
complex models, created with the purpose of approaching the actual shape
of the towers. These models are shown in Figure 2.
 Chapter Twenty

Figure 2 Approximations of towers geometric shapes, adapted from [4].

In cases in which the tower is similar to figure 2a, 2b and 2c, it is used
the equations (4), (5) and (6) respectively.

2.(2 + 2 )
= 30 [ ] , (4)
2

= 0,5. [ + ] , (5)

where = 60. () + 90() 60 and = 60. () +

90() 60
2
= 60. [ (2 ) 1]. (6)

Often these models are used to determine the approximate value of the
surge impedance of towers, although, at present, there are specific and
complex techniques for this calculation.
It is noted that the quantity obtained by previous equationing represents
a concentrated impedance value

The Finite Element Method

Most mathematical problems can be solved by differential equations.
Even seeming easy to solve, such equations can prove to be greatly
difficulty, making such process stressful and laborious. However, simple
geometric shapes provide quick and easy solutions, culminating in the
creation of methods supporting in this idea.
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

The solution of such differential equations are done by using the Finite
Element Method (FEM) in the time domain and numerical approximations
are normally considered, so that linearization occur in small intervals of
time (t) and space (x). For problems that have differential equations such
as the equations of transmission lines or the basic equations of Maxwell for
electric and magnetic fields, the FEM is dedicated to obtain a cumulative
solution in time and space, considering initial boundary conditions.
The FEM applied in this subject basically uses the geometric design of
the proposed problem by subdividing it into several parts with simple
geometric shapes, such as triangles (used by software that works with
problems in two dimensions), pyramids, prisms, cubes and parallelepipeds
(cases of software that works with problems in three dimensions). The
various forms included in the analysed region should be mapped to form a
network, called the mesh of the problem.
From this mesh, the solution is obtained by ordinary differential
equations and systems of linear and nonlinear equations applied
simultaneously in each subdivision, in order to form a cumulative solution.
For each element, the linear or non-linear interpolation of the values at its
vertices is performed until the discrepancy in the solution is minimized.
The advantage in dividing the region into small elements is that a single
difficult problem can be solved as various simple problems. This implies, in
general, that this type of technique is used to avoid the solution of complex
systems of equations. In contrast, the matrices where the data of the problem
are stored have higher dimensions, according to the characteristics of the
generated mesh. Therefore, given the scale of the problem, the solution may
become slow.
Regarding the estimation of the surge impedance of towers, in the
proposed methodology, the FEM is used to calculate the energy stored in
the electric field surrounding the tower. In addition, for that purpose, a unit
voltage is applied to the tower so that the stored electrical energy is
obtained.
From this energy, it is possible to obtain the capacitance value of the
tower as shown in equation (7)
. 2
= , (7)
2
where V is the voltage applied to the tower, and C is the capacitance of the
tower.
As we have seen, capacitance and surge impedance have an intimate
relationship. From equation (1) one can find the value of the surge
impedance of the tower through the capacitance obtained. It is observed that
for such a calculation it is required the knowledge of the propagation speed
 Chapter Twenty

of the surge wave through the tower. In the literature several speeds are
suggested [5, 6, 7, 8] having the speed of light as a reference.
In the work of Wagner and Hileman [9], it is considered the propagation
speed of the surge current through the tower equal to the speed of light. The
study of Kawai [10] proposed that this speed varied with the height of the
tower, taking values between 0.71*c and 0.89*c, where c is the speed of
light. Sargent [11] proposed that this speed would be 80% of the speed of
light.
The speed of propagation of the surge depends on the electrical and
magnetic characteristics of the medium in which it propagates. If the
magnetic permeability and electrical permittivity of the medium are equal
to the respective values of air, then the speed of propagation of the surge is
approximately equal to the speed of light.
In this case it will be adopted the speed of surge propagation to be equal
to the speed of light, namely 300,000 km /sec.

Geometric Models of Towers

In this case, the FEM applied to models in three dimensions will be used.
In such cases, the formation of the mesh of the problem is accomplished by
three-dimensional elements such as pyramids, prisms, cubes and
parallelepipeds.
The geometric data of the towers are of great importance for obtaining
consistent results, and must be constructed to keep models as close as
possible to the actual towers. Construction projects are best suited to be the
reference of computational models, since they contain all the actual
dimensions of the towers.
Two types of transmission line towers were considered in this study: the
first one consists of a simple transmission line circuit and voltage level of
230 kV while the other corresponds of a part of a transmission line with dual
circuit with a voltage level of 138 kV. Figure 3 shows the design of these
towers
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

Figure 3 Designs considered in the study of the towers (a) transmission line
tower for a simple circuit, and (b) transmission line tower of a dual circuit.

The towers were then modelled from their designs, taking into account
their actual dimensions.
The boundary conditions of a problem are a factor that directly
influences the results of its solution. The differential equations used by FEM
require these conditions as a starting point to obtain consistent results.
Based on this idea, one can have two kinds of problems: those with
closed boundary condition, and the problems with open boundary
condition. The first has a limited number of mesh elements making their
limited resolution of one or more known boundary conditions. The second
type becomes more complicated since the region of interest is "open", which
makes it a boundary to be established, but a part of the problem solution.
Thus in cases of open regions, there is a need of an application of
techniques that create a closed boundary condition to obtain approximate
solutions [12, 13, 14]. The following techniques can be employed.
Truncation outer limits: this technique chooses a boundary
condition it is much larger than the dimensions of the problem,
usually about five times the size of the problem. This technique
is fairly simple, and provides acceptable results in most cases;
 Chapter Twenty

Kelvin Transform: In this technique, the effects of the outer

region are, in theory, precisely modelled as well as maintaining
a homogeneous solution of the problem and the possibility of
applying periodic boundary conditions;
Ballooning: In this technique, the outer region is represented by
an annular region around the problem with random initial radius
that increases at a progressive rate.
Spatial Transformations: This method attempts to convert an
infinite region in a finite domain over some geometric mapping
method, such as conformal mapping.
There are several other techniques in the literature, but for the purpose
of simplicity and spontaneously getting results, it is assumed the outer limits
truncation technique.

Tower Models
The developed models were based on the towers presented in Figure 3.
However, a third model, based on the conventional method, was proposed,
and the results obtained from simulations and those obtained from analytical
equations are very close to each other.
For this purpose, we used the conical template (Figure 2b), which has its
own mathematical formulation with results consolidated in various studies
[4, 3, 15].
Thus, the model was created by considering a cone of height 30 m and
base radius of 5 meters. The application of the classical equation resulted in
a surge impedance value of 129.12 ohms.
From the computer simulation model, it was obtained the stored
electrical energy in the air near the tower. Figure 4 shows the variation of
the energy near the surface of the tower.
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

Figure 4- Electrical energy variation in the model.

It is shown in equation (7) that the capacitance is directly proportional

to the stored energy, and can be verified in Figure 4 that the energy increases
with the proximity to the ground, thus, it can be said that the higher
capacitance values are recorded at the base of the tower.
From computer simulations, it was obtained, in the region of interest,
the stored energy of 397.015*10-12 joules. To obtain the energy it was used
a boundary condition approximately 5 times the distance between the center
of the problem (center of the cone) to its external border (lateral surface of
the cone). From the energy value, it is obtained a value of impedance of
125.94 Ohms. To arrive at this figure, we used equations (1) and (7).
The surge impedances obtained with the two methods (classical
analytical method and the method proposed in this work) have similar
values. Thus, it can be said that, in the method using FEM, the results of
surge impedance are considered acceptable, with a difference of 2.46%
between these methods.
Due to the influence of the shapes and dimensions of the towers in the
final results of surge impedance, the use of real data, during the analysis, is
of great importance in this particular study.
Based on Figure 3a, the calculation of the surge impedance was
performed through the classical and proposed methods.
From the classical equation (6), applied in this case, it was obtained an
impedance surge with a value of 183.77 Ohms.
Computational analysis using the FEM was applied in order to obtain
the distribution of the electric field energy through the tower, as shown in
 Chapter Twenty

Figure 5. Similar to the tapered model, the energy takes larger values near
the base of the tower.

Figure 5 - Distribution of stored electrical field energy in the model of the tower of
single circuit transmission line.

From the simulation of the model, a total stored energy of 534.281*10-

12 Joules was obtained. Using the equations (1) and (7), one obtains a surge
impedance of the tower of 115.42 Ohms. There has been a considerable
difference between the values obtained using the classical method and the
proposed method, where the first results has a higher value.
The classical methodology for tower of dual circuit transmission line is
to calculate its surge impedance based on the model shown in Figure 2a.
The resulting surge impedance in this case was 187.62 Ohms.
The modelling of this tower was based on the geometric data presented
in Figure 3b. In a similar manner to the previous case, the distribution of
electrical field energy stored by the tower was obtained. Figure 6 shows this
energy distribution.
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

Figure 6 - Distribution of stored energy in the tower model dual circuit

transmission line.

The simulation of this model resulted in a stored electrical field energy

of 458.59*10-12 Joules. The surge impedance calculated was 159.91 Ohms,
based on equations (1) and (7).
Similar to the single circuit transmission line tower, the surge impedance
also resulted in a considerable difference between the value obtained using
the classical method and the proposed method. In the classical method is
considered the cone-shaped tower, greatly simplifying its actual format,
explaining this difference.
It can be observed that, between the two types of structures used in here,
this one presents the smallest difference from the standard form (cone),
which justifies the smallest discrepancy between the methods.

Representations of Change in Surge Impedance of Towers

Both the inductance and the capacitance varies according to the distance
from the ground, hence the impedance will vary accordingly. Therefore, as
a surge current travels a tower towards its top to the ground, it is subjected
to variable impedance, and because of the theory of traveling waves,
reflected waves arise. The calculation of the overvoltage that the tower will
be submitted should consider this aspect.
However, the continuous variation of these parameters will not be
addressed in this case. Here the structure is considered subdivided along its
 Chapter Twenty

height in equal parts, for which shall be determined the surge impedances.
Since the capacitive coupling with the soil arises as the surge approaches
the ground, one expects a reduction of the surge impedance in this direction.
The calculation methods presented in here consider the tower as a whole,
and the determined impedance refers to the concentrated value of the
variable impedance.
Under this assumption, the tower will be divided into three equal parts
along its height in order to verify the surge impedance of each part, allowing
the possibility of an analysis of its variation, even with concentrated
parameters.
The towers of single circuit and dual circuit transmission lines, studied
previously, will be considered in this analysis.
The following results are presented for the surge impedance variation of
the single circuit transmission line tower.
As stated previously, the models of the towers were divided into three
parts to check the variation of its surge impedance. Figure 7 shows the
modification done in the model of the single circuit tower.

Figure 7 Transmission line single circuit tower model to analyse the surge
impedance variation.

The surge impedance of each division of the tower was found from the
electric field energy stored in the region of each part. Table 1 shows the
energies found from simulations of the model and the corresponding surge
impedances calculated from these energy values, using equations (1) and
(7).

Table 1 Results of stored electric field energy and surge impedance in three parts
of a single circuit tower.
TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM
Stored energy (pJ) 40.83 89.34 394.99
Surge impedance () 1510.33 690.25 156.12
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

There is a perceived large decrease in surge impedance as the reference

point approaches the ground.
The following results are presented for the surge impedance variation of
the dual circuit transmission line tower.
Following the previous methodology, this tower was also divided into
three parts to verify the surge impedance variation. Figure 8 shows the
change in the model of the dual circuit transmission line tower.

Figure 8 Transmission line dual circuit tower model to analyse the surge
impedance variation.

From the found stored energy and equations (1) and (7), it was obtained
the surge impedance of each division pattern. Table 2 shows the results of
energy stored and surge impedance.

Table 2 - Results of stored electric field energy and surge impedance in three parts
of a dual circuit transmission line tower.
TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM
Stored energy (pJ) 16.11 58.54 372.74
Surge impedance () 4552.04 1252.70 196.74

Again, it is noticed a decrease in the impedance surge towards the top

when compared to the bottom of the tower.
To better understand the obtained results, it will be done an analysis of
the situations in which the surge impedance is likely to influence the
performance of the transmission line.
 Chapter Twenty

Analysis of Results of Surge Impedance by Using the

Software EMTP/ATPDraw
To analyse the results, the representation of the various elements that
may influence the study is required. Thus, we chose to model, in the
software EMTP/ATPDraw, a single-phase transmission line, with some
simplifications, being the model composed of 11 equally spaced towers with
200 meters spans. In the study, it was represented only the transmission line
towers and the lightning arrester cable, to which the surge current was
applied.
The representation of the towers was performed by using single-phase
transmission lines arranged vertically. Each tower consisted of three single-
phase lines, each one with a third of the height of the tower and the
corresponding impedance values obtained in item 7 (top, middle and
bottom), in a way to represent the variation.
The impedances of the tower ground were represented by purely
resistive impedances with typical values of 6.5 ohms [3].
The characteristic impedance of the lightning arrester cable is 455 ohms.
To avoid unwanted reflections, the cable ends were connected to resistors
to earth of equal value.
The surge current is applied to the middle of the line (6th tower), and the
overvoltage is simulated and verified at three points of the tower in question,
as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Array in EMTP/ATPDRAW of lightning arrester cable and towers of

the transmission line

Based on this scheme, simulations were performed in order to compare

the results and to verify impacts on transmission line tower.
The following results are presented for the comparison with
measurement results.
Due to the complexity of measuring the surge impedance of towers, i.e.
the necessity, as already said, of the shutdown of the transmission line and
the expensive equipment and method required for the technic, it was not
possible to perform these measurements in our case. However, for a solid
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

and reasoned analysis of the obtained results it is necessary to compare them

with real data provided by field measurements. For this reason, the results
obtained were compared to the surges measurements made by Motoyama et
al [3], which uses a tower similar to the dual circuit tower line modelled
here.
In reference [3], it was applied a known current at the top of the tower
and simultaneously recorded the tension in some of the points of the
structure. The comparison, performed here, considered in measuring the
voltage at the point of the structure in which the insulator connects the lower
cable phase, coincidentally to the point, which corresponds to 2/3 of the
height of the tower in the model, where one can get a record of the tension.
The current waveform of the simulation is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Current injected in the tower for voltage measurement.

This same current was represented in the EMTP/ATPDraw to obtain the

voltage results. Figure 11 shows the measured voltage and obtained results
from simulations in EMTP/ATPDraw.

Figure 11 Registration of voltage in the point at the tower where the insulator of
the lower phase connects, obtained by (a) measurement and (b) simulation by
EMTP/ATPDraw.
As it can be seen, the waveforms, from measurement and simulation, are
similar even though the measured wave showed a larger peak. Another
 Chapter Twenty

important observation is that the wave obtained in EMTP/ATPDraw takes

negative values. This happens because the effect of wave reflections is
larger in this case, causing the tension to take negative values. It is
noteworthy that despite the two towers in question are of similar size, they
have different dimensions, explaining the difference in the amplitude of the
recorded voltages.

Final Considerations
The analysis of the classical methods for the estimation of surge
impedance of transmission line towers showed that in some cases they may
produce different results than expected. This happens because of the
simplification of the models of towers, where common geometric shapes are
used.
Existing expressions for determining the surge impedance of towers is
based on simplified geometric models and in cases of differentiated towers
may not be appropriate for this calculation.
Thus, a technique based on the stored electrical potential energy for the
surge impedance calculation was proposed. The results obtained from
computational models, which apply the FEM, and the results obtained from
the application of classical equations, it was obtained two contrasting results
of surge impedance of towers.
Therefore, considering the importance of determining the surge
impedance of towers, especially those who present different geometrical
shapes, it is proposed a method using computational models coupled with
the FEM method and argued that it can be a feasible option for this study.

Bibliographic References
[1] GOLDE, R. H., 1954. "Indirect lightning surges on overhead distribution
lines", The Electrical Research Association, S/T 75, Leatherhead.
[2] R. D. Fuchs, Electrical Power Transmission Overhead Lines, Vol.
2, LTC/EFEI, 1977.
[3] Motoyama, H., Kinoshita, Y., Nonaka, K., Experimental Study on
Lightning Surge Response of 500-kV Transmission Tower With Overhead
Lines, IEEE trans. PWRD, Vol.23, pp 2488-2495, October, 2008.
[4] General Electric Company and Electric Power Research Institute,
"Transmission line reference book, 345KV and above" Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 1982.
 CALCULATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINE TOWERS

[5] HEIDLER, F., CVETIC, J. M., STANIC, B. V., 1999, Calculation of

Lightning Current Parameters, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, v.
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[7] SCHROEDER, M. A. O., 2001, Electromagnetic Model for
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[8] CHOWDHURI, P., ANDERSON, J. G., CHISHOLM, W. A., et al.,
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[9] WAGNER, C. F., HILEMAN, A. R., 1959, A New Approach to
Calculation of Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines, AIEE
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[10] M. Kawai, Studies of the Surge Response on a Transmission Tower,
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[11] SARGENT, M. A., 1972, Monte Carlo Simulation of the Lightning
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[12] CEDRAT, FLUX 10 Users guide, vol. 3 & 4, June 25, 2009.
[13] D. Meeker, Finite Element Method Magnetics - Users Manual,
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[15] BABA Y. e RAKOV, V.A., 2006. "Voltages induced on an overhead
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