Charging a Capacitor

When a battery is connected to a series resistor and capacitor, the initial current is high as the
battery transports charge from one plate of the capacitor to the other. The charging current
asymptotically approaches zero as the capacitor becomes charged up to the battery voltage.
Charging the capacitor stores energy in the electric field between the capacitor plates. The rate of
charging is typically described in terms of a time constant RC.

Capacitor Charge Calculation

For circuit parameters:
= , = V

= , = s = time constant.
This circuit will have a maximum current of = A

just after the switch is closed.

The charge will approach a maximum value = .

At time t = s=
The charging current is = = A
and the charge on the capacitor is = =

Capacitor Charging Equation

The transient behavior of a circuit with a battery, a resistor and a
capacitor is governed by Ohm's law, the voltage law and the definition
of capacitance. Development of the capacitor charging relationship
requires calculus methods and involves a differential equation. For
continuously varying charge the current is defined by a derivative

This kind of differential equation has a general solution of the form:

and the detailed solution is formed by substitution of the general

solution and forcing it to fit the boundary conditions of this problem.
 The result is

Capacitor Discharge Calculation

For circuit parameters:
R= , V0 = V

C= F, RC = s = time constant.

This circuit will have a maximum current of Imax = A

just after the switch is closed.

The charge will start at its maximum value Qmax= C.

At time t = s= RC
the current is = Imax = A,
the capacitor voltage is = V0 = V,
and the charge on the capacitor is = Qmax = C
 Storing Energy in a Capacitor
The energy stored on a capacitor can be expressed in terms of the
work done by the battery. Voltage represents energy per unit
charge, so the work to move a charge element dq from the
negative plate to the positive plate is equal to V dq, where V is
the voltage on the capacitor. The voltage V is proportional to the
amount of charge which is already on the capacitor.
Element of energy stored:
Index
If Q is the amount of charge stored when the whole battery voltage
appears across the capacitor, then the stored energy is obtained from the Capacitor Concepts
integral:

More detail
Calculation

This energy expression can be put in three equivalent forms by just

permutations based on the definition of capacitance C=Q/V.

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 Storing Energy in a Capacitor
When the switch is closed to
connect the battery to the
capacitor, there is zero
voltage across the capacitor
since it has no charge
buildup. The voltage on the
capacitor is proportional to
the charge

Index

Capacitor
Storing energy on the capacitor involves doing work to transport charge from Concepts
one plate of the capacitor to the other against the electrical forces. As the
charge builds up in the charging process, each successive element of charge dq
requires more work to force it onto the positive plate. Summing these
continuously changing quantities requires an integral.

Calculation

More detail on integral

Note that the total energy stored QV/2 is exactly half of the energy QV which
is supplied by the battery, independent of R!

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 Capacitor Energy Integral

Transporting differential charge dq

to the plate of the capacitor requires
work

But as the voltage rises toward the battery voltage in the process of storing energy, each
successive dq requires more work. Summing all these amounts of work until the total
charge is reached is an infinite sum, the type of task an integral is essential for. The form
of the integral shown above is a polynomial integral and is a good example of the power
of integration.

Filter Circuits
A variety of filter circuits can be made from combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors.
 Time Constant for Transients
The electrical transient phenomena in capacitors and inductors are exponential processes. The
coefficient of time in the exponential is an important rate parameter and is typically expressed in
terms of a time constant.

Having the units of time, the time constant represents the time for the exponential term to drop to
1/e or 36.79% of its original value. Each subsequent time constant will decrease it by the same
fraction. The time constant is a standard parameter used to describe the characteristics of filter
circuits. A standard application of low pass filters is to eliminate high frequency noise on signals
like electrocardiograms. If the time constant is too short, there will not be enough filtering, but if
it is too long, you will start to distort the shape of the ECG you are trying to preserve.
 Inductor Transient
When a battery is connected to a series resistor and inductor, the inductor resists
the change in current and the current therefore builds up slowly. Acting in
accordance with Faraday's law and Lenz's law, the amount of impedance to the
buildup of current is proportional to the rate of change of the current. That is,
the faster you try to make it change, the more it resists. The current builds up
toward the value it would have with the resistor alone because once the current
is no longer changing, the inductor offers no impedance. The rate of this
buildup is characterized by the time constant L/R . Establishing a current in an
inductor stores energy in the magnetic field formed by the coils of the inductor.

Index

DC
Circuits

Inductor
Concepts

Calculation

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 Inductor Transient Calculation
For circuit parameters:
R= , Vb = V

L= H, = L/R = s = time constant.

This circuit will asymptotically approach a maximum current of

= A

since the inductor voltage approaches zero.

At time t = s= L/R
The charging current is = Imax = A
and the inductor voltage is = Vb= V
 Crossover Networks for
Loudspeakers
Most loudspeakers use multiple drivers and employ crossover networks to
route the appropriate frequency ranges to the different drivers. Index

Click on any part of graphic for further detail. Sound

reproduction
concepts

Loudspeaker
concepts

Reference
Cohen
Ch. 8

Elements which make up crossover networks

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 Crossover Elements
The capacitor has
lower impedance
for high
frequencies. It High-
acts to block low pass
frequencies and filter.
let high
frequencies
through. Index
The inductor has
Sound
a lower
reproduction
impedance for
concepts
low frequencies. Low-
It acts to block pass
Loudspeaker
high frequencies filter.
concepts
and let low
frequencies
through.
A capacitor and
inductor in series
Band-
act to block both
pass
very high and
filter.
very low
frequencies.
Crossover networks

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 Two-Way Crossover
Combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors can direct high
frequencies to the tweeter and low frequencies to the woofer. This amounts to
filter action. A two-way crossover network divides the frequency range
between two speakers.

Index

Sound
reproduction
concepts

Loudspeaker
concepts

Impedance of capacitor Impedance of inductor

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 Three-Way Crossover
Combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors can direct high frequencies to the
tweeter and low frequencies to the woofer. This amounts to filter action. A three-way
crossover network divides the frequency range between three speakers.

A capacitor has lower impedance for high frequencies. In series with the high frequency
speaker (tweeter), it acts to block low frequencies and let high frequencies through.

The inductor has a lower impedance for low frequencies. In series with the low-frequency
speaker (woofer), it acts to block high frequencies and let low

Capacitor AC Response
Impedance

Examine
Inductor
Resistor

Calculate
 Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

You know that the voltage across a capacitor lags the current because the current must flow to
build up the charge, and the voltage is proportional to that charge which is built up on the
capacitor plates.

Capacitive Reactance
The frequency dependent impedance of a capacitor is called capacitive reactance.

This calculation works by clicking on the desired quantity in the expression below. Enter the
necessary data and then click on the quantity you wish to calculate. Default values will be
entered for unspecified quantities, but all quantities may be changed.

Impedance = 1/(angular frequency)x(capacitance)

For = x10^ F= = pF
at angular frequency = x10^ rad/s

and frequency = x10^ Hz = kHz = MHz

the capacitive reactance is

XC = x10^ ohms = kohms = Megohms

 Inductor AC Response
Impedance

Examine
Capacitor
Resistor

Calculate

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

You know that the voltage across an inductor leads the current because the Lenz' law behavior
resists the buildup of the current, and it takes a finite time for an imposed voltage to force the
buildup of current to its maximum.

Inductive Reactance
The frequency dependent impedance of an inductor is called inductive reactance.

This calculation works by clicking on the desired quantity in the expression below. Enter the
necessary data and then click on the quantity you wish to calculate. Default values will be
entered for unspecified quantities, but all quantities may be changed.
 Impedance = Angular frequency x Inductance
For = x10^ H= mH = microHenries
at angular frequency = x10^ rad/s

and frequency = x10^ Hz = kHz = MHz

the inductive reactance is

XL = x10^ ohms = kohms = Megohms

AC behavior of inductor

Resistor AC Response
Impedance
Examine
Capacitor
Inductor
Calculate

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

For ordinary currents and frequencies the behavior of a resistor is that of a dissipative element
which converts electrical energy into heat. It is independent of the direction of current flow and
independent of the frequency. So we say that the AC impedance of a resistor is the same as its
DC resistance. That assumes, however, that you are using the rms or effective values for the
current and voltage in the AC case.
 RMS and Effective Values
Circuit currents and voltages in AC circuits are generally stated as root-mean-square or rms
values rather than by quoting the maximum values. The root-mean-square for a current is defined
by

That is, you take the square of the current and average it, then take the square root. When this
process is carried out for a sinusoidal current

Since the AC voltage is also sinusoidal, the form of the rms voltage is the same. These rms
values are just the effective value needed in the expression for average power to put the AC
power in the same form as the expression for DC power in a resistor. In a resistor where the
power factor is equal to 1:

Since the voltage and current are both sinusoidal, the power expression can be expressed in terms
of the squares of sine or cosine functions, and the average of a sine or cosine squared over a
whole period is = 1/2.

Impedance
While Ohm's Law applies directly to resistors in DC or in AC circuits, the form of the current-
voltage relationship in AC circuits in general is modified to the form:
where I and V are the rms or "effective" values. The quantity Z is called impedance. For a pure
resistor, Z = R. Because the phase affects the impedance and because the contributions of
capacitors and inductors differ in phase from resistive components by 90 degrees, a process like
vector addition (phasors) is used to develop expressions for impedance. More general is the
complex impedance method.

Impedance Combinations
Combining impedances has similarities to the combining of resistors, but the phase relationships
make it practically necessary to use the complex impedance method for carrying out the
operations. Combining series impedances is straightforward:

Calculation

Combining parallel impedances is more difficult and shows the power of the complex impedance
approach. The expressions must be rationalized and are lengthy algebraic forms.

Parallel Impedance Expressions

The complex impedance of the parallel circuit takes the form

when rationalized, and the components have the form

Ohm's Law
For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is directly
proportional to the voltage applied to them. When a microscopic view of Ohm's law is taken, it is
found to depend upon the fact that the drift velocity of charges through the material is
proportional to the electric field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to current is called the
resistance, and if the ratio is constant over a wide range of voltages, the material is said to be an
"ohmic" material. If the material can be characterized by such a resistance, then the current can
be predicted from the relationship:
Data can be entered into any of the boxes below. Specifying any two of the quantities determines
the third. After you have entered values for two, click on the text representing to third in the
active illustration above to calculate its value.

Amperes = volts / ohms

Voltage Law
The voltage changes around any closed loop must sum to zero. No matter what path you take
through an electric circuit, if you return to your starting point you must measure the same
voltage, constraining the net change around the loop to be zero. Since voltage is electric potential
energy per unit charge, the voltage law can be seen to be a consequence of conservation of
energy.

The voltage law has great practical utility in the analysis of electric circuits. It is used in
conjunction with the current law in many circuit analysis tasks.

The voltage law is one of the main tools for the analysis of electric circuits, along with Ohm's
Law, the current law and the power relationship. Applying the voltage law to the above circuits
along with Ohm's law and the rules for combining resistors gives the numbers shown below. The
determining of the voltages and currents associated with a particular circuit along with the power
allows you to completely describe the electrical state of a direct current circuit.

Current Law
The electric current in amperes that flows into any junction in an electric circuit is equal to the
current which flows out. This can be seen to be just a statement of conservation of charge. Since
you do not lose any charge during the flow process around the circuit, the total current in any
cross-section of the circuit is the same. Along with the voltage law, this law is a powerful tool for
the analysis of electric circuits.
The current law is one of the main tools for the analysis of electric circuits, along with Ohm's
Law, the voltage law and the power relationship. Applying the current law to the above circuits
along with Ohm's law and the rules for combining resistors gives the numbers shown below. The
determining of the voltages and currents associated with a particular circuit along with the power
allows you to completely describe the electrical state of a direct current circuit.
 Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of
the voltage applied to the electric current whichflows through it:

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I
= V/R, can be used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition
above involves DC current and voltage, the same definition holds for the AC
application of resistors.

Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk
resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges
of temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of
resistance.

Resistivity and Conductivity

The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a
wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of
which the wire is made. Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a
straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed
as

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity .
Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used at a given temperature to calculate the
resistance of a wire of given geometry.

The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. There are contexts where the use of conductivity
is more convenient.

Electrical conductivity = = 1/
 Resistor Combinations
The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived with the
use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current law.

Resistivity Calculation
The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a
wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of
which the wire is made (resistivity). Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a
straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed
as
 Resistance = resistivity x length/area
For a wire of length L = m= ft
and area A = cm2
corresponding to radius r = cm
and diameter inches for common wire gauge comparison
with resistivity = = x 10^ ohm meters
will have resistance R = ohms.

Enter data and then click on the quantity you wish to calculate in the active formula above.
Unspecified parameters will default to values typical of 10 meters of #12 copper wire. Upon
changes, the values will not be forced to be consistent until you click on the quantity you wish to
calculate.

Commonly used U.S. wire gauges

Resistivities of some metals
for copper wire.
in ohm-m(x 10-8) at 20C.
Diameter
AWG Typical use Aluminum 2.65 Gold 2.24
(inches)
Copper 1.724 Silver 1.59
10 0.1019 Electric range
Iron 9.71 Platinum 10.6
12 0.0808 Household circuit
Nichrome 100 Tungsten 5.65
14 0.0640 Switch leads
Table of resistivities
Standard wire gauges

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity .
Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used at a given temperature to calculate the
resistance of a wire of given geometry.

Conductors and Insulators

In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it cannot. Metals such as copper
typify conductors, while most non-metallic solids are said to be good insulators, having
extremely high resistance to the flow of charge through them. "Conductor" implies that the outer
electrons of the atoms are loosely bound and free to move through the material. Most atoms hold
on to their electrons tightly and are insulators. In copper, the valence electrons are essentially
free and strongly repel each other. Any external influence which moves one of them will cause a
repulsion of other electrons which propagates, "domino fashion" through the conductor.

Simply stated, most metals are good electrical conductors, most nonmetals are not. Metals are
also generally good heat conductors while nonmetals are not.

Insulators
Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they offer very large resistance to the
flow of electric current. Metals are classified as conductors because their outer electrons are not
tightly bound, but in most materials even the outermost electrons are so tightly bound that there
is essentially zero electron flow through them with ordinary voltages. Some materials are
particularly good insulators and can be characterized by their high resistivities:

Resistivity (ohm m)

Glass 1012
Mica 9 x 1013
Quartz (fused) 5 x 1016
This is compared to the resistivity of copper:

Resistivity (ohm m)

Copper 1.7 x 10-8

Circuit Elements
Electric circuits are considered to be made up of localized circuit elements connected by wires
which have essentially negligible resistance. The three basic circuit elements are resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. Only these passive elements will be considered here; active circuit
elements are the subject of electronics.

Band Theory of Solids

A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is to
plot the available energies for electrons in the materials. Instead of having discrete energies as in
the case of free atoms, the available energy states form bands. Crucial to the conduction process
is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction band. In insulators the electrons in the
valence band are separated by a large gap from the conduction band, in conductors like metals
the valence band overlaps the conduction band, and in semiconductors there is a small enough
gap between the valence and conduction bands that thermal or other excitations can bridge the
gap. With such a small gap, the presence of a small percentage of a doping material can increase
conductivity dramatically.

An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top of the available electron
energy levels at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the
conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical properties.
 Energy Bands for Solids

Click on any part of the illustration for further information.

Energy Bands Comments

Insulator Energy Bands

 Most solid substances are insulators, and in terms of the band theory of solids
this implies that there is a large forbidden gap between the energies of the
valence electrons and the energy at which the electrons can move freely
through the material (the conduction band).

Glass is an insulating material which may be transparent to visible light for

reasons closely correlated with its nature as an electrical insulator. The visible
light photons do not have enough quantum energy to bridge the band gap and
get the electrons up to an available energy level in the conduction band. The
visible properties of glass can also give some insight into the effects of
"doping" on the properties of solids. A very small percentage of impurity
atoms in the glass can give it color by providing specific available energy
levels which absorb certain colors of visible light. The ruby mineral
(corundum) is aluminum oxide with a small amount (about 0.05%) of
chromium which gives it its characteristic pink or red color by absorbing
green and blue light.

While the doping of insulators can dramatically change their optical

properties, it is not enough to overcome the large band gap to make them good
conductors of electricity. However, the doping of semiconductors has a much
more dramatic effect on their electrical conductivity and is the basis for solid
state electronics

Semiconductor Energy Bands

For intrinsic semiconductors like silicon and germanium, the Fermi
level is essentially halfway between the valence and conduction
bands. Although no conduction occurs at 0 K, at higher temperatures
a finite number of electrons can reach the conduction band and
provide some current. In doped semiconductors, extra energy levels
are added.
The increase in conductivity with temperature can be modeled in
terms of the Fermi function, which allows one to calculate the
population of the conduction band.

Conductor Energy Bands

In terms of the band theory of solids, metals are unique as good
conductors of electricity. This can be seen to be a result of their
valence electrons being essentially free. In the band theory, this is
depicted as an overlap of the valence band and the conduction band
so that at least a fraction of the valence electrons can move through
the material.

Silicon Energy Bands

At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which reach the conduction band
and contribute to current can be modeled by the Fermi function. That current is
small compared to that in doped semiconductors under the same conditions.

Compare to germanium

Germanium Energy Bands

At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which reach the conduction band and contribute
to current can be modeled by the Fermi function. That current is small compared to that in doped
semiconductors under the same conditions.
 Energy Bands:Insulators and
Semiconductors
The energy bands for the outermost electrons are qualitatively similar for carbon, silicon,
germanium and tin. Though they will differ in detail, the generic band diagram below can show
why these materials have different electrical properties.

Energy Bands:Insulators and

Semiconductors
 Fermi Level
"Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electron energy levels at
absolute zero temperature. This concept comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics. Electrons are
fermions and by the Pauli exclusion principle cannot exist in identical energy states. So at
absolute zero they pack into the lowest available energy states and build up a "Fermi sea" of
electron energy states. The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at absolute zero where no
electrons will have enough energy to rise above the surface. The concept of the Fermi energy is a
crucially important concept for the understanding of the electrical and thermal properties of
solids. Both ordinary electrical and thermal processes involve energies of a small fraction of an
electron volt. But the Fermi energies of metals are on the order of electron volts. This implies
that the vast majority of the electrons cannot receive energy from those processes because there
are no available energy states for them to go to within a fraction of an electron volt of their
present energy. Limited to a tiny depth of energy, these interactions are limited to "ripples on the
Fermi sea".
At higher temperatures a certain fraction, characterized by the
Fermi function, will exist above the Fermi level. The Fermi level
plays an important role in the band theory of solids. In doped
semiconductors, p-type and n-type, the Fermi level is shifted by the
impurities, illustrated by their band gaps. The Fermi level is
referred to as the electron chemical potential in other contexts.

In metals, the Fermi energy gives us information about the

velocities of the electrons which participate in ordinary electrical
conduction. The amount of energy which can be given to an
electron in such conduction processes is on the order of micro-
electron volts (see copper wire example), so only those electrons
very close to the Fermi energy can participate. The Fermi velocity
of these conduction electrons can be calculated from the Fermi
energy.

Table

This speed is a part of the microscopic Ohm's Law for electrical

conduction. For a metal, the density of conduction electrons can be
implied from the Fermi energy.

The Fermi energy also plays an important role in understanding the mystery of why electrons do
not contribute significantly to the specific heat of solids at ordinary temperatures, while they are
dominant contributors to thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. Since only a tiny
fraction of the electrons in a metal are within the thermal energy kT of the Fermi energy, they are
"frozen out" of the heat capacity by the Pauli principle. At very low temperatures, the electron
specific heat becomes significant.

Fermi Function
The Fermi function f(E) gives the probability that a given available electron energy state will be
occupied at a given temperature. The Fermi function comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics and has
the form

The basic nature of this function dictates that at ordinary temperatures, most of the levels up to
the Fermi level EF are filled, and relatively few electrons have energies above the Fermi level.
The Fermi level is on the order of electron volts (e.g., 7 eV for copper), whereas the thermal
energy kT is only about 0.026 eV at 300K. If you put those numbers into the Fermi function at
ordinary temperatures, you find that its value is essentially 1 up to the Fermil level, and rapidly
approaches zero above it.
The illustration below shows the implications of the Fermi function for the electrical
conductivity of a semiconductor. The band theory of solids gives the picture that there is a
sizable gap between the Fermi level and the conduction band of the semiconductor. At higher
temperatures, a larger fraction of the electrons can bridge this gap and participate in electrical
conduction.

Note that although the Fermi function has a finite value in the gap, there is no electron
population at those energies (that's what you mean by a gap). The population depends upon the
product of the Fermi function and the electron density of states. So in the gap there are no
electrons because the density of states is zero. In the conduction band at 0K, there are no
electrons even though there are plenty of available states, but the Fermi function is zero. At high
temperatures, both the density of states and the Fermi function have finite values in the
conduction band, so there is a finite conducting population.

Density of Energy States

The Fermi function gives the probability of occupying an available energy state, but this must be
factored by the number of available energy states to determine how many electrons would reach
the conduction band.This density of states is the electron density of states, but there are
differences in its implications for conductors and semiconductors. For the conductor, the density
of states can be considered to start at the bottom of the valence band and fill up to the Fermi
level, but since the conduction band and valence band overlap, the Fermi level is in the
conduction band so there are plenty of electrons available for conduction. In the case of the
semiconductor, the density of states is of the same form, but the density of states for conduction
electrons begins at the top of the gap.
 Population of Conduction Band for a
Semiconductor

The population of conduction electrons for a semiconductor is given by

Show

where

For a semiconductor with bandgap eV (1.1 eV for Si, 0.72 eV for Ge)
at temperature K= C

the conduction electron population is x10^ electrons/m3.

You could use this calculation to verify that the conduction electron population Ncb in germanium
doubles for about a 13 degree rise in temperature. For silicon, Ncb doubles for about an 8 degree
rise in temperature. Because of the larger band gap, there will be fewer conduction electrons in
silicon than germanium for any given
 Polarization of Dielectric
If a material contains polar molecules, they will generally be in random orientations when no
electric field is applied. An applied electric field will polarize the material by orienting the dipole
moments of polar molecules.

This decreases the effective electric field

between the plates and will increase the
capacitance of the parallel plate
structure. The dielectric must be a good
electric insulator so as to minimize any
DC leakage current through a capacitor.

The presence of the dielectric decreases the electric field produced by a given charge density.
The factor k by which the effective field is decreased by the polarization of the dielectric is
called the dielectric constant of the material.

Parallel Plate with Dielectric

The capacitance of a set of charged parallel plates is increased by the insertion of a dielectric
material. The capacitance is inversely proportional to the electric field between the plates, and
the presence of the dielectric reduces the effective electric field. The dielectric is characterized
by a dielectric constant k, and the capacitance is multiplied by that factor.

Parallel Plate with Dielectric

When a dielectric is placed between charged plates, the
polarization of the medium produces an electric field
opposing the field of the charges on the plate. The
dielectric constant k is defined to reflect the amount of
reduction of effective electric field as shown below. The
permittivity is a characteristic of space, and the relative
permittivity or "dielectric constant" is a way to
characterize the reduction in effective field because of
the polarization of the dielectric. The capacitance of the
parallel plate arrangement is increased by factor k.

Table of dielectric constants

Electric Field
Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is taken to
be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially
outward from a positive charge and radially in toward a negative point charge.

Click on any of the examples above for more detail.

Electric Field of Point Charge

The electric field of a point charge can be obtained from Coulomb's
law:

The electric field is radially outward from the point charge in all
directions. The circles represent spherical equipotential surfaces.

The electric field from any number of point charges can be obtained from a vector sum of the
individual fields. A positive number is taken to be an outward field; the field of a negative charge
is toward it.

This electric field expression can also be obtained by applying Gauss' law.

Electric and Magnetic Constants

In the equations describing electric and magnetic fields and their propagation, three constants are
normally used. One is the speed of light c, and the other two are the electric permittivity of free
space 0 and the magnetic permeability of free space, 0. The magnetic permeability of free space
is taken to have the exact value

See also relative permeability

This contains the force unit N for Newton and the unit A is the Ampere, the unit of electric
current.

With the magnetic permeability established, the electric permittivity takes the value given by the
relationship

where the speed of light c is given by

This gives a value of free space permittivity

which in practice is often used in the form

These expressions contain the units F for Farad, the unit of capacitance, and C for Coulomb, the
unit of electric charge.

In the presence of polarizable or magnetic media, the effective constants will have different
values. In the case of a polarizable medium, called a dielectric, the comparison is stated as a
relative permittivity or a dielectric constant. In the case of magnetic media, the relative
permeability may be stated.

Physical Connections to Electric Permittivity

and Magnetic Permeability
Expressions for the electric and magnetic fields in free space contain the electric permittivity 0
and magnetic permeability 0 of free space. As indicated in the section on electric and magnetic
constants, these two quantities are not independent but are related to "c", the speed of light and
other electromagnetic waves.

The electric permittivity is connected to the energy stored in an

electric field. It is involved in the expression for capacitance because
it affects the amount of charge which must be placed on a capacitor to
achieve a certain net electric field. In the presence of a polarizable
medium, it takes more charge to achieve a given net electric field and
the effect of the medium is often stated in terms of a relative
permittivity.
 The magnetic permeability is connected to the energy stored in a
magnetic field. It is involved in the expression for inductance
because in the presence of a magnetizable medium, a larger amount
of energy will be stored in the magnetic field for a given current
through the coil. The effect of the medium is often stated in terms of
a relative permeability.

Gauss's Law
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to
the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.

The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the
surface projected in a plane perpendicular to the field. Gauss's Law is a general law applying to
any closed surface. It is an important tool since it permits the assessment of the amount of
enclosed charge by mapping the field on a surface outside the charge distribution. For geometries
of sufficient symmetry, it simplifies the calculation of the electric field.

Another way of visualizing this is to consider a probe of area A which can measure the electric
field perpendicular to that area. If it picks any closed surface and steps over that surface,
measuring the perpendicular field times its area, it will obtain a measure of the net electric charge
within the surface, no matter how that internal charge is configured.

Gauss' Law, Integral Form

The area integral of the electric field over any closed surface
is equal to the net charge enclosed in the surface divided by
the permittivity of space. Gauss' law is a form of one of
Maxwell's equations, the four fundamental equations for
electricity and magnetism.

Gauss' law permits the evaluation of the electric field in many practical situations by forming a
symmetric Gaussian surface surrounding a charge distribution and evaluating the electric flux
through that surface.

Electric Flux
The concept of electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric flux through a
planar area is defined as the electric field times the component of the area perpendicular to the
field. If the area is not planar, then the evaluation of the flux generally requires an area integral
since the angle will be continually changing.

When the area A is used in a vector operation like this, it is understood that the magnitude of the
vector is equal to the area and the direction of the vector is perpendicular to the area.

Applications of Gauss' Law

Gauss' law is a powerful tool for the calculation of electric fields when they originate from
charge distributions of sufficient symmetry to apply it.
 Gauss' Law Gaussian surfaces

If the charge distribution lacks sufficient symmetry for the application of Gauss' law, then the
field must be found by summing the point charge fields of individual charge elements. Examples
are:

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is the product of the average magnetic field times the perpendicular area that it
penetrates. It is a quantity of convenience in the statement of Faraday's Law and in the discussion
of objects like transformers and solenoids. In the case of an electric generator where the
magnetic field penetrates a rotating coil, the area used in defining the flux is the projection of the
coil area onto the plane perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux Illustrations

The contribution to magnetic flux for a given area is equal to the area times the component of
magnetic field perpendicular to the area. For a closed surface, the sum of magnetic flux is always
equal to zero (Gauss' law for magnetism). No matter how small the volume, the magnetic sources
are always dipole sources (like miniature bar magnets), so that there are as many magnetic field
lines coming in (to the south pole) as out (from the north pole).

Magnetic Force
The magnetic field B is defined from the Lorentz Force Law, and specifically from the magnetic
force on a moving charge:

The implications of this expression include:

1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity v of the charge q and the magnetic field B.

2. The magnitude of the force is F = qvB sin where is the angle < 180 degrees between the
velocity and the magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a stationary charge or a
charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.

3. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. The force relationship above is in the
form of a vector product.
When the magnetic force relationship is applied to a current-carrying wire, the right-hand rule
may be used to determine the direction of force on the wire.

From the force relationship above it can be deduced that the units of magnetic field are Newton
seconds /(Coulomb meter) or Newtons per Ampere meter. This unit is named the Tesla. It is a
large unit, and the smaller unit Gauss is used for small fields like the Earth's magnetic field. A
Tesla is 10,000 Gauss. The Earth's magnetic field at the surface is on the order of half a Gauss.

Lorentz Force Law

Both the electric field and magnetic field can be defined from the Lorentz force law:

The electric force is straightforward, being in the direction of the electric field if the charge q is
positive, but the direction of the magnetic part of the force is given by the right hand rule.

Right Hand Rule

The right hand rule is a useful mnemonic for visualizing the direction of a magnetic force as
given by the Lorentz force law. The diagrams above are two of the forms used to visualize the
force on a moving positive charge. The force is in the opposite direction for a negative charge
moving in the direction shown. One fact to keep in mind is that the magnetic force is
perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the charge velocity, but that leaves two possibilities.
The right hand rule just helps you pin down which of the two directions applies.

For applications to current-carrying wires, the conventional electric current direction can be
substituted for the charge velocity v in the above digram.
 Resistor AC Response
Impedance
Examine
Capacitor
Inductor
Calculate

Index
Contribution to AC
Phasor diagram
complex impedance Circuits

For ordinary currents and frequencies the behavior of a resistor is that of a

dissipative element which converts electrical energy into heat. It is
independent of the direction of current flow and independent of the frequency.
So we say that the AC impedance of a resistor is the same as its DC resistance.
That assumes, however, that you are using the rms or effective values for the
current and voltage in the AC case.

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HyperPhysics***** Electricity and Magnetism R Nave
 RMS and Effective Values
Circuit currents and voltages in AC circuits are generally stated as root-mean-square or
rms values rather than by quoting the maximum values. The root-mean-square for a
current is defined by

That is, you take the square of the current and average it, then take the square root. When
this process is carried out for a sinusoidal current

Since the AC voltage is also sinusoidal, the form of the rms voltage is the same. These
rms values are just the effective value needed in the expression for average power to put
the AC power in the same form as the expression for DC power in a resistor. In a resistor
where the power factor is equal to 1:

Since the voltage and current are both sinusoidal, the power expression can be expressed
in terms of the squares of sine or cosine functions, and the average of a sine or cosine
squared over a whole period is = 1/2.

Use of Complex Impedance

The handling of the impedance of an AC circuit with multiple components quickly becomes
unmanageable if sines and cosines are used to represent the voltages and currents. A
mathematical construct which eases the difficulty is the use of complex exponential functions.
The basic parts of the strategy are as follows:

Polar form of
Euler relation
complex number
 Impedance
Phasor diagrams
combinations

RL and RC Example for

combinations parallel elements

Complex Impedance for RL and RC

Using complex impedance is an important

technique for handling multi-component AC
circuits. If a complex plane is used with resistance
along the real axis then the reactances of the
capacitor and inductor are treated as imaginary
numbers. For series combinations of components
such as RL and RC combinations, the component
values are added as if they were components of a
vector. Shown here is the cartesian form of the
complex impedance. They can also be written in
polar form. Impedances in this form can be used
as building blocks for calculating the impedances
of combination circuits like the RLC parallel
circuit.

Complex Impedance for RL and RC

This depicts the phasor diagrams and complex impedance expressions for RL and RC circuits in
polar form. They can also be expressed in cartesian form.

Capacitor AC Response
Impedance

Examine
Inductor
Resistor

Calculate

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance
You know that the voltage across a capacitor lags the current because the current must flow to
build up the charge, and the voltage is proportional to that charge which is built up on the
capacitor plates.

Capacitive Reactance
The frequency dependent impedance of a capacitor is called capacitive reactance.

This calculation works by clicking on the desired quantity in the expression below. Enter the
necessary data and then click on the quantity you wish to calculate. Default values will be
entered for unspecified quantities, but all quantities may be changed.

Impedance = 1/(angular frequency)x(capacitance)

For = x10^ F= = pF
at angular frequency = x10^ rad/s

and frequency = x10^ Hz = kHz = MHz

the capacitive reactance is

XC = x10^ ohms = kohms = Megohms

Energy Stored on a Capacitor

 The energy stored on a capacitor can be
calculated from the equivalent expressions:

This energy is stored in the electric field.

A capacitor = = x 10^ F

which is charged to voltage V= V

will have charge Q = x10^ C
and will have stored energy E = x10^ J.

From the definition of voltage as the energy per unit charge, one might expect that the energy
stored on this ideal capacitor would be just QV. That is, all the work done on the charge in
moving it from one plate to the other would appear as energy stored. But in fact, the expression
above shows that just half of that work appears as energy stored in the capacitor. For a finite
resistance, one can show that half of the energy supplied by the battery for the charging of the
capacitor is dissipated as heat in the resistor, regardless of the size of the resistor.

Electric Field Energy in Capacitor

The energy stored on a capacitor is in the form of
energy density in an electric field is given by

This can be shown to be consistent with the

energy stored in a charged parallel plate capacitor
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 Phase
When capacitors or inductors are involved in an AC circuit, the current and voltage do not peak
at the same time. The fraction of a period difference between the peaks expressed in degrees is
said to be the phase difference. The phase difference is <= 90 degrees. It is customary to use the
angle by which the voltage leads the current. This leads to a positive phase for inductive circuits
since current lags the voltage in an inductive circuit. The phase is negative for a capacitive circuit
since the current leads the voltage. The useful mnemonic ELI the ICE man helps to remember
the sign of the phase. The phase relation is often depicted graphically in a phasor diagram.

Phasor Diagrams
It is sometimes helpful to treat the phase as if it defined a vector in a plane. The usual reference
for zero phase is taken to be the positive x-axis and is associated with the resistor since the
voltage and current associated with the resistor are in phase. The length of the phasor is
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity represented, and its angle represents its phase
relative to that of the current through the resistor. The phasor diagram for the RLC series circuit
shows the main features.
Note that the phase angle, the difference in phase between the voltage and the current in an AC
circuit, is the phase angle associated with the impedance Z of the

ELI the ICE man

Interference of Sound
Two traveling waves which exist in the same medium will interfere with each other. If their
amplitudes add, the interference is said to be constructive interference, and destructive
interference if they are "out of phase" and subtract. Patterns of destructive and constructive
interference may lead to "dead spots" and "live spots" in auditorium acoustics.

Interference of incident and reflected waves is essential to the production of resonant standing
waves.

Interference has far reaching consequences in sound because of the production of "beats"
between two frequencies which interfere with each other.
 Visualization of phase

Interference with a Tuning Fork

If you strike a tuning fork and rotate it

next to your ear, you will note that the
sound alternates between loud and soft as
you rotate through the angles where the
interference is constructive and
destructive.

Each tine of the fork produces a pressure wave which travels outward at the speed of sound. One
part of the wave has a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, another lower. At some angles
the high pressure areas of the two waves coincide and you hear a louder sound. At other angles,
the high pressure part of one wave coincides with the low pressure part of the other.

Phase
If a mass on a rod is rotated at constant speed and the resulting circular path illuminated from the
edge, its shadow will trace out simple harmonic motion. If the shadow vertical position is traced
as a function of time, it will trace out a sine wave. A full period of the sine wave will correspond
to a complete circle or 360 degrees. The idea of phase follows this parallel, with any fraction of a
period related to the corresponding fraction of a circle in degrees.
Interference and Phase