Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PrinciplesandApplications
AlbertoMoreira
GermanAerospaceCenter(DLR)
MicrowavesandRadarInstitute
82230Oberpfaffenhofen,Germany
email:alberto.moreira@dlr.de/Web:www.dlr.de/HR
23/07/2013 1
1
Remote Sensing: Motivation
Provides unique information to solve societal changelles of global dimension
85 cm/day
0 cm/day
Cars
velocity
Remote Sensing
Measuring objects properties from distance with dedicated instruments
Acquired information
spatial (geometric resolution)
spectral (frequency resolution)
intensity (radiometric resolution)
temporal (revisit time) Landsat image Land Use map
passive:
High-resolution
Multispectral, hyperspectral
active: Lidar
2
Remote Sensing
Measuring objects properties from distance with dedicated instruments
Venice, Italy
Acquired information
spatial (geometric resolution)
spectral (frequency resolution)
Subsidence map
intensity (radiometric resolution)
temporal (revisit time)
K X S P
Lidar
Ka Ku C L
Frequency (Hz)
1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 1010 109
100 nm 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m
wave length
visible thermal Infrared
Infrared Microwave
radiometers
optical passive
sensors Microwaves: 300 MHz 300 GHz:
sensors (1 m 1 mm)
3
Spaceborne Radar Remote Sensing
Radar Altimeter Weather Radar
Measures surface topography (surface height) Measures three-dimensional rainfall distribution
4
X-band, Airborne SAR, F-SAR, Full Polarimetric
5
TerraSAR-X, Mississippi, USA - Flooding
FloodedareasinformationretrievedfromTerraSARXdata
6
TerraSAR-X, Drygalski Glacier, Oct 2007 July 2008
7
Mato Grosso, Brazil - Deforestation
8
Amplitude Phase Digital Elevation Model
9
Motivation for Spaceborne SAR
- Complementary information to optical systems (e.g. polarimetry)
Infrared image
SAR image
Forest profile with SAR tomography
10
Motivation for Spaceborne SAR
- Complementary information to optical systems
- Penetration of radar waves
- Weather independent
Landsat Radar
11
www.DLR.
de Motivation for Spaceborne SAR
Chart 23
- Complementary information to optical systems
- Penetration of radar waves
- Weather independent
- Day-and-night imaging capability
- Geometric resolution independent of the distance
12
SAR Main Properties and Applications
high resolution capability (independent of flight altitude)
weather independence by selecting proper frequency range
day/night imaging capability due to own illumination
complementary to optical systems
polarization signature can be exploited (physical structure, dielectric constant)
innumerous applications areas:
Outline of Lecture
13
Radar: Radio Detection and Ranging
14
Radar Principle
Transmit pulse
Echo
Radar system
Range distance ro
co (velocity of light)
Tx
object
Rx
t (time)
transmit receive
15
Side-Looking Radar Imaging Geometry
16
Side-Looking Radar Imaging Geometry
slant range
azimth
Two-dimensional imaging
illuminated area (azimuth x slant range)
17
Side Looking Geometry and Timing
z
z
Platform
(pulse duration)
Azimuth
D D = depression angle
H r0 = slant range
r0
y
y
x Swath width (SW)
T = 1/PRF
PRF = pulse repetition frequency
Transmitter
Antenna
Radar Pulse
Receiver Circulator
18
What does the Radar measure ?
Radar reflectivity (backscattered signal) of targets as a function of their position
Isotropic
whereby
scatterer
received energy by the sensor
energy ratio =
energy reflected in an isotropic way
or
19
Backscattering Coefficient o
Levels of Radar backscatter Typical scenario
Backscattering Coefficient o
Variation of o as a function of incidence angle i
z
Platform
y
o (dB)
Sigma0,
20
Range and Azimuth Resolution for a Radar System
Range Resolution depends on the bandwidth or pulse duration of transmitted signal
Te
c .T c Te 1
e o e o Be
2 2. Be
Be ... Bandwidth of the radar
Azimuth Resolution depends on the azimuth size of the antenna and increases with range
ro
a a . ro . ro da ro
a a
da da a a
e = 6 m a = 30 m
e = 6 m a = 2000 m !
21
Carl Wiley and the Invention of the Synthetic Aperture Radar
(Carl Wiley, Patent in 1954)
z
Synthetic
Aperture
swath
width
a
22
SAR Basic Principle
imaged swath
x
Lsa y
Azimuth resolution: a
23
Formation of a Synthetic Aperture
da
Lsa da
sa 2
V
formation of synthetic aperture
(i.e. SAR processing)
24
First Civilian SAR Satellite: SEASAT (1978)
25
Spaceborne SAR Systems
26
C-band
R: HH G: HV B: VV
P-band
R: HH G: HV B: VV
Electromagnetic Spectrum
27
PART III
28
SAR Basic Principle
z
1) pulsed radar system
(PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency)
Antenna
Te . co co
e
2 2 . Be
4) azimuth resolution
x da
a
y 2
antenna
29
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
I/Q demodulator base band signal
signal generator power low noise I
Mixer circulator A
amplifier amplifier D
-90
A Q
D
ultra stable
oscillator
t (time)
transmit
Imaginary Part
Coherent demodulation
A
1
Real Part
4.
phase .r1 object
phase change 1
30
Coherent Measurement Principle
2 . r2
Total time delay 2 =
co
t (time)
transmit
Imaginary Part
Coherent demodulation
A
2
Real Part
4.
phase .r2 object
phase change 2
Imaginary Part
amplitude: A
A
intensity, power: A2
Real Part
phase:
Every pixel of a complex SAR image consists of a real and an imaginary part,
i.e. it is a phasor and contains amplitude and phase information.
amplitude information backscattering coefficient o
4.
phase information .r object
31
2D Raw Data Matrix
32
Synthetic Aperture Formation
point target
beamwidth
of real aperture
antenna
flight
direction
SAR
sensor
Two-way antenna
pattern received azimuth signal
phase
corrections
coherent summation
SAR Detection
processor convolution
SAR
sensor
Two-way antenna
pattern received azimuth signal
phase
corrections
coherent summation
SAR Detection
processor convolution
33
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
raw data
range reference function
range compression
azimuth compression
SAR image
34
Pulse Compression by Convolution
range Te
SAR signal
t
convolution
range
reference
t
function
range reference
function
e
point target response
35
Linear Superposition of Chirps
SAR signal
range convolution
reference t
function
response of 3 point
targets
Folie 72
36
SAR Processing (Image Formation)
raw data range compressed data image data
range
range
point target
azimuth azimuth azimuth
near range
amplitude azimuth
This step is not required in case that the phase information is used (e.g.
polarimetry, interferometry etc.)
37
SAR Processing: 2D Matched Filter
range azimuth
so (x, r) compression compression
detection 2D pulse
SAR Processing
impulse
response
function
38
Calibration Devices
Examples of calibration targets with well-known reflectivity (Radar
Cross Section) for external calibration of the SAR system
Transponder
Corner Reflector
Munich
D02
D01 D06
D07
D03
D05
D14
39
resolution:
3mx3m
40
ERS-1 image / ESA
Kaufbeuren, Germany
F-SAR, X-band quadpol
0.25m resolution
URSI 2011
Andreas Reigber
41
Kaufbeuren, Germany
F-SAR X-band quadpol
0.25m resolution
pulse azimuth
Scene modulation
(x, r) modulation
se (x, r) sa (x, r)
SAR system
azimuth pulse
SAR image detection compression
compression
|uo (x, r)| ui2 + uq2 ha (x, r) he (x, r)
SAR processing
42
SAR signal modeling
Distributed targets have surface roughness comparable or smaller than
radar wavelength
For each resolution cell, (x, r) is equal to the sum of all scatterers contributions i. e.
random sum
imaginary
real
Im
Im
Re
Re
Radarbild
SAR image (Betrag)
43
Speckle
Inherent to coherent systems
Multi-Look Processing
44
Multi-Look Processing
azimuth azimuth
Look 2
1 2 3 4 5 Look 1
Look 3
antenna diagram
in azimuth direction
2 2
u2 ( x , r ) uML ( x, r )
sa (x, r)
ha2 (x, r) ui2 + uq 2
2
u3 ( x , r )
ha3 (x, r) ui2 + uq 2
L 2
u x, r
i
uML ( x, r )
2 i 1
SAR impulse response function with multi-looking ( L looks):
L
Standard deviation of the speckle noise is reduced by the square root of the number of looks:
45
Multi-Look Processing
frequency
frequency
frequency
46
Multi-Look Processing (@ SAR Image)
2
u ( x, r ) Average 2
sa (x, r) uML ( x, r )
ha(x, r) ui2 + uq 2 (boxcar
window)
nm L 2
n ,m 1
u xn , rm
uML ( x, r )
2
SAR impulse response function with average of L image pixels:
L
Standard deviation of the speckle noise is reduced by the square root of the number of looks:
47
Single-Look and Multi-Look Processing
speckle filtered
original SAR image (1 look)
Adaptive Filtering
Airborne SAR AeS-1
(Model based approach)
48
Summary: Speckle
SAR image of distributed targets contains speckle noise.
The average value of the speckle amplitude is equal to its standard deviation
(exponential distribution).
PART IV
Advanced SAR Techniques
and Future Developments
49
Advanced SAR Imaging Modes
- ScanSAR Mode -
ScanSAR Imaging
C
B
A
Synthetic aperture is shared between the subswaths (not contiguous within one
subswath)
Mosaic Operation is required in azimuth and range directions to join the azimuth
bursts and the range sub-swaths
50
ScanSAR Main Properties
ScanSAR leads to a large swath width
Azimuth
Each target has a different frequency history depending on its azimuth location
Spectrum
B
C A
C
B C
azimuth frequency A
51
ScanSAR Imaging (Chickasha, Oklahoma, USA)
Subswath
1
(near range)
SIR-C image
Subswath L-band, VV
2
Subswath
3
Subswath
4
(far range)
azimuth
ASAR Image
52
Comparison: ScanSAR vs. Stripmap (TerraSAR-X)
ScanSAR (HH)
150 MHz
17 m resolution
1 (az) x 6.9 (rg) looks
ascending orbit
Stripmap (HH)
150 MHz
7 m resolution
2.9 (az) x 3.4 (rg) looks
descending orbit
ScanSAR
EEC-RE
17 m res.
illumination
~3 km x 4 km
ScanSAR
53
Stripmap
EEC-RE
7 m res.
illumination
~3 km x 4 km
Stripmap
54
Advanced SAR Imaging Modes
- Spotlight Mode -
Begin of
imaging
Azimuth
End of
imaging
image center
synthetic aperture of
stripmap mode
55
Spotlight SAR Imaging
56
L1B SAR Processing: High Resolution Spotlight
HR Spotlight (VV), 150 MHz range bandwidth, incid 35, 5 km x 10 km
rng
az
Oberpfaffehofen
57
Outlook
58
Launch: June 15, 2007 Launch: June 21, 2010
59
Future SAR System Concepts
Geostationary Illuminator +
LEO Satellites MEO Satellites
LEO Receivers
60
References
References I
SAR Principles and Applications
CEOS EO Handbook Catalogue of Satellite Instruments. On-line available: http://www.eohandbook.com, Oct. 2012.
Curlander, J.C., McDonough, R.N.: Synthetic Aperture Radar: Systems and Signal Processing. Wiley, 1991.
Elachi, C. and J. van Zyl, Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing. John Wiley & Sons, 2006
Henderson, F. und Lewis, A.: Manual of Remote Sensing: Principles and Applications of Imaging Radar. Wiley, 1998.
Lee, J.S. and Pottier, E.: Polarimetric Radar Imaging: From Basics to Applications. CRC Press, 2009.
Massonnet, D. and Souryis, J.C.: Imaging with Synthetic Aperture Radar. EPFL & CRC Press, 2008.
McDonough, R.N. et al: Image Formation from Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar Signals. Johns Hopkins APL
Technical Digest, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1985, S. 300-312.
Moreira, A., Prats-Iraola, P., Younis, M., Krieger, G., Hajnsek, Irena and Papathanassiou, K.: A Tutorial on Synthetic
Aperture Radar. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine, 1 (1), 2013, pp. 6-43.
Tomiyasu, K.: Tutorial Review of Synthetic-Aperture Radar (SAR) with Applications to Imaging of the Ocean Surface.
In: IEEE Proc., Vol. 66, No. 5, May 1978.
Woodhouse, I.: Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing, CRC, Taylor & Francis, 2006.
61
References II
SAR Processing
Cumming, Ian and Frank Wong, Digital Processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar Data, Artech House, 2005
Franceschetti G. und R. Lanari.: Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing. CRC Press, USA, 1999
Li, F.K., Croft, C., Held,D.: Comparison of Several Techniques to Obtain Multiple-Look SAR Imagery. In: IEEE
Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 21, No. 3, Juli 1983.
Moreira, A., Mittermayer, J., Scheiber, R.: Extended Chirp Scaling Algorithm for Air- and Spaceborne SAR Data
Processing in Stripmap and ScanSAR Imaging Modes. In: IEEE Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 34,
No. 5, 1996.
Oliver, C. und S. Quegan. Understanding Synthetic Aperture Radar Images. SciTech Publishing, Inc., 2004.
Raney, R. K.: Theory and Measure of Certain Image Norms in SAR. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 23,
No.3, Mai 1985.
Raney, R. K. und Wessels, G. J.: Spatial Considerations in SAR Speckle Simulation. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote
Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 5, Sept. 1988, S. 666-672.
Tomiyasu, K.: Conceptual Performance of a Satellite Borne, Wide Swath Synthetic Aperture Radar. In: IEEE Trans.
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 19, No. 2, April 1981, S. 108-116.
alberto.moreira@dlr.de
62