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9.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer

Understanding the mechanics of the turbulent boundary layer is important because in the majority of practical
problems it is the turbulent boundary layer that is primarily responsible for surface shear force, or surface
resistance. In this section the velocity distribution in the turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate oriented parallel
to the flow is presented. The correlations for boundary-layer thickness and shear stress are also included.

Velocity Distribution
The velocity distribution in the turbulent boundary layer is more complicated than the laminar boundary layer.
The turbulent boundary has three zones of flow that require different equations for the velocity distribution in
each zone, as opposed to the single relationship of the laminar boundary layer. Figure 9.6 shows a portion of a
turbulent boundary layer in which the three different zones of flow are identified. The zone adjacent to the wall
is the viscous sublayer; the zone immediately above the viscous sublayer is the logarithmic region; and, finally,
beyond that region is the velocity defect region. Each of these velocity zones will be discussed separately.

Figure 9.6 Sketch of zones in turbulent boundary layer.

Viscous Sublayer
The zone immediately adjacent to the wall is a layer of fluid that is essentially laminar because the presence of
the wall dampens the cross-stream mixing and turbulent fluctuations. This very thin layer is called the viscous
sublayer. This thin layer behaves as a Couette flow introduced in Section 9.1. In the viscous sublayer, is
virtually constant and equal to the shear stress at the wall, 0. Thus du/dy = 0/, which on integration yields

(9.19)

Dividing the numerator and denominator by gives

(9.20)

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The combination of variables has the dimensions of velocity and recurs again and again in derivations
involving boundary-layer theory. It has been given the special name Shear velocity. The shear velocity (which is
also sometimes called Friction velocity is symbolized as u* Thus, by definition,

(9.21)

Now, substituting u* for in Eq. (9.20), yields the nondimensional velocity distribution in the viscous
sublayer:

(9.22)

Experimental results show that the limit of viscous sublayer occurs when yu*/ is approximately 5.
Consequently, the thickness of the viscous sublayer, identified by , is given as

(9.23)

The thickness of the viscous sublayer is very small (typically less than one-tenth the thickness of a dime). The
thickness of the viscous sublayer increases as the wall shear stress decreases in the downstream direction.

The Logarithmic Velocity Distribution

The flow zone outside the viscous sublayer is turbulent; therefore, a completely different type of flow is
involved. The mixing action of turbulence causes small fluid masses to be swept back and forth in a direction
transverse to the mean flow direction. A small mass of fluid swept from a low-velocity zone next to the viscous
sublayer into a higher-velocity zone farther out in the stream has a retarding effect on the higher-velocity stream.
Similarly, a small mass of fluid that originates farther out in the boundary layer in a high-velocity flow zone and
is swept into a region of low velocity has the effect of accelerating the lower-velocity fluid. Although the process
just described is primarily a momentum exchange phenomenon, it has the same effect as applying a shear stress
to the fluid; thus in turbulent flow these stresses are termed apparent shear stresses, or Reynolds stresses after
the British scientist-engineer who first did extensive research in turbulent flow in the late l800s.

The mixing action of turbulence causes the velocities at a given point in a flow to fluctuate with time. If one
places a velocity-sensing device, such as a hot-wire anemometer, in a turbulent flow, one can measure a
fluctuating velocity, as illustrated in Fig. 9.7. It is convenient to think of the velocity as composed of two parts: a
mean value, , plus a fluctuating part, u. The fluctuating part of the velocity is responsible for the mixing action
and the momentum exchange, which manifests itself as an apparent shear stress as noted previously. In fact, the
apparent shear stress is related to the fluctuating part of the velocity by

(9.24)

where u and refer to the x and y components of the velocity fluctuations, respectively, and the bar over these
terms denotes the product of u averaged over a period of time.* The expression for apparent shear stress is
not very useful in this form, so Prandtl developed a theory to relate the apparent shear stress to the temporal
mean velocity distribution.

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Figure 9.7 Velocity fluctuations in turbulent flow.

The theory developed by Prandtl is analogous to the idea of molecular transport creating shear stress presented
in Chapter 2. In the turbulent boundary layer, the principal flow is parallel to the boundary. However, because of
turbulent eddies, there are fluctuating components transverse to the principal flow direction. These fluctuating
velocity components are associated with small masses of fluid, as shown in Fig. 9.8, that move across the
boundary layer. As the mass moves from the lower-velocity region to the higher-velocity region it tends to retain
its original velocity. The difference in velocity between the surrounding fluid and the transported mass is
identified as the fluctuating velocity component u. For the mass shown in Fig. 9.8, u would be negative and
approximated by

where du /dy is the mean velocity gradient and is the distance the small fluid mass travels in the transverse
direction. Prandtl identified this distance as the mixing length. Prandtl assumed that the magnitude of the
transverse fluctuating velocity component is proportional to the magnitude of the fluctuating component in the
principal flow direction: || |u| which seems to be a reasonable assumption because both components arise
from the same set of eddies. Also, it should be noted that a positive will be associated with a negative u so the
product will be negative. Thus the apparent shear stress can be expressed as

(9.25)

A more general form of Eq. (9.25) is

which ensures that the sign for the apparent shear stress is correct.

Figure 9.8 Concept of mixing length.

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The theory leading to Eq. (9.25) is called Prandtl's mixing-length theory and is used extensively in analyses
involving turbulent flow.* Prandtl also made the important and clever assumption that the mixing length is
proportional to the distance from the wall ( = y) for the region close to the wall. If one considers the velocity
distribution in a boundary layer where du/dy is positive, as is shown in Fig. 9.8, and substitutes y for , then
Eq. (9.25) reduces to

For the zone of flow near the boundary, it is assumed that the shear stress is uniform and approximately equal to
the shear stress at the wall. Thus the foregoing equation becomes

(9.26)

Taking the square root of each side of Eq. (9.26) and rearranging yields

Integrating the above equation and substituting u* for gives

(9.27)

Experiments on smooth boundaries indicate that the constant of integration C can be given in terms of u*, , and
a pure number as

When this expression for C is substituted into Eq. (9.27), the result is

(9.28)

In Eq. (9.28), has sometimes been called the universal turbulence constant, or Karman's constant. Experiments
show that this constant is approximately 0.41 3 for the turbulent zone next to the viscous sublayer. Introducing
this value for into Eq. (9.28) gives the logarithmic velocity distribution

(9.29)

Obviously the region where this model is valid is limited because the mixing length cannot continuously increase
to the boundary layer edge. This distribution is valid for values of yu*/ ranging from approximately 30 to 500.

The region between the viscous sublayer and the logarithmic velocity distribution is the buffer zone. There is no
equation for the velocity distribution in this zone, although various empirical expressions have been developed
6. However, it is common practice to extrapolate the velocity profile for the viscous sublayer to larger values of
yu*/ and the logarithmic velocity profile to smaller values of yu*/ until the velocity profiles intersect as shown
in Fig. 9.9. The intersection occurs at yu*/ = 11.84 and is regarded as the demarcation between the viscous
sublayer and the logarithmic profile. The nominal thickness of the viscous sublayer is

(9.30)

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Figure 9.9 Velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer.

The combination of the viscous and logarithmic velocity profile for the range of yu*/ from 0 to approximately
500 is called the law of the wall.

Making a semilogarithmic plot of the velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer, as shown in Fig. 9.9,
makes it straightforward to identify the velocity distribution in the viscous sublayer and in the region where the
logarithmic equation applies. However, the logarithmic nature of this plot accentuates the nondimensional
distance yu*/ near the wall. A better perspective of the relative extent of the regions is obtained by plotting the
graph on a linear scale, as shown in Fig. 9.10. From this plot one notes that the laminar sublayer and buffer zone
are a very small part of the thickness of the turbulent boundary layer.

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Figure 9.10 Velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layerlinear scales.

Velocity Defect Region

For y/ > 0.15 and yu*/ > 500 the velocity profile corresponding to the law of the wall becomes increasingly
inadequate to match experimental data, so a third zone, called the velocity defect region, is identified. The
velocity in this region is represented by the velocity defect law, which for a flat plate with zero pressure gradient
is simply expressed as

(9.31)

and the correlation with experimental data is plotted in Fig. 9.11. At the edge of the boundary layer y = and (U0
- u)/u* = 0, so u = U0, or the free-stream velocity. This law applies to rough as well as smooth surfaces.
However, the functional relationship has to be modified for flows with free-stream pressure gradients.

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Figure 9.11 Velocity defect law for boundary layers on flat plate (zero pressure gradient). [After Rouse
6.]

As shown in Fig. 9.9, the demarcation between the law of the wall and the velocity defect regions is somewhat
arbitrary, so there is considerable overlap between the two regions. The three zones of the turbulent boundary
layer and their range of applicability are summarized in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 ZO"ES FOR TURBULE"T BOU"DARY LAYER O" FLAT PLATE
Zone Velocity Distribution Range
Viscous Sublayer

Logarithmic Velocity Distribution

Velocity Defect Law

Power-Law Formula for Velocity Distribution

Analyses have shown that for a wide range of Reynolds numbers (105 < Re < 107), the velocity profile in the
turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate is approximated reasonably by the power-law equation

(9.32)

Comparisons with experimental results show that this formula conforms to those results very closely over about
90% of the boundary layer (0.1 < y/ < 1). Obviously it is not valid at the surface because (du)/(dy)|y=0 ,
which implies infinite surface shear stress. For the inner 10% of the boundary layer, one must resort to equations
for the law of the wall (see Fig. 9.9) to obtain a more precise prediction of velocity. Because Eq. (9.32) is valid
over the major portion of the boundary layer, it is used to advantage in deriving the overall thickness of the

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boundary layer as well as other relations for the turbulent boundary layer.

Example 9.5 illustrates the application of various equations to calculate the velocity in the turbulent boundary
layer.

EXAMPLE 9.5 TURBULE"T BOU"DARY-LAYER

PROPERTIES
Water (60F) flows with a velocity of 20 ft/s past a flat plate. The plate is oriented parallel to the flow.
At a particular section downstream of the leading edge of the plate, the boundary layer is turbulent,
the shear stress on the plate is 0.896 lbf/ft2, and the boundary-layer thickness is 0.0880 ft. Find the
velocity of the water at a distance of 0.0088 ft from the plate as determined by

(a) The logarithmic velocity distribution

(b) The velocity defect law
(c) The power-law formula
Also, what is the nominal thickness of the viscous sublayer?

Problem Definition

Situation: Water flows past a flat plate oriented parallel to the flow. At a point downstream of the
leading edge of the plate, shear stress on the plate is 0.896 lbfft2 and boundary layer thickness is
0.0880 ft.

Find:

1. Velocity at 0.0088 ft from plate using

a. Logarithmic velocity distribution

b. Velocity defect law
c. Power-law formula
2. Nominal thickness of viscous sublayer

Properties:

From Table A.5, = 1.94 slugs/ft3, = 1.22 10-5 ft2/s.

Sketch:

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Plan
1. Calculate shear velocity, u*, from Eq. (9.21).
2. Calculate u using Eq. (9.29) for logarithmic profile.
3. Calculate y/ and find (U0 - u)/u* from Fig. 9.11.
4. Calculate u from (U0 - u)/u* for velocity defect law.
5. Calculate u from Eq.(9.32) for power law.
6. Calculate N from Eq. (9.30).

Solution

1. Shear velocity

2. Logarithmic velocity distribution

3. Nondimensional distance

From Fig. 9.11

4. Velocity from defect law

5. Power-law formula

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6. Nominal sublayer thickness

Review

Notice that the velocity obtained using logarithmic distribution and defect law are nearly the same,
which indicates that the point is in the overlap region.

Boundary-Layer Thickness and Shear-Stress Correlations

Unlike the laminar boundary layer, there is no analytically derived equation for the thickness of the turbulent
boundary layer. There is a way to obtain an equation by using momentum principles, empirical data for the local
shear stress, and by assuming the 1/7 power velocity profile 3. The result is

(9.33)

where x is the distance from the leading edge of the plate and Rex is U0x/.

Many empirical expressions have been proposed for the local shear-stress distribution for the turbulent
boundary layer on a flat plate. One of the simplest correlations is

(9.34a)

and the corresponding average shear-stress coefficient is

(9.34b)

where ReL is the Reynolds number of the plate based on the length of the plate in the streamwise direction.

Even though the variation of cf with Reynolds number given by Eq. (9.34a) provides a reasonably good fit with
experimental data for Reynolds numbers less than 107, it tends to underpredict the skin friction at higher
Reynolds numbers. There are several correlations that have been proposed in the literature; see the review by
Schlichting 4. A correlation proposed by White 3 that fits the data for turbulent Reynolds numbers up to 1010 is

(9.35)

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The corresponding average shear-stress coefficient is

(9.36)

These are the correlations for shear-stress coefficients recommended here.

The boundary layer on a flat plate is composed of both a laminar and turbulent part. The purpose here is to
develop a correlation valid for the combined boundary layer. As noted in Section 9.3, the boundary layer on a
flat plate consists first of a laminar boundary layer that grows in thickness, develops instability, and becomes
turbulent. A turbulent boundary layer develops over the remainder of the plate. As discussed earlier in Section
9.4, the transition from a laminar to turbulent boundary layer is not immediate but takes place over a transition
length. However for the purposes of analysis here it is assumed that transition occurs at a point corresponding to
a transition Reynolds number, Retr, of about 500,000.

The idea here is to take the turbulent shear force for length L, Fs, turb (L) assuming the boundary layer is
turbulent from the leading edge, subtract the portion up to the transition point, Fs, turb (Ltr) and replace it with
the laminar shear force up to the transition point Fs, lam (Ltr). Thus the composite shear force on the plate is

Substituting in Eq. (9.18) for laminar flow and Eq. (9.36) for turbulent flow over a plate of width B gives

(9.37)

where Retr is the Reynolds number at the transition, ReL is the Reynolds number at the end of the plate, and Ltr
is the distance from the leading edge of the plate to the transition zone.

Expressing the resistance force in terms of the average shear-stress coefficient, , gives

Here Ltr/L = Retr/ReL. Therefore,

Finally, for Retr = 500,000, the equation for average shear-stress coefficient becomes

(9.38)

The variation of Cf with Reynolds number is shown by the solid line in Fig. 9.12. This curve corresponds to a
boundary layer that begins as a laminar boundary layer and then changes to a turbulent boundary layer after the
transition Reynolds number. This is the normal condition for a flat-plate boundary layer. Table 9.3 summarizes
the equations for boundary-layer-thickness, and for local shear-stress and average shear-stress coefficients for
the boundary layer on a flat plate.

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Figure 9.12 Average shear-stress coefficients.

Table 9.3 SUMMARY OF EQUATIO"S FOR BOU"DARY LAYER O" A FLAT PLATE
Laminar Flow Re x, Turbulent Flow Re x,
5
Re L < 5 10 Re L 5 105
Boundary-Layer Thickness,

Local Shear-Stress Coefficient,

cf
Average Shear-Stress
Coefficient, Cf

Example 9.6 shows the calculation of surface resistance due to a boundary layer on a flat plate.

EXAMPLE 9.6 LAMI"AR/TURBULE"T BOU"DARY

LAYER O" FLAT PLATE
Assume that air 20C and normal atmospheric pressure flows over a smooth, flat plate with a velocity
of 30 m/s. The initial boundary layer is laminar and then becomes turbulent at a transitional Reynolds
number of 5 105. The plate is 3 m long and 1 m wide. What will be the average resistance
coefficient Cf for the plate? Also, what is the total shearing resistance of one side of the plate, and
what will be the resistance due to the turbulent part and the laminar part of the boundary layer?

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Problem Definition

Situation: Air flows past a flat plate parallel to the flow with a velocity of 30 m/s.

Find:

1. Average shear-stress coefficient, Cf, for the plate.

2. Total shear force (in newtons) on one side of plate.
3. Shear force (in newtons) due to laminar part.
4. Shear force (in newtons) due to turbulent part.

Assumptions: The leading edge of the plate is sharp, and the boundary is not tripped on the leading
edge.

Sketch:

Properties: From Table A.3,

Plan
1. Calculate the Reynolds number based on plate length, ReL.
2. Calculate Cf using Eq. (9.38).
3. Calculate the total shear force on one side of plate using
4. Using value for transition Reynolds number, find transition point.
5. Use Eq. (9.18) to find average shear-stress coefficient for laminar portion.
6. Calculate shear force for laminar portion.
7. Subtract laminar portion from total shear force.

Solution

1. Reynolds number based on plate length

2. Average shear-stress coefficient

3. Total shear force

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4. Transition point

5. Laminar average shear-stress coefficient

6. Laminar shear force

7. Turbulent shear force

If the boundary layer is tripped by some roughness or leading-edge disturbance (such as a wire across the
leading edge), the boundary layer is turbulent from the leading edge. This is shown by the dashed line in Fig.
9.12. For this condition the boundary layer thickness, local shear-stress coefficient, and average shear-stress
coefficient are fit reasonably well by Eqs. (9.33), (9.34a), and (9.34b).

(9.39)

which are valid up to a Reynolds number of 107. For Reynolds numbers beyond 107, the average shear-stress
coefficient given by Eq. (9.36) can be used. It is of interest to note that marine engineers incorporate tripping
mechanisms for the boundary layer on ship models to produce a boundary layer that can be predicted more
precisely than a combination of laminar and turbulent boundary layers.

Example 9.7 illustrates calculating surface resistance with a tripped boundary layer.

EXAMPLE 9.7 RESISTA"CE FORCE WITH TRIPPED

BOU"DARY LAYER
Air at 20C flows past a smooth, thin plate with a free-stream velocity of 20 m/s. Plate is 3 m wide
and 6 m long in the direction of flow and boundary layer is tripped at the leading edge.

Problem Definition

Situation: Air flows past a smooth, thin plate. Boundary layer is tripped at leading edge.

Find: Total shear resistance (in newtons) on both sides of plate.

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Sketch:

Assumptions: From Table A.3,

Plan
1. Calculate the Reynolds number based on plate length.
2. Find average shear-stress coefficient from Fig. 9.12.
3. Calculate surface resistance for both sides of plate.

Solution

1. Reynolds number

Reynolds number is less than 107.

2. Average shear-stress coefficient

3. Resistance force

Even though the equations in this chapter have been developed for flat plates, they are useful for engineering
estimates for some surfaces that are not truly flat plates. For example, the skin friction drag of the submerged
part of the hull of a ship can be estimated with Eq. (9.38).

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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