5-ELECTRON OPTICS

1. Explain electrostatic focusing. Also derive the formula for refractive index.
Equipotential surface : It is the surface in an
electric field where the electric potential
remains the same. Consider an electron at
rest and is placed in an electric field
produced by the two plates A and B. The
force experience is
F = eE
eV
=
d
The negative sign indicates that force acts in
the opposite direction to that of field. This N
discussion is valid only if the field is uniform e vx V1
A-region
within plate A and B. The areas near the v
boundaries shows the field is no longer 1
rarer
vy
uniform consider two equipotential
surfaces A and Let us consider two O
2 V2 > V1
equipotential surfaces separated by the B-region
vx'
boundary where potential V1 abruptly
denser
changes to potential V2. Let an electron v2
enter in A with velocity V1 obliquely and is vy'
N'
incident at an angle of incidence 1 w.r.t.
normal NON'. Its
x-component in vX and vx remains same but
when it enters boundary B where V2 > V1 its
y-component enhances.

Therefore by Snell's law

sin 1 = vx
v1
vx = v1 sin 1

vx
and sin 2 =
v2
vx = v2 sin 2

Since vx = vx
v1 sin 1 = v2 sin 2

sin 1 v 2
(1)
sin 2 v1

where v2 = final velocity after leaving surface

v1 = initial velocity with which electron approaches
This equation is identical to the Snell's Law in optics which describes refraction. It
is called Bathe's Law. In region A, 1 mv12 eV1 and in region B, 1 mv22 eV2 .
2 2

v1
2eV1
and v2
2eV2
m m
v1 V1
(2)
v2 V2

equation (1) becomes

sin 1 v 2 V2
= Refractive index
sin 2 v1 V1
This is Bathe's Law. When light ray enters denser medium, it refracts towards
normal and slow down but when electron enters V2 > V1 it moves faster and
bends towards normal.
Consider more than one equipotential e V1

surface. Let us take the case of non- V2 > V1

uniform electric field represented by V3 > V2
more than one equipotential surface V4 > V3
separating equipotential regions of
potentials V1, V2, V3, etc.
A curved path of electron can be observed. This is analogous to bending of
optical ray.

Convex surface M Concave surface

converging part diverging lens
A V1 V2 > V1 B
FL F
2
e FH FH
FL Principles axis
1
e
FL Focal point Focal point
3

e FH FH
FL F

equipotential surface

M' optical axis

Consider two co-axial cylinders/plates A and B connected to potentials V1 and V2
respectively such that V2 > V1. A non-uniform electric field is produced in the gap
between the tubes as a result of different potentials applied to the tube. Figure
shows schematic of a simple electrostatic lens. The equipotential surfaces are
perpendicular to the electric field lines everywhere. The electric field within the
hollow space of the tube is weak and negligible.

Working : Let us consider a thin bundle of electron rays entering the double
cylinder lens system through the tube T1 held at a lower potential V1. Electrons,
lablled as moves along the axis of the system. On reaching the equipotential
surfaces in the gap, they experience an electric force acting along the axis in
forward direction. The electrons are therefore accelerated towards tube T2 along
the axis, without any deviation from their initial path of travel. Electrons labelled
2, on reaching the equipotential surfaces in the gap experiences an electric force
acting at an angle to the direction of their motion. The force F experienced by the
electrons at the convex equipotential surface can be resolved into rectangular
components FH and FL. FH acts parallel to the axis while FL is normal to the axis.
Because of the force FL, the electrons are deflected towards the axis and are also
simultaneously accelerated towards tube T2 due to force component FH. Similarly,
the electrons labelled 3 are deflected up towards the axis and are accelerated
forward. Thus, all off the axis electron paths around the axis tends to converge
towards the axis. However, on crossing the midplane MM' of the gap, the
converging electron rays encounter equipotential surfaces of concave shape. In
the second half of the gap, the normal component of electric force, FL is directed
away from the axis for all off-axis electrons. The FH component is directed
forward. As a result, the electrons are accelerated forward but tend to diverge.
Thus, the first of the gap acts like a convex lens where as the electron rays tend to
converge and the second half acts as a concave lens which defocusses the rays.
For every set of values of V1 and V2 the converging action will be stronger than the
diverging action. Because the electrons move slower in the lower potential
region, they spend a greater time, in the first half of the gap and the impulse "FHt"
is greater for the convergence interval. In the second half the electrons move
faster because of higher potential and the impulse "FHt" is smaller for the
divergence interval. The net result is that electron rays get focussed. A double
cylinder arrangement is called an electrostatic lens or electron lens.
Light rays are bent only at the two boundaries of a lens, but electron rays are
reflected continuously bending through successive equipotential surfaces. Secondly,
the focal length of glass lens is fixed, whereas the focal length of an electron lens
may be varied by adjusting the potential V1 and V2 on the cylinders.

Application : Electron lens is the most important component of an electron gun

used for producing a narrow intense electron beam. This is also utilized in particle
accelerator to focus charged particles in a narrow beam.

2. Explain in detail the principle behind longitudinal magneto statics

focusing. Define pitch. OR Show that in uniform magnetic field pitch
remains constant.
T
Consider an electron which enters a magnetic field in an angular direction
described by an angle . The resultant motion is a combination of two motion,
namely the translational motion along the field direction and circular motion in a
plane perpendicular to the field. This composite motion is a helical motion with
pitch P as shown.
Magnetic Focussing
The radius of the particle motion path is given by
mV Pitch P
R = v sin
Be
But the rotational motion is provided by V sin v
mV sin
R = (1)
Be
pitch of the helix = P = V cos T v cos

V
P
T
, V cos
P
T (2)
where translational motion is provided by V cos component.
2 m
time period, T = (3)
B e
Substituting (3) in (2), we get
2 m
P = V cos (4)
Be
gives an expression for pitch of helical path.

2m
P= V cos
Be
For small angles cos = 1
2m
P= V
Be
This equation signifies that pitch for any electron is same if the B is uniform. This
means that when angle of divergence of the charged particle beam is small, all
particles are focussed at one point on the screen. This phenomenon is termed as
magnetic focusing. Such focusing is observed in longitudinal as well as transverse
magnetic fields. The intensity of the magnetic field can be varied by varying the
current in the coil that is generating magnetic field. The intensity variation allows
the user to focus the electrons at the desired spot on the screen.

Let us consider a beam of electron with many rays with velocity V, originating at
point O. All the rays have assumed to be different angle of divergence but not
more than 10, such that cos 1. Any ray leaving at point O again intersects the
field lines after the time interval T. Therefore, all the electron rays leaving at point O
at small angles will again cross the same field line at a common point A after the time
period T. The distance OA = can be calculated as
= V cos t
V
2 m B
= V cos
Be
O A

as is small, cos 1 L
2mV
=
Be

As T is independent of , V and r, so the electrons starting from O can diverge in

any direction but will be forced to focus at point A by the uniform magnetic field.
Thus magnetic field just acts as a lens to bring them on focus.
This type of focussing is used in electron microscope.
 3. List the various important parts of CRT and explain their role in short.

F Filament
A1Preaccelerating anode
G Grid A2 Focussing anode
K Cathode A3 Accelerating anode
Y Y-plate X X-plate
Evacualted
glass envelop

Aquadag
coating

G A1 A A3 X
F K 2 Y

Electron beam

Fluorescent
screen

A Cathode Ray Tube is a specially constructed tube in which an electron beam is

controlled by electric or magnetic fields and generates a visual display of input
electrical signals on a fluorescent screen. It consists of three important parts,
namely, an electron gun, a deflection system and a fluorescent screen.

Description : The CRT resembles a horizontally placed conical flask sealed at its
open end. The electron gun consisting of several electrodes is mounted at one end
of the tube as a single unit and electrical connections are given to them through
base pins. The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel metal plates
mounted in the neck of the tube. They are oriented in such a way that they are in
mutually perpendicular directions to the axis of CRT. The connections to the
deflection plates are through base pins. The screen consists of a thin coating of
phosphors deposited on the inner face of the wide end of the glass envelop. The
inner surface of the flare of the envelop is coated with a conductive graphite
coating called aquadag. It is connected internally to the accelerating anode. The
power supply provides the required potentials to the various elements of CRT.

Working : In the CRT, the electron gun generates an electron beam, focuses it and
accelerates it towards a fluorescent screen located at the farther end of the tube.
The screen emits a small round glow at the point where energetic electrons strike
it. The electron beam may be move dot any spot on the screen with the help of
deflection system.
(i) Electron gun : The indirectly heated cathode K emits a stream of electrons
from its coated front face. The electrons pass through the control grid G held
at a negative potential. The effective size of the apparatus in the grid varies
depending upon the potential difference between the grid and cathode. The
intensity of the glow produced at the screen is determined by the number of
electrons striking the screen. Therefore, by varying the negative D.C. voltage
on the grid, the intensity fo the luminous spot on the screen is controlled. The
grid bias is usually varied between to 50V and if the grid is made more
negative, the electron beam will be cut-off. The electrodes A1and A3 are
initially connected and held at a higher positive potential of a few kilovolts and
A2 is maintained at a relatively smaller positive potential. The element A1
accelerates the incoming electrons. It also reduces the interaction between
the control grid G and focussing anode A2. The anode A2 and the grid G form
the first lens system which prefocusses the electron beam. The anodes A2 and
A3 constitute the second lens system which focusses the electron beam to a
fine point on the fluorescent screen. The focus of the beam is adjusted by
varying a positive potential on A2. The anode A3 imparts further acceleration to
the electrons as they emerge out of the electron gun.

(ii) Deflection System : The electrons emerge as a narrow beam from the electron
gun and speed towards the fluorescent screen. On the way they pass through
the deflection system. There are two types of deflection system; electrostatic
type and electromagnetic type. In the electrostatic deflection system, two
pairs of metal plates are employed for deflecting the electron beam. The two
plates in each pair are aligned strictly parallel to each other as illustrated in
figure. The two pairs of plates are mounted at right angles to each other and
also at right angles to the path of the electrons. One pair of parallel plates is
arranged horizontally nearer to the anode A3 in such away that the electron
beam passes midway between them. When a potential difference is applied to
the plates, a uniform electric field is produced in the vertical direction. The
field acts normal to the beam and causes a vertical deflection of the beam.
Therefore, this set of deflection plates are called vertical deflection plates
(VDP). They are also called Y-plates. The second set of plates are oriented
vertically and produce uniform horizontal electric field when a potential
 difference is applied between them. It also acts normal to the beam but causes
a horizontal deflection of the beam, as shown. Therefore, this set of plates are
called horizontal deflection plates. They are also called X-plates.

When voltages are not applied to X-plates and Y-plates the electron beam travel
along the CRT axis and strikes at the geometrical centre of the viewing screen. A
bright spot is produced there, as shown. When a D.C. voltage is applied to Y-
plates the electron beam gets deflected vertically. If the upper plate is given a
positive potential, the electron beam is attracted towards the upper plate and the
spot on the screen will move upward. The amount of deflection depends on the
magnitude of the applied voltage.

UVDP : Upper Vertical Deflection Plate

LHDP : Left Hand Deflection Plate
LVDD : Lower Vertical Deflection Plate
RHDP : Right Hand Deflection Plate

Electric Field Electric Field

Screen Screen

4
0
Electron beam Electron beam 3

Vertical Deflection Horizontal Deflection

UVDP
+ve

+
LHDP RHDP
+
LVDP
ve
Voltage not applied to deflection
plates +ve voltage applied to ve voltage applied to
UVDP UVDP
 +ve

+ve ve ve +ve ve +ve

+
ve

+ + +
+ve voltage applied to ve voltage applied to +ve voltage simultaneously
LHDP LHDP applied to UVDP and RHDP

If the lower plate is made positive, the bright spot will move downward on the
screen through a distance proportional to the applied voltage. When a D.C.
voltage is applied to the X-plates, the electron beam is deflected horizontally. If
the left side plate is made +ve, the beam is deflected to the left and the bright
spot on the screen moves to left from the centre of the screen. If the right side
plate is given +ve potential, the spot moves towards right from the centre. When
D.C. voltage are applied to both the X and Y-plates the electron beam will be
acted upon simultaneously by two forces due to vertical and horizontal electric
fields and gets deflected along the direction of their resultant. By varying the D.C.
voltages on vertical and horizontal plates, the luminous spot may be moved to
any position in the plane of the screen.

(iii) Fluorescent Screen : The interior surface of circular front face of the CRT is
coated with a thin transluscent layer of phosphors. The phosphor coating
glows at a point where it is struck by the high energy beam. At that spot the
coating continues to glow for a short period of time even after the electron
beam moves away. The coating is made thin to allow the light to pass through
the screen material and glass shell so that it can be viewed from outside the
CRT.
(iv) Aquadag Coating : Electrons impinging on the screen tend to charge it
negatively and repel the electrons arriving after words. It will reduce the
number of electrons reaching the screen leading to a decrease in the
brightness of the glow. Therefore, the electrons are to be conducted away.
Similarly, the cathode ray assumes gradually a positive charge as electrons are
emitted from it in large numbers. It again leads to a reduction in the intensity
of the glow on the screen. Therefore, the cathode is to be replenished with
electrons. The aquadag is a coating which is a conductor and is used to
complete the electrical circuit from screen to cathode. The electrons striking
the fluorescent screen not only cause emission of light but also produce
secondary emission of electrons. The secondary electrons are attracted by the
aquadag coating which is electrically connected to the anode A3. The electrons
a returned to cathode through the ground. The electrons a returned to
cathode through the ground. The electrostatic CRT is used in Cathode Ray
Oscilloscopes CRO's as a display device for display and study of waveforms.

4) What is aquadag? Why is it used?

Aquadag Coating : Electrons impinging on the screen tend to charge it
negatively and repel the electrons arriving after words. It will reduce the
number of electrons reaching the screen leading to a decrease in the
brightness of the glow. Therefore, the electrons are to be conducted away.
Similarly, the cathode ray assumes gradually a positive charge as electrons are
emitted from it in large numbers. It again leads to a reduction in the intensity
of the glow on the screen. Therefore, the cathode is to be replenished with
electrons. The aquadag is a coating which is a conductor and is used to
complete the electrical circuit from screen to cathode. The electrons striking
the fluorescent screen not only cause emission of light but also produce
secondary emission of electrons. The secondary electrons are attracted by the
aquadag coating which is electrically connected to the anode A3. The electrons
a returned to cathode through the ground. The electrons a returned to
cathode through the ground. The electrostatic CRT is used in Cathode Ray
Oscilloscopes CRO's as a display device for display and study of waveforms.
 5) Draw and explain the block diagram of CRO?

Vertical
amplifier
Y-input
To
To circuits plate

H.T.
L.T.

To all electronic To X-plate

circuits
Trigger Time base INT Horizontal
circuit circuit amplifier

X-input
EXT

Block Diagram of
CRO

A cathode ray oscilloscope is a very important electronic measuring instrument. It

is used to display and measure electrical signals, time intervals and phase shift
between two electrical signals. Non-electrical quantities such as pressure, strain,
temperature can be measured by first converting them into an equivalent voltage
using an appropriate transducer.

Any CRO basically consists of the following seven may or sections :

(i) CRT, (ii) Time base circuit, (iii) Trigger circuit,
(iv) Vertical circuits, (v) Horizontal circuit, (vi) High voltage
power supply, (vii) Low voltage power supply

(i) CRT : A cathode ray tube with electrostatic deflection forms the central part of a
CRO. The high voltage power supply section provides the required high potentials
to the various electrodes of CRT. The CRT generates the electron beam, focusses it
and accelerates it towards the fluorescent screen. The rest of the sections are
electronic circuits which cause the desired movement of the luminous spot on the
screen. Electron beam is similar to a pen. It writes on the fluorescent screen in the
form of a bright trace. Writing on the paper involves two motions a horizontal
motion of the pen sweeping across the page and the other is a vertical motion of
the pen indicating the message. The electron beam should be made to move both
horizontally and vertically. The message is in the form of electrical signal.

Vertical Movement : When the signal voltage is applied to Y-plates, the

polarity and magnitude of voltage on the plates vary with each alternating
cycle. The luminous spool moves up and down on the screen at the same
frequency as that of the signal. The successive positions of the spot cannot be
discerned when signal frequencies are greater than about 20 Hz. The
phosphors continue to glow for a short time after the electron beam passes
and due to the persistence of vision, the path of beam across the screen is
seen as a vertical line. It is called the trace. The length of the vertical trace
corresponds to the peak to peak voltage VPP of the applied signal.

Horizontal Movement : The horizontal motion of the electron beam is

produced when an A.C. voltage is applied to X-plates. In a signal the voltage
varies as a function of time in a specific way. The faithful display of the signal
variation by the electron beam requires the beam to move horizontally at a
uniform rate across the screen, covering equal distance in equal intervals of
time. The electron beam gets deflected through equal distances per unit time
when the voltage applied to X-plate rises through equal amounts of voltage
per unit time. Secondly, at the end of the horizontal motion, the beam should
return to the starting point to repeat the motion, just as after completion of a
line, the pen is brought back to the left side of the paper to commence the
next line. The ramp voltage fulfills the above requirements
Vx 5
Vx max.
4
3 6 7 6
0
1 2 3 4 5
2
t5
1
Vx min. tr 7 CRO screen
deep = ts + tr
Tower
(ii) Time base Circuit : The time base circuit mainly consists of a time base
generator. The time base generator is a variable frequency oscillator which
produces the ramp voltage shown behind. Due to its resemblance to the
teeth of a saw, the ramp voltage is called saw tooth voltage.
Vertical Vertical
input input
voltage voltage

t t

TS TS
+v +v

Sweep Sweep
voltage voltage
t t

v TSweep v TSweep

CRT CRT
display display

TSweep = TS TSweep = 2TS

(One cycle of the signal (Two cycle are
is displayed) displayed)

Synchronization of signal and sweep voltages

Ideally, the voltage increases uniformly with time (say J volts/sec) from
minimum to a maximum value and from there it suddenly dips to minimum.
The process is repeated. When the ramp voltage from the time base
generator is applied to the horizontal deflection plates of a CRT, the luminous
spot will traverse the race of the screen at a uniform velocity (say 1 cm/ms).
As the voltage attains a maximum and drops instantaneously to the minimum
value, the spot is whipped back across the screen to the starting point from
where it repeats the cycle.

The luminous spot sweeps from left to right along a straight line, in step with
the cycle of ramp voltage. Because of this reason, the ramp voltage is often
called the sweep voltage. It is also called the saw tooth voltage. Different
sweep times are obtained by varying the frequency of the time base
generator. The time taken by the sweep voltage to rise from its maximum
negative voltage to its maximum +ve voltage is known an sweep time or trace
time (tS). The time taken by the sweep voltage to dip from its positive
 maximum to negative maximum value is called fly back time or retrace time
(tr). Thus the sum of tr + ts ts = TSweep i.e., sweep period.

(iii) Trigger Circuit : To display a stationary wave pattern on the CRO screen, the
horizontal deflection should start at the same point of the input signal in each
sweep cycle. When this happens we say that the horizontal sweep voltage is
synchronised with the input signal. If the sweep and signal voltages are not
synchronised a stand still pattern is not displayed on the screen the wave
pattern moves continuously to the right or left of the screen. Synchronisation
is the method of locking the frequencies of the time base generator to the
frequency of the input signal.(i.e., signal under test) so that a stationary display
of wave pattern is seen on the CRO screen. The signal is synchronised when its
frequency equals the sweep frequency or an integral multiple of the sweep
frequency. That is,
Fsignal = nfsweep or Tsweep = n Tsignal

One of the methods of achieving synchronisation is using a trigger circuit. In

this method, a part of the output obtained from the vertical amplifier is fed to
a trigger generator. Trigger generator is sensitive to the level of the voltage
applied to its input. The circuit monitors the input signal and detects the
point when it reaches a selected level while moving towards a selected
polarity. When the predetermined level is reached, the circuit produces a
trigger pulse. This trigger pulse is fed to the time base generator and it acts as
command signal to the time base generator and start one sweep cycle of the
time base. The sweep voltage is not developed in the trigger mode, if the
input signal is not given A portion of the trigger pulse is fed to a second
circuit, which produces a unblanking bias voltage to bring the grid of CRT to a
potential which allows electron beam to appear. Thus, a stationary display of
the wave is sun only above a predetermined level of the input voltage.
In "auto" trigger mode, the trigger circuit will automatically provide a trigger
pulse to the sweep generator even when the input signal is not applied to it
and the horizontal trace is seen even without signal at Y-input.
(iv) Vertical Circuits : The vertical circuits mainly of an attenuator and a voltage
amplifier. The signal to be tested is applied at the Y-input. It goes to the
input of the attenuator. The signal amplitude is increased or decreased by
changing the amount of attenuation and then fed to the input of the voltage
amplifier so that adequate deflection is obtained on the screen.
(v) Horizontal Circuits : The sweep generator output cannot directly drive the
horizontal plates. Therefore, it must be initially amplified. The horizontal circuit
mainly consists of a voltage amplifier. When the sweep selector switch is in 'INT'
position, the seep voltage is applied to the horizontal amplifier. When the
sweep selector switch is held in 'EXT' position, the horizontal amplifier input is
disconnected from the internal sweep generator and is instead connected to the
horizontal input jack. In this position the electron beam remains stationary and
produces a luminous spot at the centre of the CRO screen.
(vi) Low Voltage Power Supply : The low voltage power supply powers the
electronic circuits such as amplifiers, trigger generator, times base generator.
It gives an output of the order of few tens to few 100 volts.
(vii)High Voltage Power Supply : The high voltage power supply provides voltages to
the electrodes in the electron gun assembly. It supplies voltages of the order of
1600 to
2200 volts.

6) Distinguish between Electrostatic and Magnetic Focussing.

Electrostatic Focusing Magnetic Focusing

1. Achieved by using non-
uniform electric field.
2. Charged particles are
brought to true focus and
they cross-over similar to
focusing of light.
3. Kinetic energy of charged
particles is affected.
4. Used in cathode ray tubes.
Achieved by using uniform
or non-uniform magnetic
field.
Charged particles are not
focused in a true sense.
Kinetic energy of charged
particles remains intact.
Used in electron
microscopes.
 7) Prove Bathes Law.

It is the surface in an electric field where the

electric potential remains the same.
Consider an electron at rest and is placed in
an electric field produced by the two plates
A and B. The force experience is
eV
F = eE-=
d

The negative sign indicates that force acts in the

N
opposite direction to that of field. This discussion
is valid only if the field is uniform within plate A e vx V1
A-region
and B. The areas near the boundaries shows the v
field is no longer uniform consider two
vy
equipotential surfaces A and B rarer
O
Let us consider two equipotential V2 > V1
surfaces separated by the boundary vx B-region
where potential V1 abruptly changes '
to potential V2. Let an electron enter v2
vy denser
in A with velocity V1 obliquely and is N '
incident at an angle of incidence 1 '
w.r.t. normal NON'. Its
x-component in vX and vx remains
same but when it enters boundary B
where V2 > V1 its
y-component enhances.

Therefore by Snell's law

sin 1 = vx
v1
vx = v1 sin 1
 vx
and sin 2 =
v2
vx = v2 sin 2
vx = v2 sin 2

Since vx = vx

v1 sin 1 = v2 sin 2

sin 1 v 2
(1)
sin 2 v1

where v2 = final velocity after leaving surface

v1 = initial velocity with which electron approaches

This equation is identical to the Snell's Law in optics which describes refraction. It
is called Bathe's Law. In region A, 1 mv12 eV1 and in region B, 1 mv22 eV2 .
2 2

v1
2eV1
and v2
2eV2
m m
v1 V1
(2)
v2 V2

equation (1) becomes

sin 1 v 2 V2
= Refractive index
sin 2 v1 V1
This is Bathe's Law. When light ray enters denser medium, it refracts towards
normal and slow down but when electron enters V2 > V1 it moves faster and
bends towards normal.

8) How do you measure unknown frequency by obtaining Lissajous Pattern

on CRO?

Lissajous Figures
It can be generated to find the unknown frequency. The Lissajous figures
are the result of superposition of two sine waves acting multually
perpendicular. The form of resultant depends upon the ratio act of
frequency of the two voltages.
If the two waves applied to X and Y plates of CRO are of different
frequencies, closed loop patterns are displayed on the screen.
The frequency of the unknown signal is calculated using formula :
fy = fx LH/LV
where LH represents the number of contact points on the horizontal
tangents and LV is the number of contact points on the vertical tangent.
Hence fy, the unknown frequency, can be calculated.

Fy : Fx = 1 : 1 Fy : Fx = 2 : 1 Fy : Fx = 3 : 1