SAHITHISRI

DEGREE COLLEGE
MELIAPUTTI
 CSS Semester 2

CSS - SEMESTER-II

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1.What is meant by vocabulary? How is it useful in

communication?
Possessing good vocabulary is one of the most important aspects
of learning English. A large vocabulary equips one with the
means to express oneself clearly and precisely in any language
when speaking or writing. This involves not only knowing the
meaning of the words and when to use them, but also learning
how to form words from their bases in various ways.
Affixation, compounding, conversion and analogies, all of
which are the most basic techniques of word building.
2. What are Prefexis? How are they useful?
Prefixes are groups of letters added to the beginning of words
to form new words. This kind of word formation leads to
changes in meaning, changes in the part of speech and are also
used to indicate number. It is important to know the meaning a
prefix imparts before using it to form new words. These are
arranged according to the kind of change that happens to the
base.
Prefix Action on Base Word Examples
un~, a-, non- opposites/ absence of unusual, asymmetry,
something nonviolence
un-, de- dis- showing reversal of action undo, defrost, disconnect
post-, pre- ex- time and order/rank post-independence, ex-
teacher, pre-election
mini-, micro-, degree and size minivan, micro transmitter,
hyper- microeconomics,
Hypersensitive
mis-, mal- attitude mislead, malfunction, pro-
capitalism
trans-, sub-, intra- location trans -Himalayan, subway,
intravenous, overcoat
mono-, di-, tri-, multi- number monolingual, unilateral,
biweekly, dioxide, triangle,
polygraph, multipurpose

en-, em-, be- change in meaning or part bewitch, empower, enable

of speech

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3.What is a suffix? What is its use? Give some examples.
A suffix is a letter or a group of letters added at the end of words
to form new words with or without a change of word class, for
example 'child' and 'childhood' (noun and noun) and 'free' and
'freedom' (adjective and noun): Examples of suffixes commonly
used to form new words.

Suffix New Word

-ful Truthful, doubtful, spoonful,
-ment payment, judgement, agreement
-ess lioness, tigress, princess,
-able/-ible remarkable, manageable, convertible,
edible
-ism idealism, Hinduism, structuralism
-ious/-ous victorious, ceremonious, dangerous
-ing reading, singing, flying
-al proposal, natural, survival
-ian politician, musician
4. What is conversion? Give some examples. What are the two
forms of conversion?
Conversion is the word formation process in which a word of
one grammatical form becomes a word of another grammatical
form without any changes to spelling or pronunciation.
1. I have sent you an e-mail (noun)
2. I will e-mail (verb) you.
The original noun e-mail experienced conversion, thus resulting
in the new verb e-mail.
The two forms of conversion are:
1. Versification and 2. Nominalisation.
1. The most productive form of conversion in English is noun
to verb conversion, also known as versification or verging.

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The following list provides examples of verbs converted from
nouns:
Noun Verb Verb Forms
access to access accessed, accessing, accesses
bottle to bottle bottled, bottling, bottles
can to can canned, canning, cans
closet to closet closeted, closets
e-mail to e-mail emailing, e-mails
eve to eye eyeing, eyed, eyes
fiddle to fiddle fiddling, fiddled, fiddles
fool to fool fooling, fooled, fools
google to google googling, googles, googled
host to host hosting, hosted, hosts
knife to knife knifed, knifing, knifes
microwave to microwaved, microwaving,
microwave microwaves
name to name names, naming, named
pocket to pocket pocketing, pocketed, pockets
salt to salt salting, salts, salted
shape to shape shapes, shaping, shaped
ship to ship ships, shipping, shipped
torch to torch torched, torching, torches
For example:
My grandmother bottled (verb) the juice and canned (verb)
the pickles.
My grandmother put the juice in a bottle (noun) and the pickles
in a can (noun).
She microwaved (verb) her lunch.
She heated her lunch in the microwave (noun).
The doctor eyed (verb) my swollen eye (noun).
2. Another productive form of conversion in English is verb to
noun conversion, also known as nominalisation. The following
list provides examples of nouns converted from verbs:

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Verb Forms Noun
to alert, alerted, alerting, alerts alert
to attack, attacked, attacking, attacks attack
to call, called, calling, calls call
to clone, cloned, cloning, clones clone
to command, commands, commanding, command
commanded
to cover, covered, covering, covers cover
to cry, cried, crying, cries cry
to experience, experienced, experiencing, experience
experiences
to fear, fears, fearing, feared fear
to feel, feeling, feels, felt feel
to hope, hoped, hoping, hopes hope
to increase, increasing, increased increase
to judge, judging, judges, judged judge
to laugh, laughed, laughing laughs laugh
to rise, rises, rising, rose rise
to run, running, ran, runs run
to sleep, slept, sleeping, sleeps sleep
_________
to start starts, starting, started start
to turn, turned, turning, turns turn
to visit, visits, visited, visiting visit
For example:
The guard alerted (verb) the general to the attack (noun).
The enemy attacked (verb) before an alert (noun) could be
sounded.
Sometimes one just needs a good cry (noun). The baby cried
(verb) all night.
We need to increase (verb) our productivity to see an
increase (noun) in profits.

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Conversion also occurs, although less frequently, to and from other
grammatical forms. For example:
adjective to verb: green to green (to make environmentally
friendly)
preposition to noun: up, down > the ups and downs of life
conjunction to noun: if, and, but > no ifs, ands, or buts
interjection to noun: ho ho ho > I love the ho ho hos of
Christmas time.
5. What is compounding?
Compounding is the word formation process in which two or
more words are combined to form a new word. Compound
words may be written as one word or as two words joined with a
hyphen.
Compounds may be compositional, that is, the meaning of the
new word is determined by combining the meanings of the
parts. They may also be non-compositional, that is, the meaning
of the new word cannot be determined by combining the
meanings of the parts.
For example, a blueberry is a berry that is blue. However, a
breakup is not a relationship that was severed into pieces in an
upward direction (break + up), nor is a raspberry a berry that
has a hoarse voice (rasp + berry).
Compound nouns should not be confused with nouns modified
by adjectives, verbs, and other nouns.
For example, the adjective black of the noun phrase black bird
is different from the adjective black of the compound noun
blackbird in that black of black bird functions as a noun phrase
modifier while the black of blackbird is an inseparable part of
the noun: a black bird also refers to any bird that is black in
color while a blackbird is a specific type of bird.
6. What is a one word substitute? How is it useful?
A single word that can replace a group of words without any
change in meaning is called a one-word equivalent or
substitute. One-word substitutes help make our
communication brief and precise. The use of such words will
help the speaker or writer avoid lengthy and roundabout

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expressions and repetition. They are especially useful in
prcis writing.

Some one-word substitutes are:

Word Meaning
archipelago a group of islands
atheist one who believes that god does not exist
anachronism something out of its proper time
aristocracy people born in the special
highest sorial class, who
have titles
bibliophile one who loves the study of books
cacophony a mixture of loud unpleasant sounds
connoisseur an expert on matters involving the
judgement of beauty, quality or skill in
art, food or music
creditor a person, company, etc. that somebody
owes money to
demeanour the way somebody looks or behaves
egotist one who thinks and talks too much
about herself or himself.
enigma person or thing difficult to understand
entomologist one who studies insects
excavate to dig in the ground to look for old
buildings or objects that have been
buried for a long time
feminist one who holds the view that women
should have the same rights and
opportunities as men
idealist one who pursues noble principles and
goals
indelible impossible to forget or remove
inexplicable that which cannot be explained
inexhaustible that which cannot be finished

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inexpressible something which cannot be expressed
inflammable that which catches fire easily
insurmountable that which cannot be dealt with
successfully
kaleidoscopic a situation or pattern that is always
changing
nihilist one who believes nothing has any
value
nostalgia longing for the past
obliterate to remove completely
pacifist one who believes in peace and refuses
to fi ght in a war
pauper a very poor person
pessimist one who always expects bad things to
happen
prescribe to advise people to take a particular
medicine or treatment
progeny the young of animals and humans
racist one who believes that some races are
superior to others
sadist one who gets pleasure from hurting
other people
sanctuary a place where birds or animals are
sheltered and protected
spasm a violent involuntary muscular
contraction
spontaneous doing something without bring asked
socialist one who believes in economic
equality
squeamish easily upset by unpleasant sights or
situations
staccato a noise consisting of a series of short,
separate sounds
terrestrial of or existing on the earth
topography study of the physical features of the
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land
theist one who believes in god
unabashed not affected or embarrassed by
people's disapproval
unanimous agreed on or shared by everyone in a
group
undermine to make something gradually weaker
or less effective
vacillate to change or fluctuate
velvety pleasantly smooth and soft
wriggle to twist your body with quick short
movements
yell to shout loudly
zealous showing great energy and enthusiasm

7.What are the words often confused? Define malapropism.

One of the mistakes that learners of English usually make is
using wrong or inappropriate words. This happens because
they confuse two or more words that are spelt or pronounced
similarly
For example, it is common to find the word effect (which is a
noun meaning 'the result of something') being confused with
affect (which is a verb meaning 'to cause a change in someone
or something'). The spelling and pronunciation of the two
words are very close.
The use of wrong words, known as 'malapropism', is not
only funny but also prevents the speaker or writer from
conveying the intended meaning.
In the novel, The Rivals, R.B.Sheridan uses malapropism
extensively, through the character, Misses Malaprop.
To be sure that one is using a word appropriately, one must:
(a) use a dictionary to look up the spelling, pronunciation and
meaning of every new word you come across and

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(b) look up the spellings, pronunciations and meanings of
words that are similar so that you do not confuse one with the
other.
Examples of some words that are commonly confused:
Word Meaning
Adverse not good/ favourable not be inclined to do
averse something
Advice (noun) an opinion you give someone about
advise what they should do
(verb) to tell someone what you think they
should do
appraise to assess the value of something to inform
apprise someone about something
beside by the side of in addition to (pronounced
besides with a final sound /z/)
altar a sacred platform or place to change
alter
accept to agree not including (slightly different
except pronunciations)
collaborate to work with someone to achieve something
corroborate to establish the truth of something
credible believable deserving credit/ praise
creditable
eminent famous something that will happen very
imminent soon
adopt to choose or take as your own to change to
adapt suit need or condition/ to adjust skilled
adept (different pronunciations)
fair just; average; light-skinned the money you
fare pay to travel by train, bus, etc.
Forbear refrain from ancestor
forebear

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immemorial existing longer ago than anyone can
memorable remember worth remembering
alternate every other one of two or more options
alternative
Brake a device for slowing or stopping a vehicle
break destroy; separate into pieces
capital the seat of government, the money invested,
Capitol etc. the building in which the American
Congress meets
complement add to something in a way that improves
compliment something or makes it more attractive
praise, flattery
Forth forward number four in a list
fourth
desert (noun) a large area covered by sand and rocks to
desert (verb) leave behind/ run away sweet food eaten at
dessert the end of a meal
Elicit to draw out not legal
illicit
knew new past tense of 'know' fresh, not yet old
Mantel the shelf above a fireplace the responsibilities
mantle of an important job
boar a wild male pig to drill a hole through
bore
stationary standing still
stationery writing paper,
other office supplies
premise the idea on which something is based a
premises building and the its ground

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Social relating to activities done with other people
sociable when you are not working; relating to society
describes someone who likes meeting and
spending time with other people
substantial large in size or value significant
substantive
Clothes garments pieces of fabric
cloths
council governing body advice; to give advice
counsel
Sight scene, view, picture place, location to
site document or quote (verb)
cite

weak not strong

week 1 seven days in a week
Rational having reason or understanding
rationale the principles or reasons which explain a
particular decision, course of action, belief,
etc.
canvas heavy rough material used for making tents,
canvass sails, etc. to take a survey; a survey
envelop to surround (verb) container for a letter (noun)
envelope
Allusion an indirect reference a false idea or
illusion conception

cache a safe place to store supplies; anything stored

cash or hidden in such a place
money, coins, bills, currency

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lose to become unable to find; to mislay; to fail to
loose (adjective) win or gain not tight; giving enough room

formally conventionally, with ceremony previously

formerly
Dairy a place where milk is kept and where butter
diary and cheese are made
a personal journal
Gorilla a very large powerful African ape
guerrilla a member of a small group of soldiers who are
not part of an official army and who fight
against official soldiers, usually to try to
change the government
hoard a hidden collection of money, food, valuable
horde objects, etc. a large crowd of people
Human of or connected with people rather than
humane animals, machines or gods
showing kindness towards people and animals
personal your own; not belonging to anyone else the
personnel people who work for an organization
principal most important a moral rule or a strong belief
principle that influences your actions
raise raze to lift up
to completely destroy a building, town, etc. so
that nothing is left
Taught past tense of 'to teach' stretched tightly
taut

Waist the area around the middle of the body to

waste use more of something than is necessary or
useful

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Waive to choose not to demand something
wave a raised line of water that moves across the
surface of the sea, ocean, etc.
weather the condition of the atmosphere at a
'V
particular place and time
whether used to express a doubt or choice between
two possibilities
Plain easy to see or understand; not decorated or
plane complicated any flat or level surface;
aircraft
8. What is a synonym? How are synonyms useful in speaking
and writing?
1. These are words that have the same or nearly the same
meaning. Words such as 'finish' and 'complete', and 'calm',
'tranquil' and 'peaceful' are called synonyms, and they are
often used in place of one another.
It is useful to know the synonyms of a word because one can
use them to bring variety to ones speech and writing.
Words often have more than one meaning, and when we talk
we only mean that two or more words match in one of their
senses. Thus, the word 'fair' is a synonym of 'just' in one of its
meanings, but not in its other senses.
A. The umpire's decision was fair/just, (synonyms in the
sense of 'morally right') but
B. Suresh is the short, fair boy in a brown shirt, (in the sense
of 'light-coloured skin'. Here 'fair' is not a synonym of 'just')
2.Synonyms allow us to refer to objects, actions and feelings
in more than one way, which makes what we say or write
more interesting to others. Synonyms are used below to avoid
repetition.
I am not afraid of the new chief.
Are you frightened of him?
The chief is strict, but understanding, so you needn't be scared
to talk to him.

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3. Synonyms can be freely used in place of one another.
A. We got printed cloth/fabric/material for the curtains.
B. Mr Trivedi is an able/a capable/a competent manager.
C. The sky was full of sparkling/shining/glittering stars.
D. Selina's boss knows that she is an industrious/liard-
working/diligent worker.
E. The bridge connects/ioins/links the old and the new parts of
the city.
F.We have a large mango tree at the back/rear of the house.
4. However, some synonyms do not actually have identical
meanings and cannot be used interchangeably.
A. Firstly, two words may share one of their meanings but each
of them may have other meanings, because of which they cannot
always be used in place of each other (e.g., 'dull' and 'boring', as
in 'a dull/boring book', but 'a dull day', is not the same as 'a
boring day').
B. Secondly, many such words may indicate slightly different
shades or degrees of meaning (e.g., 'grief and 'sadness'), be
suitable for different situations, such as formal or informal (e.g.,
'seldom' and 'rarely'), may be commonly used by a particular
group of speakers, such as adults and children (e.g., 'stomach'
and 'tummy') or may indicate emotions, such as approval or
disapproval (e.g., 'curious' and 'inquisitive').
C. For example, though the underlined words have almost the
same meaning, note that they cannot always be used as
alternatives.
How big/large is your office?
The girl had big/large brown eyes.
We dug a big/large pit in the field.
Don't cry! You're a big boy, aren't you? (not 'a large boy')
Sailaja and her brother had a big fight about the bicycle, (not
'a large fight')
Reading a lot will help one learn to use words that are just the
same in meaning.

9. What are antonyms? How are they useful?

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These are words that mean the opposite of other words.
Learning antonyms is an important part of building ones
vocabulary because it will help you avoid using long phrases
to express the opposite meaning.
For example, compare the two alternative ways in which one
can convey the opposite of the word purposefully' in the first
sentence.
Rita walked purposefully down the road.
Rita walked without a clear purpose down the road.
Rita walked purposelessly down the road.

The antonym of a word either bears no resemblance to it (for

example, 'cold' 'hot'), is formed by replacing the first word in a
compound with another word, by adding a group of letters
(called a 'prefix') in front of it (as in unimportant'), or by
replacing a group of letters (called a suffix) at its end (for
example, 'useful' and 'useless').Examples of these kind of
antonyms are given below:

Word Antonym
acquit convict
barren fertile
bend straighten
eager reluctant
exclude include
follow lead
lend borrow
major minor
reveal conceal, hide
strict lenient
success failure
urban rural
undersized oversized
timelv untimely
honest dishonest
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legal illegal
possible impossible
active inactive
do undo
clockwise anticlockwise
active inactive/ passive
adequate inadequate
agree disagree
alive dead
appear disappear
arrival departure
beautiful u
gty
brave cowardly
busy idle
clean unclean/ dirty
compulsory optional
conscious unconscious
correct incorrect
crowded uncrowded/ empty
cruel kind
dark bright
decrease increase
despair hope
destroy build
down up
dry wet
early late
empty full/ crowded
encourage discourage
mad sane
enemy friend
far near

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fit unfit
friendly unfriendly
glad sad
good bad
grateful ungrateful
hairy hairless
happy unhappy
hard soft/ easy
hate love
healthy unhealthy
heavy light
holy unholy
honest dishonest
host guest
innocent guilty
interesting uninteresting
justice injustice
large small
leader follower
life death
like dislike/ unlike
loyal disloyal
tight loose
tiny large/ big

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10. What are phrasal verbs? What are the different kinds of
Phrasal verbs? Give some examples.
Phrasal Verbs are verbs that consist of two or, sometimes, three
words. The first word is a verb and it is followed by
an adverb (e.g., He turned down my request.)
a preposition (e.g., Inflation is eating into my savings.)
both (e.g., I cannot put up with your demands.)
The meaning of some phrasal verbs, such as sit down, is easy to
guess. However, many phrasal verbs have idiomatic meanings
that one need to learn. For example, in put up with, the separate
meanings of 'put', 'up' and 'with', do not add up to the meaning
of put up with, which means 'to tolerate'.
There are three kinds of phrasal verbs.
The first consists of the verb and particle being used in their
primary meanings and the particle is obligatory when the verb
appears with an object: 'switch off, 'listen to', 'agree with/to'.
The second kind of phrasal verbs are those where the
particle is not necessary (the verb can appear without it), but is
added to strengthen the meaning of the verb: 'She yelled in pain'
and 'She yelled out in pain', 'Drink your milk' and 'Drink up
your milk'.
In the third kind, the primary meaning of the verb is
completely changed, and it gets a new meaning as a phrasal
verb: 'They put out (extinguished) the fire before it caused much
damage' and 'I gave in (yielded) to the children's demand for a
party'. It is not always easy to guess the meanings of phrasal
verbs, particularly those of the third kind, from the context. So,
if you are not sure, it is best to look them up in a learner's
dictionary.
Phrasal verbs, like the verbs in them, may be transitive or
intransitive that is, they may or may not be followed by
an object.
The sun has set, (intr. verb)
Be careful about your wound because an infection has set in.
(intr. phrasal verb meaning 'something unpleasant has begun and
seems likely to continue')

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Transitive phrasal verbs are of two kinds
(a) when the object of the verb may or may not come between
the main verb and the particle, and
(b) when the object cannot appear between the two components.
For example:
Put out the clothes, will you?
Put the clothes out, will you?
The thieves broke into the room, but not
The thieves broke the room into.
However, when the object of a phrasal verb is a pronoun, it
always comes between the verb and the particle.
For example:
She called me up. (not 'She called up me.')
They gave it away, (not They gave away it.')
We can form nouns from some phrasal verbs in two ways.
1. The phrasal verb is used as a noun, either with a hyphen
or without space between the verb and the particle.
Someone broke in on the weekend and robbed the office, (break
in verb enter by force to steal money, valuables, etc.)
According to the police department, the break-in at the office
happened or Sunday, (break-in noun: the act of entering a place
by force to rob it)
I work out regularly to keep myself fit. (work out verb: to make
your body strong by exercising)
I never miss my daily workout before breakfast, (workout noun:
a period of physical exercise)
2. Some nouns are formed from phrasal verbs by reversing
the order of its components.
He looked on as the men fought, (look on verb: to watch
something happening without getting involved)
The onlookers stood in silence as the men fought, (onlooker
noun: someone who watches something happening without
getting involved)
3. We can also form adjectives from phrasal verbs. These are
also written either as one word or with a hyphen between the
verb and the particle.

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Admissions will go on through the week, (go on verb: to
continue without stopping)
The director asked for a summary of the ongoing discussions,
(ongoing adjective: continuing)
The car broke down just outside the city, (break down verb: of a
machine, to stop working)
They towed the broken-down car to the workshop, (broken-
down adjective: a machine that has stopped working)
Examples of Phrasal verbs.
Phrasal Meaning Example
verb
ask for to want to speak to A man came home asking for you.
someone

blow of an argument or They had a fight, but it has now

over quarrel, to end or be blown over.
forgotten
bring to make something The new director has brought
about happen about many improvements in the
company.
call for to need a particular Working on large projects calls for
kind of action good team work.
catch up to improve and reach The student found it hard to catch
the same standard as up after being away for a month.
others
come up to arise The question about where to build
the house came up during the
conversation.
die down to become less strong Slowly, her fear of flying died
down.
do to manage without People cannot do without food
without and water.
fall out to have a quarrel and Sarah fell out with her neighbour
stop being friends when she found him treating his
dog badly.

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get over to feel better after an She's gotten over the shock of
illness or an losing her luggage at the airport.
unpleasant experience
knock to be hit by a vehicle He was knocked down by a car.
down

11. What is a verb? Classify the verbs.

A verb is a word which tells about an action, possession, or
condition / state.
1. He wrote a letter ( indicates action)
2. He has a pen (indicates possession)
3. He is a boy ( indicates condition state)
Though there are several ways of classifying/categorising verbs,
the main classification is Main and Auxiliary Verbs
1. In English, many important meanings are expressed by
making changes in the verb for example: questioning,
negation, time, completion, continuation, repetition,
willingness, possibility and obligation. But English verbs do not
have as many different forms.
2. The maximum number of possible forms (except for in the
case of be) are five (see, sees, seeing, saw, seen). These verbs
are called main verbs. So to express these meanings, a number
of auxiliary verbs are used. Of these, do, be and have are
generally considered primary auxiliaries. The following are
the forms of primary auxiliaries:
do: do, does, did, doing and done
be: be, is, am are, was, were, being and been
have: have, has, had, having
3. Primary auxiliaries perform very important functions.
A. Do as an auxiliary is used to form questions and negative
forms of simple tenses; to form emphatic sentences; to avoid
repetition of a main verb; to make requests or invitations more
persuasive. Examples are:
Do you read newspaper daily? No, I don't.
Does he drive carefully? No, he doesn't.
Did she come yesterday? No, she didn't.
Hemant does not read newspapers.

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I do not drive carelessly.
She did not attend the class yesterday.
He does drive carefully.
He did promise to attend her birthday party.
Please, do come to attend my birthday party.
Do drive carefully on this stretch of the road.
I always do my homework regularly, (as main verb)

B. Be as an auxiliary is used to form continuous tenses and to

form the passive voice. Followed by the infinitive, it is used to
indicate plans or commands; followed by the perfect infinitive to
express an arrangement that was made but not executed.
Examples are:
I am writing a novel.
She was taking tea at that time.
I am allowed to paint this part of the wall.
Last year he was elected president of Students' Council.
Twenty cases were disposed of yesterday.
I am to finish typing work by tomorrow evening.
She is to attend an interview next week.
You are to finish typing work by tomorrow evening.
She iuas to have been married last year but had to wait for until
this year.
Be careful on this stretch of the road, (as main verb)

C. Have as an auxiliary is used to form perfect and perfect

continuous tenses, perfect infinitives and structures with having
+ past participle. Have + object is used to refer to a large
number of different activities; in most cases, have can be
replaced by eat, drink, take, receive, spend, go, for, or other
verbs. Have to and have got to are used to express obligation.
For the sake of convenience, 'has' is treated here only as a
variant of 'have'. Examples are:

He has left for college.

They have already reported for work.
The patient had died before the doctor arrived.

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 CSS Semester 2
She will have left for America by this time tomorrow.
I expect to have finished in a couple of weeks.
Having thought it over, Malati decided against working for that
company.
We'll have dinner at eight.
How often do you have to travel on business?
I've got to get up early tomorrow - we're going to Chennai.
Youve got to go and see the boss.
I have three pens, (as main verb)
12. What are Finite and Non-Finite Verbs?
(Note: All these questions come under the category of different
forms of verbs. The student is supposed to answer according to
the marks awarded to a question i.e 3 marks / 7 marks etc.,)
1. Cows eat grass.
2. The boy eats idlis every day.
3. I ate some fish yesterday.
The verbs used in these sentences are 'eat', 'eats' and 'ate'.
They are called finite verbs, or finite forms of a verb, because
together with an object noun (present here, but not always
necessary) they form the predicates of sentences. In other
words, a sentence cannot be complete unless it has a finite
verb, whose form changes according to tense, number and
person.
Now compare the sentences above with the following
sentence.
*The boy eating a mango.
This sentence is not complete. Something is missing. Instead,
you could say:
The boy is eating a mango.
The sentence carries a clear meaning now, but only after we
have used the word 'is' along with the verb 'eating'. 'Eating' is
called a non-finite verb, or a non-finite form of the verb 'eat'.
When used by themselves, non-finite verbs cannot make the
predicate of a sentence complete; they have to be used with
some other word, such as 'is' in order to convey a complete

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meaning. 'Is' is called a helping verb or an auxiliary verb, as it
'helps' a non-finite verb to convey a complete meaning.
Here is another example of a non-finite verb.
The boy eaten a mango.
This sentence is also incomplete. You have to use a helping verb
together with 'eaten' in order to have a complete sentence. You
could say:
The boy has eaten a mango.
'Has' is the helping verb in this sentence, which must be used
together with the non-finite verb form 'eaten' in order to have a
complete sentence. 'Eat', 'eats', 'ate', 'eating' and 'eaten' are
different forms of the verb 'eat'. 'Eat', 'eats' and 'ate' are called
finite forms, while 'eating' and 'eaten' are non-finite forms.
Certain names are given to the different forms of verbs. 'Eat' is
called the stem form, because all the other forms are produced
from it. 'Eats' is called the 'stem+s' form. You can easily
understand why this name is used. The stem form and the
stem+s form are the simple present tense forms, and 'ate' is the
simple past tense form. 'Eating' is called the 'stem+ing' form,
or the present participle form. 'Eaten' is the 'stem +en' form, or
the past participle form.

13. What are Transitive and Intransitive verbs?

A verb which must be followed by an object is called a
transitive verb.
Ram laughed. *Ram saw.
The first sentence is a complete sentence, but the second one
is incomplete. On hearing this sentence, one is likely to ask
'What (or whom) did Ram see?' The sentence needs at least
one more word, as in the following sentence, in order to be
complete.
Ram saw a tiger.
The word 'tiger' which follows the verb 'saw' in the above
sentence is a noun, and it answers the question 'What did Ram
see?' The noun which follows a verb and answers the question
'What?' or 'Whom?' is the object of the verb

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'See' is thus a transitive verb in the above sentence.
Examples of transitive verbs in the sentences below.
1. Madhu met the doctor.
2. They are wearing shirts.
3. Swathi tasted the cake.
4. You have learnt Tamil.
5. Roja heard a whistle.
However, the verb 'laugh', in 'Ram laughed' does not need an
object. (You cannot ask 'What did Ram laugh?' or 'Whom did
Ram laugh?'). 'Laugh' is an intransitive verb just as the verbs in
the sentences below are.
A verb which does not need an object is called an intransitive
verb.
1. The plane landed safely.
2. The baby slept.
3. The plants wilted.
4. Manoj shouted in excitement.
5. We live next door.
Many English verbs are transitive as well as intransitive. That
is, they are sometimes followed by an object, but they can also
be used without an object. For example:
1.The mug fell off the table and broke. He broke the mug.
In the first sentence, the verb 'broke' is intransitive, whereas in
the second sentence it is transitive. Look at some more examples
below.
2. My sari caught on a nail and tore. She tore the sheet of
paper into two.
3. The bell rang. Shiva rang the bell.
4. The door opened. Jhansi opened the door.
14. What is a Gerund? What is the difference between a
gerund and a present participle?
A gerund functions like a noun, though it has the form of the
present participle of a verb, i.e., verb + ing. Example:
1. Swimming is good exercise.
The present participle, ending in -ing, and the past participle,
ending either in -en/ -ed or as the base form itself (e.g. 'hurt'),
are both used to qualify nouns and verbs.
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2. We admired the twinkling stars.
3. Hoping for the best, the man began his journey.
4. Your written expression is excellent.
5.The plate lay on the floor, broken into many pieces.
6. There is a bowl of cut mangoes in the fridge.

A gerund can be used in the following five positions.

1. It may appear as the subject of a verb in a sentence:
Smoking is injurious to health.
It can also occur as the subject of a clause which follows verbs
like 'find', 'discover', 'believe', 'think', 'consider, 'expect',
'wonder', etc.
He found that copying in the examination didn't help.
2. We may use a gerund as the object of a verb
Do you enjoy reading books?
3. It may be used as a complement to a verb:
My favourite hobby is gardening
4. A gerund is frequently used as an object of a preposition:
She is fond of travelling. ..
They insisted on seeing the Director.
Similarly, a verb + adv. particle construction may also be
followed by a gerund.
Despite being tired, he kept on working.
5. It may function like an adjective qualifying the noun that
follows it:
He was looking for his walking stick.
Note that a noun may be preceded by a verb + ing functioning as
an adjective, and still the verb + ing may not actually be a
gerund. Example:
The difference between 'swimming fish' and 'swimming
pool'. In both cases 'swimming' is used as an adjective, but
in the first case, it is used to describe the action of the fish,
whereas the second expression means 'a pool meant for
swimming'. The first is an example of a present
participle and the second is a gerund. In the famous
proverb, 'A rolling stone gathers no moss', the word 'rolling'

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is not a gerund but a present participle. In 'dancing floor',
the word 'dancing' is a gerund.
Apart from these frequent uses of gerunds, we notice that
expressions such as 'can't help', 'can't stand', 'it's no use', 'it's
no good', etc., are followed by gerunds.
Similarly, 'worth' takes a gerund after it:
Is this book worth reading!
One should pay special attention to the following list of
verbs which are followed by gerunds:
avoid, detest, dislike, enjoy, finish, mind, prevent, stop,
postpone, dread, imagine, pardon, suggest, keep, risk,
recollect, delay, deny, fancy, forgive, excuse, try, etc.
EXAMPLES OF THE ABOVE WORDS IN USAGE:
1. You should avoid talking to him.
2. He detests drinking with her.
3. She dislikes wearing a half saree.
4. Shruthi enjoys playing with carrot.
5. Would you mind doing your business!
6. The police prevented him from entering the gate.
7. First,You stop chatting with him.
8. He dreaded seeing her wife.
9. Balu imagined chatting with Kaatrina.
10. Selina suggested consulting a doctor.
15. What is Concord? Elucidate with examples./
How does a verb come into an agreement with the subject?
The agreement of the verb with the subject in number and
person is called Concord.
1. This means that the form of the verb depends, in the case of at
least some tenses, on whether its subject is in first, second or third
person and on whether it is singular or plural. Examples:
1st person singular- I am a teacher.
plural- We are students.
nd
2 person singular- You are a teacher.
plural- You are teachers.
3rd person singular- He/she is a teacher.
plural- They are teachers.

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In the above sentences, all of which are in simple present tense,
the verb be appears in three different forms am, is and
are depending on the number and person of the subject.
However, the verb be appears in just two forms was and were
when the sentence is in simple past tense.
1st person singular I was a teacher.
plural -- We were teachers.
2nd person singular You were a teacher.
plural you were teachers.
3rd person singularHe/She was a teacher.
pluralThey were teachers.
2. The three forms of be in the present tense and its two variants
in the past tense is true of the verb whether it appears in a sentence
as a main verb or as an auxiliary. The sentences below, where be
appears as an auxiliary verb, will make this clear.
1. Iam working in vizag. / I was working in Vizag.
2. We were working in Vizag./ We were working in Vizag.
3. Srinu, you are working in Vizag./ Srinu, you were working in
Vizag.
4. You both are working in Vizag./ You both were working in
Vizag.
5. Sasi is working in Vizag./ Sasi was working in Vizag.
6. They are working in Vizag./ They were working in Vizag.
3. In the case of all other verbs (including have and do which
like the verb be can be used as main verbs as well as auxiliaries),
there are only two variant forms, known as singular and plural,
that are used in agreement with the number and person of the
subject when the sentence is in simple present tense. The singular
form of the verb is used with a subject in third person singular
(he/she) and the plural form with all other kinds of subjects.
Examples:
1. I have a new bicycle.
2. We have new bicycles.
3. You (sing) have a new bicycle.
4. You (pl) have new bicycles.
5. Harika has a new bicycle.
6. Anitha and Asha have new bicycles.
7. I do all the work here.

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8. We do all the work here.
9. You (sing) do all the work here.
10. You (pl) do all the work here.
11. Ambika does all the work here.
12. They do all the work here.
13. I walk to college everyday.
14. Dharan and I walk to college everyday.
15. You (sing) walk to college everyday.
16. You (pl) walk to college everyday.
17. Srikanth walks to college everyday.
18. My students walk to college everyday.
4. In the last set of sentences above, the verb in the stem + s
form, 'walks', is said to be the singular form of the verb, and the
verb in the stem form 'walk' is called the plural form of the
verb. The choice of the verb form depends, as said earlier, on the
number and person of the subject of a sentence in present tense.
Some more examples of the use of the singular and plural
forms of verbs when the sentences are in simple present tense.
1. Mr Srinivas teaches English.
2. The students study history in Telugu.
3. My sister writes poetry.
4. The boys play football.
5. The boat leaves for the bird sanctuary at 6 a.m.
6. Trains arrive on time here.
5. The agreement rule is not followed if the verb is in the simple
past tense. In other words, the form of the verb remains the
same irrespective of the number and person of the subject. The
only exception to this is, as stated above, the verb 'be', which
appears as 'was' or 'were' in the simple past, in its usage as both
a main verb and an auxiliary. Examples:
1. I gave her fruits.
2. We gave her fruits.
3. You (sing.) gave her fruits.
4. You (pl.) gave her fruits.
5. The girl gave her fruits.
6. The girls gave her fruits.
But

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7. I was good at languages.
8. We were cooking dinner.
9. You (sing.) were tired last night.
10. You (pl.) were walking up the hill.
11. Nitish was a friendly man.
12. Ventatesh and Sekhar were swimming in the sea.
Although the agreement rule is applicable in most cases, it has
to be used with care in some special cases.
6. When the subject consists of two singular or plural nouns (or
pronouns) joined by 'and', the plural form of the verb is
normally used. For example:
The president and the vice president are coming to the meeting.
In the above sentence, the two nouns joined by 'and' refer to two
different people. But in case the two nouns refer to the same
person, the singular form of the verb is used. For example:
The president and chief executive of the company has arrived.
Here the two nouns ('president' and 'chief executive') refer to the
same person.
7. If the two nouns joined together by 'and' are thought of as a
single 'thing', the singular form of the verb is used. For example:
Idli and sambar is my favourite breakfast.
8. When we refer to an amount or quantity of something
(distance, money, etc.), it is used with the singular form of the
verb. For example:
1. A kilometre is not a great distance; we can easily walk there.
2. Forty thousand rupees is a fair price for this second-hand car.
9. The singular form of the verb is used if the subject consists
of two singular nouns joined together by 'either. .. or' and
'neither . . . nor', as in the following examples.
1. Either the president or the secretary has signed this document.
2. Neither Usha nor Rajeswari has come to the meeting.
10. However, if the nouns connected by 'either ... or'/'neither ...
nor' are plural, the plural form of the verb is used. For example:
1. Either my children or their friends have written this letter.
2. Neither the girls nor the boys have any knowledge of this
matter.

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11. When pronouns such as 'everyone, 'someone', 'no one', etc.
are used as the subject, the singular form of the verb is used. For
example:
Everyone wants to succeed. No one knows the answer.

12. Pronouns such as 'everyone', 'everybody' 'no one,' 'nobody',

'someone', 'somebody', etc., are considered to be singular and
therefore take the singular form of the verb.
13. However, they are followed by plural pronouns such as
'they', 'them', 'their', etc. For example:
Everyone has finished their work.
Nobody is allowed to go unless they have finished their work.
The plural pronouns 'their' and 'them' are used in these sentences
because pronouns like 'everyone' and 'nobody' can be used to
refer to both men and women. We use the plural pronoun to
avoid saying something like the following which sounds
awkward.
Everyone has finished his or her homework.
14. Some nouns ending in '-s' are considered plural in form and
take plural verbs. These nouns do not have singular forms. For
example:
Her clothes are very expensive. His trousers have become too
tight. Where are your spectacles (glasses)?
Some other nouns of this kind are: 'arms' (meaning 'weapons'),
'belongings', 'congratulations/ 'goods/ 'surroundings/ 'thanks' and
'troops'.
15. Uncountable nouns, such as 'baggage', 'equipment',
'furniture' and 'luggage' are treated as singular nouns. Hence,
they take singular verbs only. For example:
Your baggage is heavy. The equipment is expensive.

16. Collective nouns, such as, 'government/ 'public/ 'team/

'party' and 'media/ can take either a singular or a plural verb. For
example:
The committee is investigating this matter.
The committee are of the view that the investigation should be
completed quickly.

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In the first sentence we think of a 'committee' as an undivided
group, but in the second we are referring to the individuals who
form the committee.
17. Words like 'cattle'/ people' and 'police' always take the plural
form of the verb.
The cattle were, moved to the shed at night.
Police were investigating the case.

16. What are auxiliary verbs? How are they helpful in

communication?
1. Auxiliary verbs, or helping verbs, come before main verbs
and help them in different ways. The forms of 'be', 'do' and
'have' in the examples below are called primary auxiliaries
because they help in forming negatives, passives and questions
or some of the tenses, all of which are basic grammatical
structures.
1. Bhavani is writing a book on tropical plants, (present
continuous tense)
2. I have applied for the post of marketing manager, (present
perfect tense)
3. The bridge was built in 1991. (passive)
4. They do not like spicy food, (negative)

2. The above primary auxiliary verbs are also used as main

verbs, as in:
'The water is cold', 'Do your work' and 'I have a new CD player'.

3. Modal verbs, or modal auxiliaries (also referred to as

modals), are a second group of auxiliary verbs, and are used to
express the speaker's attitudes and beliefs with regard to the
action represented by the main verbs. There are thirteen modal
verbs in English: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will,
would, must, need, dare, ought to and used to. These always
come either before a main verb or before a primary auxiliary
followed by a main verb to express ideas such as probability,
possibility, certainty, ability, permission, obligation and
necessity. Examples:

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1. You may take the day off. (modal + main verb, to express
permission)
2. She will have left for Kolkata. (modal + perfect tense
auxiliary + main verb, to indicate certainty)
3. He can play the sitar. (modal + main verb, to express ability)

5. Modal verbs are always followed by a main verb. The main

verb appears in its base form, or the form in which a word
appears in the dictionary, for example 'do' and 'go' in the
sentences below.
1. Anjineyulu should do a course in business management.
2. I may go to Mumbai.

6. Sometimes modal verbs are followed by a primary auxiliary

verb, in which case the main verb comes after the primary
auxiliary. Thus, instead of a verb phrase consisting of modal
verb + main verb, there could be modal verb + primary auxiliary
+ main verb. If the primary auxiliaries following the modals are
'be' or 'have', the main verb does not appear in its base form but
in either the present participle (e.g., 'eating', 'sleeping') or the
past participle form (e.g., 'eaten', 'slept').
1. You will be travelling tomorrow, (modal + tense aux. + main
verb)
2. They might have left the door open, (modal + tense aux. +
main verb)

7. Unlike what happens in the case of both main verbs and

primary auxiliaries, the form of modal auxiliaries does not
change according to the person and number of the subject.
Examples:
1. I work in the accounts department, (main verb changes)
2. He works in the accounts department, (main verb changes)
3. They work in the accounts department, (main verb changes)
4. You are going to the beach, (primary auxiliary changes), t
5. She is going to the beach, (primary auxiliary changes)
6. We are going to the beach, (primary auxiliary changes) c/g

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7. I can cook a meal in half an hour, (modal 'can' does not
change)
8. We can cook a meal in half an hour, (modal 'can' does not
change)
9. He can cook a meal in half an hour, (modal 'can' does not
change)
10.You can cook a meal in half an hour, (modal 'can' does not
change)
11.They can cook a meal in half an hour, (modal 'can' does not
change)

8. To form the negative of a sentence with a modal, the particle

'not' is placed between the modal verb and the main verb/the
primary auxiliary verb.
1. Nootan may attend the meeting.
2. Nootan may not attend the meeting.
3. You should have gone there.
4. You should not have gone there./
5. You shouldn't have gone there.

9. In questions, the modal appears before the subject

noun/pronoun.
She could stand without support.
Could she stand without support?
We will reach Agra by seven o'clock.
Will we reach Agra by seven o'clock?

17. What are the uses/ meanings of modal auxiliaries?

1. The modal verbs 'can', 'could', 'may' and 'might' are used to
ask for and to give permission. Examples:
1. Can we come in (please)? (informal)
2. You can work from home.
3. Could we use your computer (please)? (informal/formal, very
polite)
4. May I look at the file (please)? (formal)

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2. The degree of formality increases as we move from 'can' to
'might'. Thus, 'can', which is the most informal, is very
commonly used. The modal 'might' is thought to be old-
fashioned by many people and is hardly used.

3. We also use 'can', 'could', 'may', 'might' as well as 'will' and

'would' to make requests. Of these, 'might' is not among the
modals commonly used to make requests in current English.
1. Can you tell us a story, please, (informal)
2. Will you look at my report, please, (informal)
3. May I have a glass of water, please, (formal)

4. The modal verb 'should' is also used to make a request, not

in the interrogative above but as a declarative sentence, as for
example,
1. I should (would) like to be told the truth.
The use of 'should' in this sense is formal and, therefore, not
as common as the others listed above.

5. The modal verbs 'will' and 'would' are used to invite or to

offer something to someone. Again, 'will' is more informal
than 'would'.
1. Will you have a sandwich?
2. Would you like me to help you with your baggage?
3. Would you like to come home for dinner tonight?

6. The modal verb 'shall' is used in an interrogative sentence

to make a suggestion. Alternatively, the modals 'could' or
'might' are used in a declarative sentence to suggest
something. Suggestions can also be made without using
modal verbs, and examples of how this is done are given in
brackets.
1. Shall we go shopping? (Let's go shopping./Why don't we
go shopping?)
2. Shall we buy a shirt for father? (Let's buy a shirt for father./
3. Why don't we buy a shirt for father?)

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4. Should have an early dinner. (Let's have an early
dinner. /Why don't we have an early dinner?)
5. You might try leaving home an hour early. (Why don't you
try leaving home an hour early?)

7. The modal 'can' is used to indicate that someone is able to

do something in the present. The modal verb 'could' is used to
express ability in the past. Look at the following examples
and their meanings in brackets.
1. The man can fly a helicopter. (The man has the ability to
fly a helicopter.)
2. We could walk ten kilometres every day. (We were able to
walk ten kilometres every day.)

8. when there is a need to talk about ability in the future, 'will

be able to + main verb' is used in place of modal verbs.
The patient will be able to walk soon.

9. The modals 'will', 'may', 'might', 'could', 'would' and

'should'/'ought to' are used to express the speaker's
opinion/belief about the degrees of possibility of something
happening. The expressions range from certainty (when the
speaker is sure about something happening) to near certainty
(when the speaker thinks that it is logical that something will
happen) to probability (when the speaker believes that
something is likely to happen) to possibility (when the speaker
thinks that there is a chance of something happening). Look at
the sentences below and see how they differ in meaning. The
first sentence in the set, a factual statement, does not have a
modal verb, but the simple present tense form of the verb 'be'.
All the others have a modal followed by the base form of the
main verb.
1. Satish is at home now. (statement of fact)
Satish will be at home now. (certain)
2. Satish should be at home now./
Satish must be at home now. (expected or logical for
circumstantial reasons)
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3. Satish may be at home now. /
Satish would be at home now. (likely, probable)
4. Satish might be at home now./
Satish could be at home now. (possible, but not very certain)

10. The modal verbs' must' and 'have to' are used to indicate that
it is necessary to do something or that there is a compulsion
or obligation, from either the speaker or outside, to do it.
1. He must finish the work in an hour.
2. She has to be more tactful.
The modal 'must' expresses necessity or compulsion only in the
present and the future tenses, but 'have to' is used to show this
meaning with reference to the past as well.
1. We must drink plenty of water, (present time reference)
2. I must call the plumber tomorrow, (future time reference)
3. You have to address the audience now. (present time
reference)
4. I had to withdraw money from the bank, (past time
reference)
5. He will have to persuade his parents to join him on the trek,
(future time reference)
11. The modal verb 'need' is usually used with 'not' in
statements to express the idea that there is no compulsion to
do something. It is, therefore, more exactly the opposite of
'must' than 'mustn't', which conveys the sense of prohibition.
The sentences below will make this clear.
You must send the college your original certificates,
(necessary) You needn't send the college your original
certificates, (not necessary) You mustn't send the college your
original certificates, (not to be done)
modal verbs 'should' and 'ought to' convey the idea of moral
or social igation, or duty. In other words, the auxiliaries are
used to say that the cer thinks it is right to do something.
Kalpana should pay more attention to her work.
I ought to be spending less on clothes and entertainment.
We should not hurt anyone's feelings.

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You ought not to make your sister pay for your trip.
modals 'must', 'need', 'have to', should' and 'ought to' are
commonly to give advice because of the meanings they
express.
The modal verb 'shall', used with first person subjects T and
'we' to express future time reference (though not as regularly
as it was some years ago), is also used to command or
threaten someone.
You shall not leave the room, (order)
They shall regret what they have done, (threat)

The modal auxiliary 'dare (to)' is used to express a

fearlessness of thej consequences of an action.
Dare we speak to him about the lost papers?
I dare not (daren't] go out alone at midnight.
He dared to compete against the experienced boxer.
The modal 'used to' is used before a main verb in its base
form to expres the idea of an action or activity that was
regularly or habitually done.
We used to sleep outdoors on summer nights. She used to make
beautiful earthen lamps. The boys used to buy fruit juice from a
small place near school. It also conveys the idea of something
having existed in the past. There used to be an old fort by the
lake.
Note that this modal is used only to refer to habits in the past.
(The simple present tense is used when an action or activity is a
habit in the present.)
The negative form of the modal is not used very often. Look at
the example below.
Tom didn't use to know many people when he was a student in
the University of Hyderabad.
We didn't use to travel so much by air in the old days.

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