Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Foreword
Access to energy is essential to society. However, expectations and perspectives
concerning the function and design of the energy system change over time and vary
among different groups of people. For some people, achieving the lowest possible
economic costs is the top priority. For others, stability of the energy supply is a more
important factor. Still others believe that the environment and climate are the most
important elements to take into account when designing the energy system. Society
as a whole must balance these three perspectives.
For companies such as Vattenfall that are active in the energy industry, this involves
ongoing co-operation with society to create the most effective balance possible. In The goal of this book is to
addition, it requires acting as a driving force in the development of new technological
increase awareness of the fact
solutions that reduce the need for compromise between the perspectives. Today, no
single energy source can deliver on all counts competitiveness, security of supply,
that all types of energy sources
and climate and environment. are needed in our
energy system, and that the
Vattenfall works primarily within six sources of energy: biomass, coal power, nuclear balance between competitive-
power, natural gas, hydro power and wind power. These six sources of energy account
ness, security of supply, and
for 94 per cent of global electricity production.
the environment and climate
This book presents each one of these energy sources information and data on the must always be taken into
relative advantages and disadvantages, the history behind each energy source, a account. This book also provides
description of how each source works and its significance to the energy system. The information on Vattenfalls
book also provides a glimpse into future developments, such as what wind power
operations and our view of the
may be like, how emissions from coal power can be reduced, and how the biomass
area is rapidly developing. different energy sources.
In our role as a Swedish, European energy company, all energy sources matter in our
work to achieve our vision to create a strong and diversified European energy port-
folio with sustainable and increased profits and significant growth options, and to be
among the leaders in developing environmentally sustainable energy production.
The goal of this book is to increase awareness of the fact that all types of energy
sources are needed in our energy system, and that the balance between competi-
tiveness, security of supply, and the environment and climate must always be taken
into account. This book also provides information on Vattenfalls operations and our
view of the different energy sources.
I hope you will find this book interesting. Please visit our homepage for further infor-
mation: www.vattenfall.com.
ystein Lseth
Introduction Biomass
The Energy Triangle.......................................................................... 7 The Energy Triangle Biomass ............................................................ 24
Competitiveness............................................................................. 8 The Development of Biomass Power Generation ....................... 25
Security of supply ........................................................................... 8 An old energy source with new applications ............................. 25
Climate and environment ........................................................ 10 Definition of biomass and bioenergy.............................................. 25
Balancing the three dimensions .......................................... 11 Biomass Becomes Electricity and Heat ........................................... 26
The European Energy System .................................................. 12 Co-firing biomass with coal ................................................................. 26
The energy system from energy Different biofuels in power generation ......................................... 26
source to end-users ................................................................... 13 Biomass in Europe ....................................................................................... 28
Electricity an energy carrier on the rise ....................... 13 An energy source with growth potential...................................... 28
A common energy policy for Europe .................................. 15 Biomass Opportunities and Challenges ...................................... 29
New trends on the European energy market ................ 15 Large land areas required..................................................................... 29
Emissions trading a way to reduce Managing sustainable biomass......................................................... 29
CO2 emissions ................................................................................. 15 A continuing carbon cycle makes biomass
Vattenfalls Energy Portfolio .................................................... 16 carbon neutral ............................................................................................. 29
Vattenfalls strategic direction ............................................. 16 Biodiversity an important issue ......................................................... 29
Vattenfall Group ............................................................................ 18 Political support varies........................................................................... 29
Strategy to reduce CO2 exposure ....................................... 18 The Future of Biomass .............................................................................. 30
Improving end-use efficiency and reducing Untapped potential but increased imports
environmental impact ................................................................ 19 still needed .................................................................................................... 30
Six energy sources in Vattenfalls energy mix ............. 20 Uncertainty about future investments ......................................... 30
Cost competitiveness dependent on
Glossary .............................................................................................. 98 the price of CO2 emissions ................................................................... 30
A developing market ................................................................................ 30
Biomass technology under constant development .............. 31
National conditions decisive ............................................................... 31
Vattenfall and Biomass ............................................................................ 32
Vattenfalls biomass operations ....................................................... 32
Sourcing sustainable biomass rubber trees from Liberia ..... 32
Vattenfalls biomass operations going forward....................... 32
Toward a sustainable biomass production ................................. 33
Summary .......................................................................................................... 33
Coal Power
The Energy Triangle Coal Power ...................................................... 36
The History of Coal ..................................................................................... 37
An energy source with long history................................................. 37
Coal in many forms .................................................................................... 37
How a Coal-fired Power Plant Works ................................................ 38
Coal becomes electricity ...................................................................... 38
Coal extraction how it works .......................................................... 38
Coal technology under constant development ....................... 39
Vattenfall AB (publ) Coal Power in Europe................................................................................. 40
The Future of Coal Power ........................................................................ 41
SE-162 87 Stockholm, Sweden
Carbon Capture and Storage
Visitors: Sturegatan 10
underground storage of CO2 .............................................................. 41
Telephone: +46 8 739 50 00
CCS technology separation, transport and storage ........ 42
CCS technology going forward......................................................... 43
For more information, please visit www.vattenfall.com Co-firing of biomass a way to reduce emissions...................... 43
Vattenfall and Coal Power ...................................................................... 44
Vattenfalls coal power operations ................................................. 44
Vattenfalls coal power operations going forward ................. 44
Strategy to reduce CO2 exposure .................................................... 44
Vattenfalls investments in CCS ....................................................... 45
Summary .......................................................................................................... 45
6 | LOREM
SIX SOURCES OF ENERGY
IPSUM 2011
INTRODUCTION
Competitiveness power. Coal and nuclear plants can also be built at large-scale
Energy is a fundamental input to economic activity, and there- and have long life spans, and coal and uranium have traditionally
fore to human welfare and progress. Historically, decreasing been relatively inexpensive. Gas-fired power plants have faced
costs of energy have helped to stimulate economic growth, and higher fuel costs but can be built economically at a smaller
today many industries must manage their energy costs in order scale, thus decreasing capital costs. Wind farms are expensive
to compete in the global marketplace. Energy costs can be kept to construct and have shorter life spans, but have no associated
low by improving the efficiency of energy end-use, or by lower- fuel costs.
ing the costs of power generation. Historically, electricity costs have been kept at their lowest by
The costs to produce energy carriers such as electricity, heat building capital-intensive energy infrastructure that lasts many
and fuels vary between different energy sources and technolo- decades. In time, flexible and distributed technologies may make
gies. Broadly speaking, power production costs are comprised other options more cost-competitive. But keeping energy costs
of capital costs and operating costs. Capital costs include manageable will continue to be a priority for most societies.
financing power plant construction, and operating costs
include fuel inputs and power plant maintenance. Security of supply
Societies generally seek out an energy mix that will keep the Energys role in the economy is such that access to energy
overall costs of delivered energy as low and stable as possi- needs to be secure. Shortages of fuels and unreliable electri-
ble for households and businesses. Managing capital costs is city systems have tended to cause problems for societies and
usually a question of scale and time: power plants that deliver economies. Fuel for transportation, fuel for heating, and electri-
large volumes of energy over many decades can spread out city for lighting and critical infrastructure must be available
the costs of capital investments. Managing operating costs is at all times to deliver the standard of living expected in many
usually done through securing cheap and reliable fuels and countries. Securing supply therefore means guaranteeing that
maintaining technically efficient systems. primary energy is available, and that delivered energy is reliable,
A competitive energy mix will keep overall costs as low as essentially 100 per cent of the time. This is a major political and
possible given the available resources. Large hydro plants, technical challenge.
for example, require huge capital investments but produce a Security of supply in a countrys energy system is closely linked
great deal of electricity over a long period of time, and there- to energy self-sufficiency. For countries that are dependent on
fore have a low overall cost. Typically, countries that have rivers importing large amounts of primary energy, relationships with
in mountainous regions have therefore elected to build hydro their energy-exporting counterparts are key to maintaining a
80
60
40
20
0
n Denmark -37% (net exporter) n Spain 81%
n France 51% n Sweden 37%
20 n Germany 61% n UK 21%
n Netherlands 38% n Finland 55%
n Poland 20%
40
To handle increases and decreases at times of peak demand Climate and environment
and to adjust to the varying amounts of generation from All energy sources have environmental impact during their life
intermittent sources, we need access to energy sources that cycles. This impact can perhaps best be assessed by conduc-
can be quickly converted to produce more or less electricity ting a life cycle analysis of a sources total environmental impact,
(balancing power). Hydro power can be used in this way, since in terms of construction of the power plant as well as extraction,
flows from dams can be increased or decreased in a very short distribution, conversion and waste management.1
amount of time and can thus regulate electricity generation and Climate change associated with greenhouse gas emissions
adjust to electricity requirements at any given time. Gas-fired has come to be seen as the greatest environmental challenge
plants can also be ramped up and down relatively quickly to facing humanity. Todays energy system is a large contributer
meet variations in demand. to overall emissions of greenhouse gases. In order to stabilise
Current research is also studying ways to develop electri- the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere at a sustainable
city grids into smart grids. By equipping grids with more exten- long-term level, CO2 emissions from energy must be significantly
sive storage capacities and technologies to adjust electricity reduced.
consumption to fluctuations in generation, grids can be made Reducing the proportion of fossil fuel and increasing the
more reliable and dependence on baseload power and balancing proportion of renewable energy sources (e.g., wind and solar
power can be reduced. This will improve the security of supply power) and nuclear power in the energy mix is an important way
for the electricity system as a whole. to curb global warming. Natural gas, which emits less than coal
PPM
400
390
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
PPM Parts Per Million is often used to measure the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
Source: Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, NOAA 2010
or oil, can play a role as a bridging technology. To reduce the change over time. Nonetheless, improving one dimension of the
climate impact of power plants, old plants can be replaced with energy system often entails making sacrifices along another
new, more efficient ones. In the long term, fossil power plants dimension. For instance, sourcing cost-competitive energy may
can be equipped with technology that prevents the release of increase a countrys dependence on unstable energy imports,
CO2 into the atmosphere (CCS, Carbon Capture and Storage, and using fossil fuels to improve security of supply will have a
technology). negative climate impact. And managing environmental impact
In the long run, emissions from power generation will need to frequently entails increased costs. Win-win-win solutions
be close to zero if we are to stabilise greenhouse gas levels. Given do exist, particularly in terms of improved energy efficiency.
the long life span of most energy infrastructure, achieving this Technological developments and improved electricity network
requires long-term planning on the part of the business community design will deliver even more. Today, however, balancing the
and policy makers. three points of the triangle requires a mix of complementary
energy sources. Finding the balance between these three
Balancing the three dimensions dimensions is ultimately a societal and political decision.
Achieving cost-competitiveness, securing supply and minimising
the energy systems impact on the environment and climate
requires some trade-offs. These trade-offs are not identical for
each energy source, and energy technology characteristics
Africa
Middle East
10,000
Central & South America
North America
8,000
Europe & Eurasia
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
MTOE Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent is a unit of energy commonly used for comparisons
of energy content between different energy sources Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2010
28 per cent of electricity generation. Hydro power constitutes energy conversion and distribution, final consumption in the
11 per cent, biomass and waste three per cent and wind power energy system is considerably lower than the amount of energy
four per cent. On a global level, fossil fuels play an even more supplied from the energy sources at the beginning of the value
important role, constituting about two-thirds of total electricity chain. Of the total amount of energy supplied, less than half is
generation.5 utilised in the end-use process. In order to lower the amount of
energy lost during conversion and distribution, energy research
The energy system from energy source to end-users is largely focused on making these processes more efficient.
A modern energy system can be viewed as a value chain that
starts with the energy source (e.g., wind, water, oil) and concludes Electricity an energy carrier on the rise
with end-use. In order for us to utilise the energy stored in energy Electricity is an energy carrier that is efficient in transporting
sources, they must be converted into energy carriers. An energy energy over long distances. It also has an extremely wide range
carrier is a material or process that is used to store and/or trans- of applications as compared to motor fuel, for example, which is
port energy. The most common energy carriers are electricity used solely to run vehicles. The share of electricity in final energy
and oil.6 consumption in EU countries increased from 16 per cent in 1990
After the conversion process, energy carriers are transported to over 20 per cent in 2008.7
through a distribution system to the end-user. Power networks The electricity system links electricity-producing power plants
and electric cables are used to transport electricity, while distri- with electricity-consuming end-users via a power network. Power
bution systems for fuel include the use of tankers and lorries. plants produce electricity by converting energy from different
Energy end-use is normally divided into three sectors: industry, energy sources, while end-users consume electricity by doing
transport and housing. Since a large amount of the energy things like running industrial machinery or turning the lights on at
supplied to power plants cannot be utilised and is lost during home.
4%
10%
28%
3% 28%
24% 3%
Wind 4% Natural Gas 24% According to British researchers, the Internet consumes three to
Hydro 10% Oil 3%
five per cent of annual global electricity supply, or between 600 and
1,000 TWh. In comparison, Indias total annual electricity genera-
Nuclear 28% Coal 28%
tion is around 830 TWh.
Biomass & waste 3% Source: IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010
such as Sweden, public opinion on nuclear power has become more positive. In the EMISSIONS TRADING A WAY
summer of 2010 the Swedish Parlament passed a bill lifting the ban on new reactors. TO REDUCE CO2 EMISSIONS
The EUs Emissions Trading Scheme was
A common energy policy for Europe launched in January 2005, the worlds first
A number of EU processes and decisions in recent years have resulted in the develop- large-scale trading system for greenhouse
ment of a common European energy policy. Due to the need for a coherent strategy gas emissions. Under the scheme, each
to meet the challenges facing the European energy system, the EU has an increas- member state sets a cap on the total allow-
ing amount of influence on member states national energy policies. able amount of carbon dioxide emissions. To
The common energy policy focuses on securing long-term energy supply, halting ensure that the cap is not exceeded, emis-
climate change and building the foundation of a competitive energy sector. This is sion rights are distributed to industries and
accomplished in part by harmonising the European electricity markets, as electricity energy companies that cause emissions. If a
trading between countries is currently complicated by varying technical standards company produces CO2 emissions below the
and power network designs. Security of supply is particularly important considering mandatory cap, it can save its emission rights
for the next period or may sell the surplus
the fact that the EU currently imports over half of its energy needs.
to other companies that need to emit more.
In the area of climate change, a 20-20-20 goal has been established. This goal
The system rewards companies that reduce
forms the basis of the EUs climate efforts through the year 2020. The goal is to
their emissions by allowing them to sell their
increase the proportion of renewable energy sources used in the energy mix to 20
remaining emission rights, while companies
per cent, reduce CO2 emissions by 20 per cent from 1990 levels, and make energy that need to emit more are penalised by being
consumption 20 per cent more efficient.8 forced to purchase more emission rights.
Germany Sweden
Wind: 6% Wind 1%
Germany Sweden Hydro 46%
Hydro: 4%
Nuclear: 23% Nuclear 43%
Biomass & waste: 5% Biomass & waste 7%
Natural Gas: 14% Natural Gas 0%
Oil: 1% Oil 1%
Coal: 46% Coal 1%
Total: 637 TWh Total: 150 TWh
Vattenfall
Vattenfall
Vattenfalls electricity
Vattenfalls electricity
generation in Germany
generation in Sweden
Total: 69 TWh
Total: 80 TWh
Wind
The Hydro
The Netherlands
Wind 4% Netherlands
Nuclear
Hydro 0%
Nuclear 4% Biomass & waste
Biomass & waste 6%
Natural Gas
Natural Gas 59% Vattenfall
Oil 2%
Oil
Coal 25%
Total: 108 TWh Vattenfalls electricity
Coal
generation in the Netherlands
Total: 14 TWh
Source: IEA Statistics, Electricity generation 2010; Vattenfall Annual Report 2009
entering a consolidation phase. Over the coming years Vatten- In coming years, organic growth within generation will be
fall will focus on its core markets (i.e., markets in which Vatten- focused towards wind, nuclear and gas-fired power plants,
fall holds a strong position). Today, Vattenfalls core markets and on hydro power if possible. Vattenfall will also invest in bio-
are Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands. Vattenfall holds a mass co-firing in existing hard coal-fired power plants, based
top-three position in these markets, which provides economies on the anticipated availability of future support. This will allow
of scale and allows Vattenfall to play a significant role in poli- Vattenfall to reduce its current high CO2 exposure, which will
cy-related discussions at the national and EU levels. Vattenfall entail major emitter costs in the future. Vattenfalls portfolio
also considers the United Kingdom to be an important growth emissions will be reduced more rapidly than the market average
market, based chiefly on Vattenfalls strong position in offshore towards the EUs 2020 targets.
wind power there.
Vattenfall will remain an integrated but generation-focused
utility with a diversified generation portfolio, and will increase
the share of low-emitting and renewable electricity generation
in its portfolio.
The World
EU
Vattenfall
Wind
The World EU Vattenfall
Hydro Wind 1% Wind 4% Wind 1%
Hydro 16% Hydro 10% Hydro 24%
Nuclear
Nuclear 13% Nuclear 28% Nuclear 28%
Biomass & waste Biomass & waste 1% Biomass & waste 3% Biomass & waste 1%
Natural Gas 21% Natural Gas 24% Natural Gas 3%
Natural Gas Oil 5% Oil 3% Oil 0%
Coal 41% Coal 28% Coal 43%
Oil Total: 20,183 TWh Total: 3,339 TWh Total: 162.1 TWh
Coal
Source: IEA World Energy Outlook 2010; Vattenfall Annual Report 2009
Key facts and figures Vattenfalls strategy for reducing CO2 exposure 2010-2020
n Net sales: SEK 223.4 billion i
Mtonnes
n Operating profit: SEK 39.3
billioni,ii 110
10 12-14
n Total assets as of 30 September 100
2010: SEK 528.7 billion 90
90 8-10
n Electricity generation: 169.8
TWh i 80 12-14
n Heat sales: 42.0 TWhi
70 65
n Gas sales: 55.7 TWhi
n Total number of employees as 60
of 30 September: 38,438iii
50
n Customers as of 31 December
2009: 7.5 million electricity 40
customers, 2.1 million natural
30
gas customers and 5.7 million
electricity network customers 20
10
i) Latest 12-month figure as of
30 September 2010
0
ii) Excluding items affecting
2010 Boxberg, Divest- Co-firing Replace- 2020
comparability
Moorburg ments of biomass ment of non-
iii) FTE (Full Time Equivalents) and coal commercial
plants
Improving end-use efficiency and reducing and creating Vattenfall competencies and developing partner-
environmental impact ships with universities and companies to exchange knowledge
In order to improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental and ideas.
impact of its operations, Vattenfall also conducts extensive Vattenfalls R&D E-mobility Programme aims to increase
research and development (R&D) work. Two of Vattenfalls pro- the role of electricity in transports. Vattenfall has been work-
jects aimed at increasing energy efficiency are the E-mobility ing with various types of electric vehicles since the 1980s. For
and the Sustainable Cities programmes. example, Vattenfall and Volvo launched a joint venture in 2007
Vattenfalls R&D Sustainable Cities Programme focuses to series-produce plug-in hybrid vehicles and introduce them to
on energy use, process efficiency and the role of electricity in the market in 2012. The E-mobility Programme focus includes
end-user systems. Vattenfall launched the Sustainable Cities the development of new charging technologies.
concept to help cities transition to sustainable energy use, Running vehicles on electricity would reduce dependency on
addressing their needs for efficient energy solutions in sustain- oil. It would also reduce dependency on a single energy source,
able urban planning and other technological systems. This is since electricity can be produced by a mixture of sources (wind,
achieved by improving efficiency on all levels, as well as deploy- hydro, nuclear, coal, biomass, etc.). Using electricity in the trans-
ing renewable energy sources. Vattenfall aims to build long- port sector would shift local emissions from millions of exhaust
term partnerships with cities and to help them design tailor- pipes to larger point sources where they can be controlled
made sustainability plans. more easily, creating new opportunities for clean and quiet city
The programme involves new technologies and new sys- environments. Depending on the energy source used, carbon
tem activities on the end-user side of energy systems, such as dioxide emissions can also be significantly reduced. Vattenfall
district cooling, heat pumps, small-scale CHP (combined heat believes that electricity will play a significant role in the trans-
and power) plants, and energy-efficiency improvements such port sector of the future and that electricity-powered vehicles
as low-energy lighting and the visualisation of energy usage will be part of a long-term sustainable society.
(Energy Management). It also includes identifying, developing
Footnotes Introduction
1
More detailed information about Life-Cycle Assessments for Vattenfalls Swedish 5
Ibid.
electricity generation can be found on www.vattenfall.com 6
BP, op. cit.
2
International Energy Association (IEA), World Energy Outlook 2009 7
IEA, 2010, op.cit.
3
BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2010 8
Read more about the EUs climate goals on www.energy.eu
4
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 9
Swedish Energy Agency, Energy in Sweden: Facts and Figures, 2009
22 | SIX
SIX FORMS
SOURCES
OF OF ENERGY
ENERGY
ONE ENERGY SYSTEM | 23
BIOMASS
By using biomass in power production instead of fossil fuels, CO2 emissions can
be significantly reduced. Carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere when
biomass is burned, but when biomass grows it binds carbon dioxide through pho-
tosynthesis. Properly managed biomass is therefore carbon neutral over time.
Biomass can be converted into a stable and reliable Using biomass to produce electricity is currently more
supply of electricity and heat. Biomass can be securely expensive than using energy sources such as coal,
sourced on small scales, but supply of larger volumes gas or nuclear power. The global biomass supply chain
is currently difficult to secure. One important step is is developing and, over time, technological and logisti-
to establish a global trade and certification system. cal improvements will bring down prices. An increased
Biomass resources are geographically diversified and CO2 price will also improve the economic competitive-
political risk is limited. ness of biomass.
An old energy source with new applications Bioenergy is actually a form of stored
solar energy, collected by plants through
Biomass is a renewable energy source that has been used as fuel for tens of thou-
photosynthesis. Bioenergy is present in
sands of years. Wood and other plant parts have been used since the dawn of man to
living organisms in the form of carbon
prepare food and provide heat. Biomass is still the main type of fuel for the 1.4 billion
compounds. Bioenergy is also a generic
people across the globe that lack access to electricity, in the form of wood burned in
term for electricity and heat production
stoves, fires and other basic cooking devices. processes that use biofuels.
Development of the different areas of application for biomass has made great
Biomass is an organic material that
strides in recent decades, and there are now a variety of methods for converting
contains bioenergy. Biomass can be any-
biomass into heat and electricity; everything from pellets for household heating
thing from energy crops to agricultural or
to agricultural waste used to produce electricity in commercial power plants. forestry residues and waste. Common to
However, despite the development in recent these substances is an origin in photo-
decades, biomass for large-scale electricity synthesis and, as opposed to biofuels, the
generation still constitutes a minor portion of Interest in biomass within the lack of any chemical conversion process.
total global biomass consumption for energy
energy industry has increased Biofuel is a generic term for the fuel used
purposes. It is still a new technology, and its to extract bioenergy. Biofuel can be
potential is substantial.1
in recent years due to its
various types of biomass, such as wood
The share of biomass in the energy mix climatically advantageous or chips, or fuel extracted from biomass,
remains limited in many countries and is characteristics. such as ethanol produced from sugar
largely influenced by geographic and geolo- cane.
gical conditions. Biomass is used primarily in Among the fields of application for
countries with extensive forest industries, where residues such as branches, wood biomass, the focus here is on biomass
chips and sawdust can be used to produce both electricity and heat. Countries with used for electricity and heat production.
large agricultural industries and industries that produce waste products that can
be used as biofuels also have potential to increase their use of biomass.
Interest in biomass within the energy industry has increased in recent years due
to its climatically advantageous characteristics. Replacing fossil fuels with biomass
presents potential for reducing the amount of CO2 emitted by electricity and heat
production in Europe. In the long term, biomass is likely to play an important role in
the European energy mix.
of residues from the forest industry, sawmills and pulp manufac- Starchy crops such as sugar beets and potatoes are fermented
turing that can be utilised for power generation during combus- to produce ethanol or diesel. Energy crops can also be used with
tion. other types of waste to produce biogas. Todays biogas plants
Pellets and briquettes are another type of biofuel. These can process a variety of different types of waste generated by,
fuels are manufactured by compressing waste material, such as e.g., the agricultural industry and farming.
sawdust, bark or higher-grade biomass. They are highly suitable One of the advantages of energy crops is that they do not
for export as they have the advantage of being easy to trans- require the use of chemicals to the extent that food crops do. In
port. Pellets and briquettes are often used as fuel in households Europe, most energy crops are produced locally and thus do not
with boilers and stoves. In much of the world today, waste pro- have negative side effects, such as long transports.
ducts from industry and sawmills are left in the forest. Utilisa-
tion of these waste products could increase power generation Waste, by-products and residues
by 170 TWh by the year 2020.5 Residues include manure, sewage, sludge and other degra-
dable waste. Residues constitute the second largest source
Energy crops of biomass today, after wood fuel, contributing approximately
Energy crops are grown by farming and used for power genera- 210 TWh per year. Forecasts show that this amount can be
tion. Today, energy crops are cultivated on roughly 50,000 hec- increased to 370 TWh by the year 2020. Liquid biomass waste,
tares in the EU and provide 3 TWh of primary energy for heating such as manure, household waste and sewage plant residues,
and electricity. can be digested to biogas.6
Different types of biofuel are derived from energy crops.
Tropical countries primarily produce ethanol from sugar cane.
Biomass in Europe
Renewable energy sources provided approximately 18 per cent Role of biomass in meeting Europes renewable energy
of the EUs electricity generation in 2008. Biomass and waste targets European Commission scenario
constituted approximately 18 per cent of this amount, or rough- EU-27 final energy consumption, TWh
160
140 Offshore w
ind 2
120
100
Biomass archetypes
80
66
60 Onshore wind
1
Fossil alternatives
40
20
0
2007 2015 2020
CO2 price: 15 EUR/tonne CO2 price: 20-30 EUR/tonne CO2 price: 30-50 EUR/tonne
1
Hard coal condensing and natural gas CCGT. Assumes fixed fossil fuel prices over time, coal 75 US D per tonne Source: McKinsey, Vattenfall, Sveaskog, Sdra,
(54 EUR per tonne), natural gas 20 EUR per MWh. Coal plant efficiency 40%, gas CCGT 55%. European Climate Foundation (2010): Biomass
2
Not including grid connections for Heat and Power Opportunity and Economics
certification. Biomass origin is crucial to the establishment of a focus on continuous streamlining. The conversion of raw mate-
long-term, sustainable trade in biofuels. Extracted biomass, for rial into more energy-dense forms facilitates transport, stor-
instance, must be replaced with new biomass (i.e., replanted) in age and use through the rest of the value chain. One example
order to be classified as a renewable type of energy and a good currently under development that would simplify future imports
environmental alternative. is the thermal processing of biofuels to produce a more efficient
Future increases in biomass trade will most likely mean that type of pellet with a higher energy value.
fuel is produced far from where it is consumed. Production chain
quality assurance will therefore be extremely important going National conditions decisive
forward. A system similar to the forest industrys, for instance, The direction of development for biomass use in different coun-
would limit many of the social and environmental risks asso- tries is determined by several factors; for example, the way
ciated with large-scale biomass production. in which a country values its dependency on oil and natural
gas imports, and the existence of non-biomass options. Other
Biomass technology under constant development factors include domestic alternative energy supply options and
Several different production technologies have been developed existing infrastructure for supplying energy.
to convert biomass into heat and electricity. The different meth-
ods of refining biomass are under constant development with a
Ethanol
Wood pellets
Palm oil & agricultural residues Source: IEA, Bioenergy Annual Report 2009
Vattenfalls biomass operations Hamburg. In Poland, the Zeran and Siekierki combined heating
Vattenfall is one of the worlds largest purchasers of biomass and power plants are increasing the use of biomass and will use
for power generation. The biomass used by Vattenfall is com- 400,000 tonnes by 2013. Co-firing will be stepped up in several
prised primarily of household and industrial waste (over 60 per other countries as well, including the Netherlands. New biomass
cent) and forestry industry residue (30 per cent). The remainder plants are also being planned (e.g., in Denmark). For a full list of
is comprised chiefly of agricultural residues. Vattenfalls biomass power plants, please see the production
Over 40 of Vattenfalls heating and power plants are po- site at www.vattenfall.com/powerplants.
wered entirely or partially by biomass. Vattenfall uses a total
of three million tonnes of biomass per year, placing Vattenfall in Sourcing sustainable biomass - rubber trees from Liberia
an industry-leading position. The use of biomass in Vattenfalls Vattenfalls need for biomass is increasing and volumes availa-
plants will increase substantially when large-scale co-firing is ble in Europe are not sufficient. Vattenfall is therefore develop-
implemented. ing an international portfolio of projects to secure sourcing of
Vattenfall runs several biomass projects in Europe. In Germany, the required volumes. An attractive option, both economically
biomass-fired power plants are being planned in Berlin and and environmentally, is the use of unproductive rubber trees
from plantations in Liberia.
Liberia is a country with a large resource of rubber trees, and
rubber export is a key component in plans to revitalise the econo-
my. The rubber trees are cultivated in plantations and typically
produce latex when they are between 7 and 30 years of age, after
which they are harvested and replaced by new trees. The prac-
tice has been to let these harvested trees rot or to burn them on
site, with some of the wood used for charcoal production.
Buchanan Renewables, a Canadian-owned company based
in Liberia, has developed a biomass business based on making
wood chips from these non-productive trees. In 2010, Vattenfall
acquired 30 per cent of Buchanan Renewables Fuel together
with Swedfund, the Swedish governments company for invest-
ments in developing countries, in order to secure the supply of
large volumes of sustainable wood chips. Purchasing the trees
that are no longer producing rubber, and which would in any
case be disposed of, is an environmentally and economically
efficient option.
SUMMARY
g 286::2:9070=/500709?:890;;
has the potential to reduce CO 2 emissions,
biomass annually by the year 2014, which would reduce CO2 emissions by five million for example through co-firing in existing
tonnes annually. coal power plants in Europe
Vattenfall will make significant biomass investments through the year 2015.
g #0/286:::0270;7050;922;?
These investments will be made in new power plants and in increasing the amount of generation today is primarily derived from
coal co-firing in existing plants. forest products, waste and other residues
Co-firing biomass with coal in existing power plants significantly reduces the from the agricultural and forest industries
plants CO2 emissions. Co-firing offers many advantages, the foremost being the
g $:27/286::;8980050;922;?2:9-
reduction of CO2 emissions from existing power plants without requiring invest- rently more expensive than using energy
ments in new plants. Vattenfall is constantly working to increase the use of biomass sources such as coal, gas or nuclear power.
in its hard coal power plants. The global biomass supply chain is develo-
In terms of research and development, Vattenfall focuses primarily on new ping and, over time, technological and
processing techniques. Biofuels produced through thermal treatment (black pel- logistical improvements will bring down
lets) and the use of such fuels is one major focus area. prices. An increased CO2 price will also
improve the economic competitiveness of
Toward a sustainable biomass production biomass
Although energy crops may be problematic to cultivate, they have the potential to g 7;097;2875 ;90 27 /286:: 189 8=09
become an important export commodity for many countries. Vattenfall is working to generation is still limited, though an
develop the entire biomass value chain, from cultivation to combustion via logistics increase in imports from other parts of
and fuel processing. the world is expected. The challenge lies in
If biomass is to increase its share in the energy mix, todays use of waste and ensuring an environmentally and socially
residues will not be enough. A higher level of processing and increased international sustainable value chain
trade may allow for the utilisation of a larger portion of the residues from the global g #0/286:::0/?%;;071552:8692:0
forestry industry. The production of energy crops and energy forests may also have of over 60 per cent household and industrial
to be increased. waste and 30 per cent residues from the fo-
One major challenge is finding suppliers that can provide large amounts of bio- restry industry. The remainder is comprised
mass that meet sustainability and affordability requirements. Cultivation of energy chiefly of agricultural residues
crops and forests can cause harm to environmentally important forests and the loss g 286::5?:07;95985027%;;07155:
of biodiversity. One of Vattenfalls main challenges is finding producers that meet efforts to reduce its CO2 emissions; e.g.,
the companys stringent environmental and social sustainability standards. through co-firing in coal power plants
Footnotes Biomass
1
International Energy Association (IEA), World 8
European Commission (2010): Report from the
Energy Outlook 2009 Council and the European Parliament on sustain-
2
Hansson, J. (2009), Perspectives on Future Bioen- ability requirements for the use of solid and gase-
ergy Use and Trade in a European Policy Context, ous biomass sources in electricity, heating and
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg cooling
3
Ibid. 9
Ibid.
4
McKinsey, Vattenfall, Sveaskog, Sdra, European 10
McKinsey, Vattenfall, Sveaskog, Sdra, European
Climate Foundation (2010): Biomass for Heat and Climate Foundation (2010), op. cit.
Power Opportunity and Economics 11
Ibid.
5
Ibid. 12
Ibid.
6
Ibid.
7
IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation, 2010,
www.iea.org
34 | SIX
SIX FORMS
SOURCES
OF OF ENERGY
ENERGY
ONE ENERGY SYSTEM | 35
COAL POWER
Coal power plants emit high levels of CO2 into the atmosphere during the combus-
tion process, which affects the climate. Coal mining also interferes significant-
ly with the landscape, and open-cast mines must be re-cultivated. Major efforts,
including the development of clean coal technologies to reduce CO2 emissions,
are being made to manage the climate impact of coal power plants.
Coal power plants provide stable and large-scale elec- Coal power has a competitive production cost. Fuel
tricity generation, and the availability of coal is good. costs are low and coal markets are well-functioning.
Of the Earths fossil fuels, coal is the most abundant However, technologies to reduce coal power plant
and widely dispersed, meaning that supplies are rea- CO2 emissions are expensive and call for substantial
dily available and not subject to disruption. investments.
Central &
South America (Million tonnes) Lignite Hard Coal
North America 132,816 113,281
Central & South America 8,042 6,964
Europe & Eurasia 170,204 102,042
Middle East & Africa 174 33,225
Asia & Pacific 103,444 155,809
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2010
measures; for example, advanced drainage and ventilation the same amount of energy, while emissions are up to 22 per
systems to avoid the accumulation of water or explosive mine cent lower. In practice, this means that an efficiency increase of
damp. Working conditions in coal mines have historically been one percentage point reduces CO2 emissions by two to three
arduous; even today, some coal mines do not meet modern per cent.4
safety requirements. Today, however, many plants in countries such as China
and India are outdated. In 2008 there were over 8,000 small
Coal technology under constant development coal-fired power plants in China, many with low efficiency and
Thanks to new and improved technologies, todays coal-fired high emission levels.5 Most plants in the US, South Africa and
power plants are more efficient than ever. Progress has been Europe need to be replaced as well. The average efficiency of
made in the development of new technologies to reduce emis- the worlds hard coal-fired power plants is currently 28 per cent,
sions over the past 30 to 40 years. Nowadays great quantities compared to more than 46 per cent for modern plants.6 But in
of particulates are refined out of the combustion gases that emerging countries, old plants are still needed to meet growing
were previously emitted, unfiltered, into the air. Well-developed electricity demand.
technologies are able to clean emissions of sulphur, nitrogen Despite the fact that emissions of many harmful substances
oxides, complex hydrocarbons, dust and heavy metals. Flue gas produced by coal combustion can be reduced and eliminated
washing, for example, is used to reduce emissions of sulphur. thanks to technological developments, a major problem remains:
Effective particulate filters can prevent over 99.9 per cent of carbon dioxide. Since the use of coal is expected to increase
dust emissions from escaping into the atmosphere.3 globally, coal combustion technology for efficiency and emis-
Coal-fired power plants constructed today are more efficient sion reduction must make headway. Improved coal combustion
and emit less CO2 than older plants. Efficiency is 10 percent- efficiency, combined with carbon capture technology, is a
age points higher, meaning that less fuel is needed to produce prerequisite for decreasing the worlds CO2 emissions.
Generator
Stack
Turbine
Coal supply
Flue gas cleaning
Steam
Furnace
Condensor
Water
Share of coal power in electricity generation (2008) Coal-fired power generation capacity under
construction (2008)
% GW
100 120
110
90
100
80 112
90
70
80
60 70
50 60
50
40
40
30
51
30
20
20
10 10 19 17 17
0 0
n Danmark 48 % n Netherlands 25% n Sweden 1% China India US Europe Other
n Frankrike 5 % n Poland 92% n UK 33%
n Tyskland 46 % n Spain 16% n Finland 18%
Source: IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation, 2010 Source: IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2009
Carbon dioxide is
* pumped down to non-
degradable coal beds,
for CO2. Saline aquifers are underground rock formations that Co-firing of biomass a way to reduce emissions
contain salty water. Carbon dioxide partially dissolves in the Co-firing refers to the use of two or more different types of fuel
formation water and, in some cases, the CO2 slowly reacts in a power plants combustion process. Co-firing of coal and
with minerals to form carbonates, thereby permanently trapping biomass in existing coal-fired power plants has been identified
the CO2 underground. as a cost-effective way to quickly reduce CO2 emissions, since
power plants require relatively few changes to allow for a grea-
CCS technology going forward ter blend of biomass. Biomass is almost entirely carbon neutral,
There is still some way to go before CCS can be used to limit which means that biomass combustion releases approximately
the CO2 emissions of existing power plants, but the number of the same amount of carbon dioxide as was taken up by the bio-
demonstration plants is growing rapidly. Provided that research mass (trees, plants or crops) during its growth. In most power
and investments continue, it is estimated that CCS can be plants, between 10 and 15 per cent of the coal used can be
operating commercially by around the year 2020. replaced without significant impact on efficiency or increased
The majority of todays existing CCS projects focus on stor- corrosion risk.13 Agricultural residue, processed wood fuel and
ing CO2 that has been industrial waste can be used as biomass.
separated at natural gas Calculations in a recent study show that co-firing at existing
Provided that research and invest- production facilities or coal-fired power plants could increase EU electricity generation
ments continue, it is estimated that used to increase the pro- from biofuel by 50 to 90 TWh per year, equivalent to 1.5 - 2.5 per
CCS can be operating commercial- duction in dwindling oil cent of the EUs total electricity generation. This could reduce
fields. Research in these CO2 emissions by around 85 million tonnes per year, represent-
ly by around the year 2020. areas is focused on veri- ing an estimated five to 10 per cent of the reductions required
fying the security of the to meet the EU s 2020 climate goal.14 However, the availability
storage site. Other projects include research for higher effi- of biomass is limited and there will most likely be competition for
ciency within the sequestration process, alternatives for trans- the biomass resources that do exist. Future availability depends
port and storage and expanding use of commercially available to a large degree on pricing, on what will be producible at low
technology. cost and where it can be produced, and the level of acceptance
A number of legal issues must be resolved before large-scale of biomass production for energy purposes. There is a potential
CCS investments can be made. Most of these issues deal with for biomass in European countries, but it is hard to predict the
the development of monitoring and security regulations and types of biomass that will be used in the future.
rules governing liability for accidents and leakage. In the EU, a
directive has been passed that should lead to comparable laws
for the implementation of CCS in all EU member states.
In almost all cases, preventing CO2 emissions comes at a price.
This is also the case with CCS. One of the major commercial chal-
lenges is to reduce energy consumption in the separation proc-
ess, which essentially lowers the plants efficiency. Another chal-
lenge is to hold down the investment costs of carbon separation
technology. Technologies to separate and store CO2 are most
effective in larger coal and heavy oil combustion plants, where
the CO2 concentration is high and the potential amount of sepa-
rated CO2 is large enough to justify the use of the technology.
Estimates of future CCS costs vary widely; nearly a decade
remains before the technology will be ready for commercial
use. Cost estimates will become more concrete as that date
approaches. The potential of CCS is obviously closely linked to
the cost of utilising the technology. The fact that new technol-
ogy entails cost is an obstacle faced by all modern energy tech-
nology, from wind power to solar cells and sea-wave power.
SUMMARY
g 85 8=09 98<20: :;/50 7 590
scale electricity generation and has a com-
Replacing hard coal with biomass in coal-fired power plants is expected to reduce petitive generation cost. Fuel costs are low
CO2 exposure by 8 to 10 million tonnes annually. An extensive biomass programme is and coal markets are well-functioning
underway and has already produced good results.
g 7? 9807 87;920: 90 00707;
Lower utilisation rates of older coal-fired plants, and replacement of non-com- on coal power to meet their energy needs.
mercial plants with gas, biomass, or CCS when commercially viable. Anticipated In 2008, coal power accounted for 28 per
reduction of 12 to 14 million tonnes per year. cent of total EU electricity generation
Due to the completion of the new Moorburg and Boxberg power plants, emissions
g 858=0957;:062;250<05:81 2
will increase slightly during the next few years, after which emissions will be gradu- into the atmosphere during the combus-
ally reduced through 2020. tion process, which affects the climate.
Coal mining also interferes significantly
Vattenfalls investments in CCS with the landscape, and open-cast mines
Vattenfall invests in the development of CCS technology to reduce CO2 emissions must be re-cultivated
into the atmosphere from coal-fired power plants. Vattenfall is working to integrate g 892781857/286::270>2:;27
CCS in large demonstration plants and is collaborating with various stakeholders to coal-fired power plants has been identified
develop the requisite social, legal and financial conditions. An important milestone as a cost-effective way to quickly reduce
for Vattenfalls CCS efforts was the construction of a pilot plant at Schwarze Pumpe CO2 emissions. In most power plants,
near Cottbus, Germany, the first of its kind based on lignite. The plant opened on 9 between 10 and 15 per cent of the coal
September 2008 and has attracted great international attention and many visits used can be replaced without significant
from industry specialists and researchers. The next step is a full-scale demonstra- impact on efficiency or increased corro-
tion plant of a size sufficient to evaluate commercial conditions at Jnschwalde in sion risk
Germany. Through Nuon, Vattenfall is also building a pilot plant with pre-combustion g %;;07155 809;0: 987 ;=07;? 85
technology at the Willem Alexander power plant in Buggenum, Netherlands. Please fired power plants located in Germany,
see Vattenfalls homepage for more information about Vattenfalls CCS projects, Poland, Denmark and the Netherlands
www.vattenfall.com/ccs. g 38901189;:90/02760;8670
the climate impact of coal power plants,
such as development of clean coal techno-
logies to reduce CO2 emissions. Vattenfall
will not build any new lignite- or hard coal-
fired plants until Carbon Capture and Stor-
age (CCS) is a viable technology
g %;;07155 =255 87;270 ;8 0<058
technology. Next step is the CCS demon-
stration plant in Jnschwalde in Germany
g 858=09=25587;270;8/089709-
stone of the European energy system
for the foreseeable future and, as such,
Footnotes Coal power will remain part of Vattenfalls portfolio.
1
International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy 9
IEA, 2010, op. cit Vattenfall is optimising its existing pro-
Outlook 2010 10
Ibid.
2
Ibid. 11
Ibid. duction portfolio and investing to improve
3
You can read more about this in Vattenfalls CSR Report 12
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2009 efficiency and reduce the CO2 emissions of
2008 13
Hansson, J. (2009), Perspectives on Future Bioenergy
4
IEA, Focus on Clean Coal, 2006
existing plants
Use and Trade in a European Policy Context, Chalmers
5
OECD, Opportunities and Barriers for Clean Coal University of Technology, Gothenburg
and Other Clean Technologies, 2008 14
Ibid.
6
IEA, 2006, op.cit.
7
IEA, 2010, op.cit.
8
IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation, 2010,
www.iea.org
Hydro power plants provide large-scale and stable Hydro power has no fuel costs and competitive gene-
electricity generation which can often be controlled ration costs. Constructing a new plant requires a sub-
domestically. But sustained high generation levels are stantial investment, but the economic life of a plant
dependent on precipitation. Hydro power also func- is long.
tions as balancing power, since capacity can be rapidly
changed to compensate for differences in generation
and consumption in the mains supply.
Precipitation
from clouds
Hydro power plant
Water vapour
rises, condenses
and forms clouds
Solar heat
evaporates water
Sweden became a world leader in the development of large- as the foundation for rapid Swedish economic growth in the
scale hydro power during the 1900s. The hydro power plant in mid-1900s. The mining industry, iron and steel mills, chemi-
Porjus, officially opened in 1915, was built to provide electricity cal industries and paper and pulp mills all developed thanks to
to the ore railway (Malmbanan) in northern Sweden and was one their interplay with hydro power, and this remains true today.
of the largest, most highly advanced hydro power projects that Swedens exports still consist to a great degree of products
had been carried out to date. The 1930s saw the development from energy-intensive industries1, and access to inexpensive,
of the technology necessary to send electricity over longer secure electricity is therefore of great importance to the Swed-
distances, and the major rivers in northern Sweden could there- ish economy.
by be used in earnest to process Swedish natural resources
such as timber and ore. The Harsprng power line was opened Global and local considerations conflict
in 1952. Running from the Harsprng power plant (one of the Hydro power on the whole receives strong support from nearly
worlds largest hydro power plants, located outside Jokkmokk) all sections of society, and attitudes towards hydro power do
to Hallsberg, nearly 1,000 kilometres to the south, the power not appear to be affected to any significant degree by politi-
line linked the entire Swedish power network. cal orientation, educational level or age. Negative views are
The inexpensive, secure electricity provided by hydro power generally targeted at expansion of hydro power and usually not
enabled the emergence of Swedish base industry and served at existing hydro power plants.
Large-scale hydro power has very little impact on the climate
and environment in the wider perspective. But hydro power
does have a major impact on the environment in direct prox-
imity to the plant and watercourse. The impact of hydro power
is accordingly location-specific, which results in distinct con-
flicts of interest. From a climate perspective, hydro power is a
very advantageous type of energy. But for people living near a
planned hydro power plant and for the adjacent environment,
the impact is more tangible than for almost any other type of
energy. Given that large-scale hydro power plants represent a
significant encroachment on the surrounding natural environ-
ment, the preservation of unspoiled watercourses has often
been an argument against the expansion of hydro power.
Public opinion on hydro power has not been entirely positive
throughout the hundred plus years of hydro powers history. Until
the 1950s, hydro power was viewed as something positive and
a necessary part of a functioning electricity generation system
in countries that possessed the appropriate natural resources.
A counter-movement emerged, however, in the 1950s and 60s,
including in Sweden. Nearly all Swedish rivers were developed
at that time, and an activist movement to preserve the last
unspoiled rivers from development gained momentum. Despite
the location-specific environmental impact of hydro power, pro-
tests against its expansion were initiated from throughout the
country.
During recent decades, growing concerns about the green-
house effect and global warming have boosted the general
publics perception of hydro power and it is now viewed as part
of the solution to the climate change problem. Support for hydro
power remains essentially strong and intact. The issue is not
whether hydro power is positive or negative, but rather how
many unspoiled watercourses should be preserved.
Reservoir
Control gate
Transformer
Generator
Turbine
Hydro powers significance as balancing power riparian zone, and the bio-
One problem with electricity as an energy carrier is that it can- Water reservoirs next logical richness is largely
not be stored to any great extent. Water, on the other hand, can lost. Fish have a harder
to hydro power plants
be. Water reservoirs next to hydro power plants can therefore time finding food and lay-
be thought of as large batteries: water is stored and can be used
can be thought of as ing eggs in the riparian
as needed. Energy can thus be stored during the times of the large batteries: water is zone, and hydro power
year when water inflow is high and electricity demand is low, and stored and can be used plants present migratory
the energy can then be used when demand is greatest. as needed. obstacles for many fish
Hydro power plants can be used both to generate baseload species. Also, there is a
power (the amount of electricity that is always needed) and as carbon effect as a reser-
balancing power (electricity output that can quickly be turned voir is made and carbon in the inundated soil reacts with oxy-
on to meet variations in demand). An important characteristic gen in the water to form carbon dioxide. This effect is milder
of hydro power is that it generates a great deal of electricity as in Northern European boreal regions than in southern tropical
soon as the water is released, and is not dependent on weather, regions, where methane is also formed. Efforts are being made
wind or long, complicated start-up processes, a characteristic to minimise this impact and research is being conducted to iden-
not shared by many other types of energy. Hydro power gene- tify additional ways to protect the ecosystem from the effects
ration can be increased, for instance, to cover shortfalls from of dam construction.2
wind power and other types of energy that cannot be directly Various types of waterways are sometimes built around
controlled, or from nuclear and coal power plants which take the power plants to facilitate fish migration. Whenever possi-
longer to get started. ble, spawning grounds that are affected by dam construction
are re-created in locations where they are not impacted by
Long useful life and low operating costs the power plant in the same way. Different fish have different
Hydro power plants are large structures and relatively expen- migratory patterns: species such as perch and pike need rela-
sive to build. But once the plant is in operation, hydro power is tively calm water without too much of a slope, while full-grown
extremely inexpensive. The plants are almost entirely automat- salmon need to be able to fight upstream and can jump up to two
ed, no fuel needs to be purchased and maintenance costs are metres. Therefore, several types of steeper fish ladders are nor-
relatively low. In addition, the useful life of a hydro power plant mally combined with flatter fish byways; i.e., man-made brooks
is long; many of the plants in operation today were built over and small waterways. There is extensive research on the ways
50 years ago and their useful life will continue for many years different species of fish are impacted by changes in water-
to come. Hydro power plants may seem expensive in terms of courses. Tagging fish with radio transmitters is a new method
construction, but investment costs are quickly recouped once being employed to learn more about fish migration.3
the plant is in operation. Old river channels are often not drained completely. Rath-
er, to make the environment more conducive for plant and ani-
Environmental consideration and fish conservation mal life, attempts are made to maintain a natural, though lower,
Hydro power is a renewable energy source that produces water flow. Areas containing particularly important habitats,
almost no emissions that impact the climate or the environment. biotopes and species are protected and many energy compa-
But construction of hydro power dams does meet resistance nies are working to restore environments that have been dam-
due to the fact that the dams have a significant impact on the aged by previous dam construction.
water flow of the rivers where they are built and on animal and Most countries have legislation in place that obliges hydro
plant life in the vicinity. power operators to raise and release fish to compensate for
The surface and depth of a dam varies greatly since the water the impact of hydro power plants on the fish stock. Many of the
level is determined by electricity output needs and the amount largest European fish farms are therefore operated by energy
of water that is allowed to pass through the power plant. Water companies.
level fluctuations cause nutrient transfer from the productive
Hydro power in European countries New technology brings more hydro power to Europe
All countries that have had the option of utilising hydro power Due to the fact that European hydro power is so well-developed,
have considered it obvious to do so. The wide variations in the investments in hydro power in Europe consist primarily of the
amount of hydro power used by different countries are due modernisation and capacity expansion of existing plants.
primarily to geographic, geological and economic factors, not There are also opportunities to expand small-scale hydro
to political decisions. power plants (plants with a capacity of up to 10 MW).
The construction of a large-scale hydro power plant requires
the right kind of watercourse, and these are not present in equal
measures throughout
the world. The propor- Share of hydro power in electricity generation (2008)
Much of the work associated tion of hydro power in
the energy mix of coun- %
with traditional hydro power
tries such as Sweden, 50
focuses on increasing the safety France and Austria, 45
of dams and minimising adverse which have large dif-
40
effects on the surrounding ferences in altitude
35
and suitable water-
natural environment. 30
courses, is therefore
very high. Hydro power 25
Waves generated by wind Pumping power increases a major advantage in terms of planning generation and main-
and currents carry enor- system reliability tenance. Tidal power plants have been used on a small scale
Hydro-pumping power sta- in places like France since the 1960s, though the potential of
mous amounts of energy
tions fill an important role in tidal power as a large-scale energy source is not entirely cer-
which, if harnessed, would the energy system as a way of tain. The main limitation is that very few locations are suitable
be a major contributor to storing energy and equalising for major tidal power plants: the difference in water level must
a carbon neutral energy electricity supply and demand. be substantial for the plant to be profitable.
system. When electricity generation is
high and consumption is low Osmotic power an innovative idea with great potential
(e.g., at night or during the Water can also generate energy in more surprising ways. One
summer months) the surplus is used to pump water into a higher hydro power variant considered as having great potential is
reservoir. When electricity demand is higher than generation osmotic power, sometimes called salinity power, a method of
(e.g., during the day or in winter) the water is released from the harnessing the energy released when fresh water is mixed with
higher reservoir and electricity is produced as in a conventional salt water. Osmotic power plants use the physical and chemical
hydro power plant. However, hydro-pumping power stations are phenomenon of osmosis.
net energy consumers, meaning that on average they consume When fresh water meets salt water (for example, when a river
more energy than they produce. flows out to the sea) enormous amounts of energy are released
Combining hydro-pumping power stations with solar power which can be converted to electricity. In an osmotic power plant,
stations and wind turbines is a method of producing renewa- fresh and salt water are directed into separate storage contai-
ble electricity that offers both security of supply and an even ners. The containers are separated by a semi-permeable mem-
generation rate regardless of weather conditions. This brane which lets through water molecules but not the larger salt
method utilises the renewable energy generated by wind molecules. The salt molecules in the salt water draw the fresh
and solar power and combines it with the pumping stations water through the membrane, creating osmotic pressure in the
capacity to store energy. In combination, the power stations salt water container. The pressure built up through this method
become a net energy producer. However, these efforts are still is equivalent to a water column of over 100 metres, and is then
in the developmental phase. used to power a turbine which generates electricity.
Osmotic power is a renewable energy source and could in
Ocean waves are an untapped resource theory be used everywhere fresh water flows into salt water.
The new hydro power variant that is considered to have the The potential is great, but the technology is still expensive. The
greatest potential is sea wave power. Waves generated by wind greatest challenge lies in improving the membranes and mak-
and currents carry enormous amounts of energy which, if har- ing them less expensive. The worlds first osmotic power plant,
nessed, would be a major contributor to a carbon neutral energy opened in 2009, is located outside of Oslo, Norway.
system. So far, wave power is in the developmental stage and
harnessing wave energy still presents technical challenges. New technologies on the way but the traditional ones
Wave power plants must be capable of producing a reasonable remain important
amount of power in light winds and small waves just as in stormy Although new technologies such as wave and osmotic power
weather and rough seas. They must also be able to handle have great potential, they are still under development. Their
the physical strain the ocean exposes them to, and must have a significance in future energy systems is hard to predict. In the
minimal impact on animal and plant life. But progress is rapid and immediate future, small-scale hydro power will probably be the
major research projects are underway in several countries.8 hydro power variant that will contribute most to increasing the
amount of renewable electricity, provided that policy frame-
Tidal energy a blend of old and new technology works are developed and administrative processes improved.
Tidal energy uses the difference in water level height between Meanwhile, large-scale hydro power will remain the most impor-
high and low tides as well as the currents created by tides in tant renewable energy source in the European energy mix.
bays or along coasts. Tidal currents are extremely predictable,
Akkats power plant located in Jokkmokk, north of the Arctic Circle. Akkats forms the gateway to the Swedish Great Lakes
and Laponia World Heritage Site.
SUMMARY
g ?988=092:;068:;2689;7;9070=-
able energy source in the EUs energy
Vattenfalls hydro power operations going forward mix. In 2008 hydro power accounted for
Hydro power is increasingly attractive, particularly in light of the fact that the French approximately 11 per cent of the EUs elec-
market is opening up to competition. As one of Europes largest operators, Vatten- tricity generation and about 60 per cent of
fall has a clear competitive advantage. Vattenfall will continue to keep hydro power total renewable electricity generation
growth options open. g ?988=0957;:7/0:0/8;;8
Vattenfall is investing in modernising and upgrading existing hydro power plants, generate baseload power (the amount of
30 or so of which will be upgraded between 2004 and 2014. Vattenfall is also con- electricity that is always needed) and as
ducting a comprehensive dam safety programme. The Abelvattnet power plant, balancing power (electricity output that
in Storuman in northern Sweden, will be Vattenfalls first newly constructed hydro can quickly be turned on and off to meet
variations in demand and supply)
power plant in over 15 years.
The share of hydro power in Vattenfalls electricity generation is expected to g ?988=0957;27809;2872:<09?
inexpensive. The plants are almost entirely
fall to just over half of its current level by 2030. This is not due to a reduction in
automated, no fuel needs to be purchased
hydro power generation, but to the fact that hydro power is already well-developed.
and maintenance costs are relatively low.
Simply put, there are few opportunities to build more or to expand existing hydro
Hydro power plants are expensive to build,
power plants as the demand for electricity rises. Increases in electricity generation but the useful life is long
will therefore come primarily from other types of energy.
g ?988=09980:/:255?78062:-
sions that impact the climate or the envi-
ronment. But construction of hydro power
dams have a significant impact on the
water flow of the rivers where they are built
and on animal and plant life in the vicinity.
Efforts are being made to minimise this
impact and research is being conducted
to identify additional ways to protect the
ecosystem from the effects of dam con-
struction
g #0 0<058607; 7 2790:0 :0 81
new hydro power technologies, such as
wave power, pumping power stations and
osmotic power, will be essential elements
in achieving a sustainable energy system
in the future. However, traditional large-
scale hydro power will in all likelihood
remain the most important renewable
energy source in the European energy mix
g %;;07155:07;9?587988;:27?98
power and currently owns and operates
over one hundred hydro power plants. As
one of Europes largest operators, Vatten-
fall has a clear competitive advantage.
Footnotes Hydro power Vattenfall will continue to keep its hydro
1
Statistics Sweden, SCB, Trade in Goods and Services, 6
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Energy power growth options open
Foreign Trade Committee, About Hydro Power, 2009
2
You can read more about climate effects of land 7
IEA Statistics, op.cit.
inundation on IPCCs webpage, www.ipcc.ch 8
Read more about the Lysekil Wave Power Project at:
3
Read more about Vattenfalls environmental and fish http://www.el.angstrom.uu.se/forskningsprojekt/
conservation efforts in Vattenfalls 2009 CSR Report WavePower/Lysekilsprojektet_E.html
4
IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation, 2010,
www.iea.org
5
Ibid.
Combustion of natural gas emits CO2, though to a lesser extent than combus-
tion of other fossil fuels. Natural gas can thus be a transition fuel in the conver-
sion to a sustainable energy system. The role of natural gas as balancing power
will also be increasingly important as renewable energy sources with fluctuat-
ing production, such as solar and wind power, gain significance.
Natural gas allows a high degree of flexibility in electri- Natural gas is a more expensive energy source than
city generation, enabling it to function as balancing other fossil fuels and is subject to significant price
power. Supplies can be somewhat uncertain, and some variations. Natural gas will become more competitive
regions that export natural gas face political insta- as CO2 prices rise.
bility. The development of unconventional shale gas
may serve to decrease these uncertainties. Techno-
logical advances will allow a greater amount of natural
gas to be extracted with more efficient and inexpen-
sive methods, increasing security of supply.
Europe &
North America Eurasia
Middle East
Central &
South America
In the 1870s, district heating began to spread throughout methods. With advanced technologies and expanded natural
North America (as well as South America, Europe, Asia and gas exploration, it is estimated that enough natural gas will be
Australia), though it would take some time before the construc- able to be extracted to meet demand for the next 100 years and
tion of distribution networks was commenced. At that time, gas more.3
was primarily used for lighting and also for internal combustion
engines, stoves and water heaters. The commercial use of gas Europes natural gas network
began in earnest after the Second World War. A few years later, In Europe, the expansion of distribution networks for dis-
in the 1960s, gas began to be used in Europe. trict heating was crucial for the growth of gas consumption.
District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a
Extraction and deposits in the world centralised location, usually using water as medium. Wooden
Natural gas was traditionally viewed primarily as a by-product pipes were initially used for distribution, later replaced by pipes
of oil, and most of the currently known natural gas deposits have made of copper, lead, cast iron and steel. The district heating
been located while exploring for oil. Since gas has become more networks were later converted into a natural gas network.
attractive, for both climate and economic reasons, interest in Interest in natural gas as an energy source increased during
pure natural gas deposits has increased. the oil crisis in the 1970s, when import dependence became
Natural gas is extracted in several countries in the world. The problematic and self-sufficiency became more important. This
largest natural gas producers in 2008 were Russia, the US and resulted, among other things, in large-scale drilling for oil and
Iran.1 But Europe also has large natural gas deposits. Norway and gas in the North Sea.
Great Britain, for example, are large natural gas producers. The
discovery of natural gas near Groningen, Holland, in the 1950s European gas market reform
launched the expansion of Western Europes natural gas network. Natural gas systems are normally large-scale and can be
The discovery of natural gas via prospecting is accelerating considered natural mono-
even more rapidly, by global standards, than extraction. The IEA polies controlled by national
estimates that current known natural gas reserves and those governments. However, EU Interest in natural gas as an
that can be extracted with todays technology will be enough reforms in recent years energy source increased
to meet natural gas demand for several decades.2 Over half of aimed at creating a common
during the oil crisis in the
these resources are located in three countries: Russia, Iran and EU natural gas market have
Qatar. resulted in a freer gas mar- 1970s, when import depen-
Gas deposits are usually classified in two groups: conventional ket with fewer elements of dence became problematic
and unconventional. Gas in conventional deposits is of high government control and and self sufficiency became
quality and is relatively easy and inexpensive to extract. regulation within member more important.
Conventional deposits are often found in connection with oil states.
deposits. Only a small fraction of the worlds natural gas The first EU directive to
resources are found in conventional deposits, but it is from liberalise the natural gas markets was adopted in 1998 following
these deposits that the greatest amount of natural gas is years of discussions. Another major step in implementing a com-
extracted today. The majority of the worlds natural gas is found mon EU natural gas market was the gas market framework that
in unconventional deposits, where the gas is located in other came into effect on 1 July 2005. The market was fully opened as of
types of rock (e.g., shale or methane hydrate, a type of methane- 1 July 2007.4
bearing ice). The deregulations, which apply to the European energy
Unconventional deposits are typically more difficult and market as a whole, are aimed at guaranteeing access to energy
more expensive to exploit, though technology is advancing at a through integration and at producing long-term, profitable
rapid pace. Technological advances allow a greater amount of competitiveness on the energy markets.
natural gas to be extracted with more efficient and inexpensive
Liquefaction plant
Transport Consumers
Regasification
Consumers
extraction was flared, leading to significant carbon dioxide in the same way and in the same types of power plants and net-
emissions. Today, the goal is to capture all of the natural gas that works. Current expansion of the existing natural gas network
is extracted. will therefore facilitate a smooth transition to biogas as biogas
production is stepped up.
Transport and distribution of natural gas
Natural gas can be handled in two ways after it is pumped up out
of the bedrock. The least expensive, easiest and most common
way is to transport the gas in large pipelines. If the gas deposit
is too far away from the users, or if it is difficult to build a piping
system for other reasons, the gas is converted to liquid form,
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas), and is then transported by tanker.
Natural gas is converted to LNG by compressing the gas and
chilling it down to minus 162C. One cubic metre of LNG cor-
responds to as much as 600 cubic metres of natural gas. The
process is relatively expensive and energy-intensive, and trans-
port via pipeline is therefore preferable wherever possible. LNG
is also utilised as a method of storing natural gas.
The gas is transported from extraction site to distribution
network via transmission lines. These pipelines are usually
around one metre in diameter and are placed along the ocean
floor, on land or buried underground. Pressure in the pipelines,
approximately 40-100 bars, transports the gas. LNG is trans-
ported by specially constructed tankers to ports that are linked
to the distribution networks. It is then heated at special heating Natural gas becomes electricity and heat
facilities and reconverted to gas form, so that it can be trans- Electricity generation is one of the primary application fields
ported via pipelines. As LNG technology facilitates transports for natural gas. Gas turbines and condensing power plants are
over long distances, it has the potential to connect markets the two most common methods. In a gas turbine, gas is igni-
that were formerly isolated and to diversify possible natural ted under pressure and combustible high-pressure, high-tem-
gas trade routes. Natural gas transported in pipelines is a fairly perature gases are produced. The combustible gases power a
regional product while LNG is an international commodity. As turbine, which in turn powers a generator. Often, the gases are
such, LNG technology has the potential to have a major impact then directed to a waste heat boiler, where the remaining heat
on the global market conditions for natural gas. and pressure can be used to produce more electricity and heat
When the gas is passed from seller to buyer, the volume is for, e.g., the district heating network.
measured and odour compounds are added to facilitate the In a condensing power plant, electricity is generated by
identification of any leaks. Finally, the gas is transported through heating water to produce steam which, via a turbine, powers
smaller pipelines to control centres where pressure is lowered a generator. Natural gas is one of the fuels used by condensing
and the gas is measured again before being transported to con- power plants; oil and coal are also used. Nuclear power plants
sumers. Pressure at this stage is approximately four bar, roughly are another type of condensing power plant.
the same amount of pressure as in an inflated bicycle tyre. If the Another significant application field for natural gas is district
gas is to be used by smaller consumers, the gas pressure is low- heat production. Natural gas is used as a fuel by district heat-
ered a bit more before it reaches private households. ing plants to heat the water that is used in the district heating
There is a risk of leakage during both the transport and the network.
use of natural gas, though risk is minimised by security devi- Combined heat and power (CHP) systems are finding appli-
ces. Pipelines are buried, and no buildings are permitted within a cations in commercial, industrial, and even residential settings.
certain safety area. Historically, there have been very few acci- CHP utilises more of the energy contained in natural gas than
dents involving natural gas. does a simple gas turbine, thereby improving energy efficien-
Natural gas and biogas are both composed primarily of meth- cy and requiring less energy to start with. CHP also emits less,
ane and are very similar in nature; the difference between them since less natural gas is used.
is in how they are produced. Natural gas and biogas can be used
more expensive to emit CO2, power production with natural gas towards it, and vice versa. Proponents argue that natural gas
also becomes more expensive since gas is a fossil fuel. On the can function as a bridge to entirely fossil-free power genera-
other hand, price increases for coal and oil are even more pro- tion; its high efficiency levels mean increased energy efficien-
nounced. Natural gas thus becomes more expensive relative to cy, and it emits less CO2. Opponents argue that natural gas is
renewable energy sources, but less expensive relative to other nonetheless a fossil gas and that an expansion of natural gas
fossil fuels. It is therefore difficult to predict how natural gas distribution would risk pulling the rug out from under renewable
demand is impacted by the cost of CO2 emissions. sources of energy such as wind power.
Natural gas competes with various other energy sources in Meanwhile, the political situation in Europe is tense. The
different areas of the world and depending on field of applica- Ukraine-Russia conflict is an indication of this, and also serves
tion. In terms of electricity generation, natural gas competes to expose the EUs energy vulnerability. The conflict began in
primarily with coal, oil and nuclear power. Within industry, gas 2005 when Russia cut off its gas deliveries to Ukraine. Rus-
competes chiefly with oil, coal and electricity. In households, sia was accused of disproportionately raising the price of gas
gass main competitors are oil and electricity. Gas power plants while Gazprom, a Russian state-run energy company, accused
are relatively simple to run, technological risks are minor, and Ukraine of stealing gas. The gas conflict between the two coun-
production lead times are short. Combined with low investment tries has been recurrent since then.
costs, this means that gas-fired power plants are an economi- Although there are opportunities for the EU to increase its
cal alternative if gas prices arent too high. imports from North Africa and Central Asia, it is difficult for indi-
vidual countries to achieve greater diversification on their own.
The development of public opinion and policy This is one of the driving forces behind the EUs common energy
Natural gas is not as central to public opinion on energy and the policy.
environment as, for example, nuclear power. But public opinion
on natural gas has one thing in common with nuclear power:
the countries that use it in great quantities are more positive
Vattenfalls natural gas operations Vattenfalls natural gas operations going forward
Natural gas can play a crucial role in efforts to reduce CO2 emis- Gas-fired power is a bridging fuel to a sustainable energy sys-
sions. Vattenfall is active in all parts of the gas value chain, from tem. As CO2 prices increase, natural gas will become increasingly
gas extraction to storage, trade and delivery to end consumers. attractive and competitive relative to, for instance, coal-fired
Natural gas currently accounts for a relatively small proportion power plants. Vattenfalls natural gas investments are crucial as
of Vattenfalls total electricity generation, which comes prima- the energy source is a transitional fuel in the shift to low-emitting
rily from the acquisition of the Dutch energy company Nuon. technologies. Although natural gas accounts for a relatively small
Through the acquisition of Nuon, Vattenfall established a signi- portion of Vattenfalls energy mix, it is a priority investment area
ficant position across the gas value chain in Northwest Europe. over the next few years. Nearly 20 per cent of Vattenfalls invest-
In 2009, Vattenfall produced 9 TWh of electricity and 6.3 TWh ment programme (approximately SEK 40 billion) will be focused
of heat using natural gas. For a full list of Vattenfalls natural gas on natural gas during this period. The investments deal primarily
power plants, please see the production site at www.vattenfall. with operations in the Netherlands, and will increase generation
com/powerplants. capacity and strengthen security of supply.
SUMMARY
g ;95:2:18::2510518960;98
the slow decomposition of biological mat-
Toward a climate neutral energy supply ter over millions of years
Vattenfall pursues ongoing efforts to switch over to low-emitting energy sources
g ;95:2:98=270709?:89027
such as nuclear power and various renewable energy sources. At the same time Europe that is economically attractive and
many of Vattenfalls markets, such as Germany, Poland and the Netherlands, cur- provides flexibility and security of supply.
rently rely heavily on fossil fuels for their energy supply. In pace with technological The flexibility of natural gas makes it suit-
advances, these sources will be replaced with renewable fuels. But it is impossible to able to use as balancing power
achieve change of this magnitude overnight. Lead times in the energy industry are g ;95:2:0>;9;027:0<09587;920:
long and it simply takes time to build new power plants, fuel delivery systems, secu- in the world. The largest natural gas produ-
rity devices and everything else needed to produce heat and electricity. cers in 2008 were Russia, the US and Iran.
In order to maintain a secure energy supply at reasonable prices, we need tran- Norway, Great Britain and the Netherlands
sitional solutions that reduce emissions to the greatest extent possible without are also large natural gas producers
affecting security of supply or competitiveness in the energy system. Natural gas g ;95:2:<09:;2500709?:890;
can play a significant role as a transitional solution. Since it is efficient, safe and is used in a variety of industrial processes
just as easy to use as other fossil fuels, while emitting fewer greenhouse gases and and is converted into heat and electricity. It
heavy metals, an increased use of natural gas is one way to reduce CO2 emissions is also used in households for heating and
while maintaining a stable energy supply at a reasonable price. Another important cooking. Fuel is another application field
aspect of natural gas is its flexibility, which makes it suitable to use as balancing g ;95:7/28:90/8;868:0
power. Electricity generation using natural gas is easy to ramp up and down to bal- primarily of methane and are very similar in
ance intermittent electricity generation from energy sources such as wind power nature. Natural gas and biogas can be used
and solar power, an aspect that will be increasingly important as these energy in the same way and in the same types of
sources gain significance. power plants and networks
g 77;95:87;018998>-
imately 24 per cent of the EU s electricity
generation mix, compared to 21 per cent
globally
g 860:;2 9807 : 0>;9;287 2:
steadily declining. The EU will have to
increase its natural gas imports merely to
maintain current consumption levels
g ;95:9907;5?87;:189905-
tively small portion of Vattenfalls energy
mix but is a priority area for investment
over the next few years
70 | SIX
SIX FORMS
SOURCES
OF OF ENERGY
ENERGY
ONE ENERGY SYSTEM | 71
NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear power emits low levels of CO2 across the life cycle. The management
of spent, highly radioactive nuclear fuel requires storage in secure facilities for
up to 100,000 years. Uranium mining interferes with nature, though damage to
the landscape is repaired after mining is completed.
Nuclear power provides stable and large-scale elec- Nuclear power is a cost-competitive energy source,
tricity generation, and fuel availability is stable. Ura- with relatively low costs for fuel, operation and main-
nium, used as fuel in the reactor, is commonly found tenance. The construction of a new nuclear power
in nature and is geographically distributed. Reactors plant requires major investments, but these invest-
must be taken offline periodically for refuelling and ments are recovered through the plants large pro-
the performance of maintenance required by high duction volumes and long useful life.
safety standards. These outages may be prolonged
if significant modernisation work is required, but this
can be planned well in advance.
Massive nuclear expansion in the 1960s and 1970s Nuclear accidents impacted public opinion
The development of nuclear power proceeded for a long time Public opinion in the western world grew more critical of nuclear
in parallel with the development of nuclear weapons. Many of power in the mid 1970s. There was a fear of accidents and an
Calder Hall in the UK was the worlds first nuclear power plant for large-scale electricity generation. It was completed in 1956.
uncertainty as to the handling of radioactive waste. The spirit Comprehensive safety developments
of the times also made nuclear power a symbol of growth and Nuclear power plant safety has been an important element of
consumption which was rejected by people of many different nuclear power development; todays safety systems are the
political affiliations. Nuclear powers link to nuclear weapons result of long, intensive research. These results include safety
was also detrimental to its image. routines for nuclear power plants employees, the development
Criticism was heightened on 28 March 1979, when the Three of new, more durable, materials that encapsulate the fuel pel-
Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania lets in the reactor and improvements to the systems that pre-
in the USA suffered a series of technical errors which resulted vent or mitigate accidents.
in a partial meltdown. One reactor was destroyed, but no radio- Safety development applies both to operating plants, which
active material leaked out and no people were injured. Even so, have been improved through investment programmes, and
the accident had a major impact on the public debate and policy plants under construction which include safety features in the
development, and was the direct cause of the 23 March 1980 original design. Significant improvements have also been intro-
referendum in Sweden on the future of nuclear power. duced to plant security; i.e., protection against malevolent acts.
A serious nuclear accident occurred at Chernobyl in northern Major improvements have also taken place in education,
Ukraine in 1986. The accident was the result of a poorly planned training, preparation and international co-operation. The UNs
and executed experiment in combination with several technical International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was founded in
errors and disconnected emergency systems. The reactor in which 1957 for the purpose of strengthening and developing nuclear
the accident occurred was of a special design that was only used power safety through the transfer of information and expe-
in the former Soviet Union. The uranium fuel became overheated rience between nuclear power countries. Different types of
and melted, the surrounding graphite ignited and large portions of national safety authorities have been created, and safety provi-
the power plant exploded due to the heat and the reaction between sions for nuclear power plants are very advanced today.
graphite and steam. The ensuing fire lasted for one week, and radio-
active material spread over large parts of Europe. One reason for
such a wide spread of radioactivity was that the Chernobyl reactor
did not have a leak-proof containment structure surrounding the
reactor, something that all existing power plants have today.
Thirty people were immediately killed in the accident and 134
people received acute radiation injuries. Increased incidents
of thyroid cancer have been discovered in nearby areas in the
former Soviet Union and have been linked to the Chernobyl acci-
dent. Pressure around the world to phase out nuclear power
increased after the accident, and Italy had closed down all of its
four reactors by 1990.2
Conclusions based on both the Three Mile Island and Cher-
nobyl accidents have resulted in additional safety improve-
ments in operating nuclear power plants.
Public attitudes to nuclear power have become more positive
in recent years and several countries have decided to replace
old reactors or expand nuclear power capacity. The positive
public opinion trend is similar across Europe, though there are
distinct differences in the level of public support for nuclear
power between countries. In general, opinion is more positive
in countries that have their own nuclear power plants, such as
Sweden, Finland and France. In September 2010, the German
government agreed to repeal the parliamentary resolution that
called for the phase-out of nuclear power in Germany by 2025.
nuclear waste. Most consists of low- or medium-active waste ar fuel radiation. Since the half-life (the time it takes for radi-
such as used protective clothing, mechanical equipment that oactive material to lose half of its radioactivity) of high-active
may have been contaminated, and filters. Some of this waste waste is often very long, the waste must be isolated for at least
is so safe that it can be treated as ordinary waste after being 100,000 years.
sorted and washed. Medium-active waste must be isolated for Before the high-active spent nuclear fuel is isolated it is
about five hundred years before it is no longer considered ha- treated to make it less radioactive. To reduce radioactivity and
zardous. During this time it must be radiation-shielded, which make the fuel easier to manage, it is brought to interim storage
is done by sealing it in steel or concrete containers which are facilities. There it is stored in deep water reservoirs for thirty to
stored in rock shelters or under the sea bed. fifty years, until approximately 90 per cent of the radiation has
Demolition waste consists of metal and concrete residue dissipated. After that, it is ready for terminal storage.
from the demolition of a nuclear power plant. Most is low- and In many countries, the main solution for isolating spent nucle-
medium-active waste but some, such as structures that have ar fuel is geologic terminal storage. With this method, the fuel is
been close to the core and other components of the core, is encased in various types of protective material such as cop-
long-lived and must be isolated for thousands of years. per-clad cast iron. These capsules are then stored, surrounded
The spent nuclear fuel, which is highly radioactive, accounts by clay, in vaults or tunnels drilled 400 to 1,000 metres under-
for 99 per cent of the radiation but only around five per cent of ground. This type of terminal storage is being built in several
the total volume of nuclear waste. Several metres of water or areas but is not yet operational for use.
several decimetres of steel are needed to contain the nucle-
Pressure
vessel
Reactor
Condenser
Fuel element
(uranium)
Sea water
The reactor contains uranium and water. When the uranium atoms are split, the and when the steam meets the cold tubes it is chilled and condensed (i.e., it is
energy released heats the water to 325C. The high pressure within the reac- reconverted to water). The sea water is then pumped back into the sea and is
tor, regulated by the pressurisation vessel, prevents the water from boiling. 10C warmer than when it entered the condenser.
The hot water from the reactor transfers heat to the water circuit of the steam The water is pumped back from the steam generators into the reactor to be
generator. Steam is formed here, since the pressure is lower. Pressure from reheated and begin a new cycle. The water in the reactor thus circulates in a
the steam causes the turbine blades to rotate. The turbine powers the electric closed cycle, so neither the steam generators water circuit nor the cooling sea
generator which generates electricity. The steam is then conducted to a con- water come in contact with water from the reactor.
denser composed of many small tubes. Sea water is pumped through the tubes,
50
Nuclear power on the rise
During the 1980s, several countries decided to introduce a
40
ban on the construction of new nuclear power plants and to
phase out existing reactors. But views on nuclear power have
30
changed, and discussions on new nuclear projects have com-
menced in several European countries.
20
In 2002, Finlands Parliament gave the green light to the
construction of a new nuclear reactor at the existing Olkiluoto
10
power plant. This decision marked a turning point in the trend
that has characterised energy development in Europe in recent
0
decades. After Finlands decision, several other European coun-
n Denmark 0% n Netherlands 4% n Sweden 43%
tries, including Great Britain, Poland and Italy, started planning n France 76% n Poland 0% n UK 13%
the construction of new reactors. n Germany 23% n Spain 19% n Finland 30%
Great Britain was the first country to use nuclear power for
large-scale electricity generation and it currently has a relative- Source: IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation, 2010
Constructing a new reactor Due to the renewed inte- Storage of spent nuclear fuel
rest in nuclear power plant The long-term management of radioactive waste is a key issue
requires a substantial invest-
construction, deliver times in the planning of new nuclear plants. Spent nuclear fuel and
ment, but the useful life of a are long for some of the radioactive waste are handled at the nuclear power plants and
reactor is long. The life cycle of large components that by specialist organisations tasked with providing longer-term
a nuclear power plant, from are difficult and time-con- interim storage and deploying and operating final repositories.
construction through close-down, suming to manufacture; The internationally preferred option is a geological repository
for example, reactor pres- located several hundred metres underground. Sweden, Fin-
is between 80 and 90 years.
sure vessels. This problem land and France are leading the way in the development of and
can be solved by ordering licensing processes for this type of final repository, which will
such components early. allow the industry to meet long-term safety requirements that
Also essential to nuclear power projects is the availability of may exceed 100,000 years. Costs incurred by waste manage-
skilled personnel and the expertise to install and operate the ment as well as for future decommissioning of nuclear power
reactor. Experienced project managers and skilled welders are plants are included in financial and operational calculations.
needed during the construction phase and specialised engi-
neers and technicians are needed for operation and mainte-
nance.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
Source: Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Engineering Division
Vattenfalls nuclear power operations The Krmmel nuclear power plant in Geesthacht, east of
Vattenfall owns ten nuclear reactors (one with a minority stake). Hamburg, is the largest of Vattenfalls reactors with an installed
Seven of these are located in Sweden (four at Ringhals, three capacity of nearly 1,350 MW. The reactor has been in operation
at Forsmark), and three in Germany (Brunsbttel, Krmmel since 1984. The reactor at the Brunsbttel plant west of Ham-
and Brokdorf). Reactors 1 and 2 at Ringhals nuclear power burg is the smallest of Vattenfalls reactors in terms of installed
plant, south of Gothenburg in Sweden, were Vattenfalls first capacity.
two reactors and have been in operation since 1976 and 1975, Vattenfall is engaged in continuous safety efforts at all of its
respectively. Since 2003, Vattenfall and other joint owners of power plants, and has invested several billion SEK to enhance
the Swedish nuclear power plants have made safety improve- safety. Additional investments will be made to complete these
ments and life extension investments in the Swedish reactors. enhancements by 2015. Vattenfall owns the uranium used as
These investment programmes are now approaching their con- fuel, from point of extraction through the entire fuel cycle, and
cluding phases. can therefore impose comprehensive monitoring and control
SUMMARY
g 509 8=09 2: 860;2;2<0 0709?
source with relatively low costs for fuel,
procedures. Vattenfall imposes strict CSR requirements on its uranium suppliers.16 operation and maintenance. Construct-
For a full list of Vattenfalls nuclear power plants, please see the production site ing a nuclear power plant is expensive and
at www.vattenfall.com/powerplants. time-consuming, but the useful life of a
power plant is very long, up to 60 years
Vattenfalls nuclear power operations going forward g 5098=0998<20::;/507590
Nuclear power is gaining support in Europe and, as one of Europes prominent scale electricity generation
nuclear operators, Vattenfall is in an advantageous position. Nuclear power pro-
g 509 8=09 062;: 58= 50<05: 81 2
duces a secure supply of electricity, is economically competitive and has low CO2 across the life cycle. Uranium mining inter-
emissions. Vattenfall therefore considers nuclear power to be a crucial part of the feres with nature, though damage to the
energy system of the future. landscape is repaired after mining is com-
Nuclear power is an important component in Vattenfalls efforts towards a pleted
carbon neutral operation, as well as the EUs 2020 goals to reduce climate impact.
g 5098=0987;:189985?09
Several countries, including France and Finland, are building new nuclear reactors cent of the EUs electricity generation, but
and in many other countries, including Sweden, the issue is being discussed. Vatten- the significance of nuclear powers role
fall welcomes an expansion of European nuclear power and the development of varies widely among European countries
tomorrows nuclear technology, and will keep its options for growth in the field of
g #0 587;096 670607; 81 928-
nuclear power open.
tive waste is a key issue in the planning of
new nuclear plants. Much of the hazardous
waste is handled in direct connection to
the plant, while the most hazardous por-
tions are isolated for several thousand
years in geological final disposal reposi-
tories. Waste management and power
plant demolition are included in financial
and operational calculations starting in
the waste planning phase
g 5098=092:2727:89;27980
and Vattenfall is one of the prominent
European nuclear operators. Vattenfall
welcomes an expansion of European
nuclear power and the development of
tomorrows nuclear technology. Stan-
dardisation of designs and harmonisation
of requirements imposed on the plants are
key factors to success
Footnotes Nuclear power g %;;07155 26: ;8 627;27 2;: 9907;
1
International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy 11
You can read more about nuclear safety and nuclear
Outlook 2010 power in different countries on World Nuclear
nuclear power generation in Sweden and
2
You can read more about nuclear safety and nuclear Associations webpage, www.world-nuclear.org Germany and to keep its replacement and
power in different countries on World Nuclear 12
Ibid.
growth options open
Associations webpage, www.world-nuclear.org 13
Ibid.
3
World Nuclear Association, World Nuclear Power 14
You can read more about The Generation IV Inter-
Reactors (2010), www.world nuclear.org, national Forum on their webpage, www.gen-4.org
(November, 2010) 15
You can read more about nuclear safety and nuclear
4
IEA, op. cit. power in different countries on World Nuclear
5
World Nuclear Association, op. cit. Associations webpage, www.world-nuclear.org
6
IEA, op. cit. 16
You can read more Vattenfalls nuclear fuel
7
World Nuclear Association, op. cit. procurement on Vattenfalls webpage,
8
IEA, op. cit. www.vattenfall.com
9
World Nuclear Association, op. cit.
10
IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation 2010,
www.iea.org
Wind power is a renewable energy source that emits essentially no CO2 across
the life cycle. Wind turbines do have an impact on the landscape, which some
people may find disturbing.
Wind resources are renewable, and do not increase Wind power has no fuel costs, though total cost per
import dependency. They can thus be securely deve- produced kilowatt hour is high due to significant invest-
loped. But wind power is dependent on available wind, ment costs and the need for network capacity invest-
and excessively high wind speeds require tempo- ments for new wind farms. Today, wind power is there-
rary stops in electricity generation. New wind power fore largely dependent on support systems. Larger
developments must therefore target areas with reli- investments are required for offshore wind farms than
able and predictable winds. for land-based ones. Technological development and
an increase in the price of CO2 emissions will make wind
power more cost-competitive.
Airbus 320
wing span 34 m
4.5 MW
5.0 MW
Rotor diameter
Capacity
126 m
2.0 MW
112 m
15 m 1.3 MW
0.5 MW 0.5 MW
Offshore substation
Control centre
operational problem arises, the control system can identify it transformer from which a cable connects the wind farm to the
immediately and send an error message to the control centre. onshore electricity grid.
Regular inspections are carried out by specially trained staff On those occasions when the wind is not strong enough,
as part of ongoing operational and security work. These spe- other types of energy are used as balancing power. Natural
cialists make sure that all equipment is in top condition, repla- gas is often used as balancing power in Germany and the UK.
cing various machine components as needed to ensure optimal In Sweden, balancing power is often synonymous with hydro
operation and generation. power. More water is drained from reservoirs when the wind is
weak. Similarly, water can be conserved when wind is strong.
Wind farms
Wind turbines are often situated in groups, or wind farms, either Good wind position is a projects first step
on- or offshore. A large wind farm may consist of hundreds of In order for a wind farm to be profitable, it must have a good wind
individual wind turbines, inter- position. Computer programmes that can calculate theoretical
connected by a transmission wind energy based on terrain and above-ground altitude are
Extensive calculations are system. used to identify areas with good wind positions. After an area
performed when planning wind Extensive calculations are has been identified, a thorough examination is made of the geo-
farm locations. Parameters performed when planning wind graphical surroundings, existing roads, electricity grids, prox-
studied include wind efficiency farm locations. Parameters imity to residences, acceptance among local residents, flora
studied include wind efficien- and fauna and any restricted areas. Winning the acceptance
at specific locations and above- cy at specific locations and of nearby residents can sometimes be a major challenge when
ground altitude. Factors such above-ground altitude. Factors planning the construction of a new wind farm.
as bird life and distance to such as bird life and distance to Before deciding on a location for a wind farm, theoretical
residential areas are also taken residential areas are also taken wind energy calculations must be checked by measuring wind
into consideration. at the location. Wind measurements are normally taken with
into consideration.
In wind farms, turbines cup anemometers (wind gauges) mounted in a measuring mast.
are ideally spaced four to 10 The anemometer is placed at several different altitudes and
rotor diameters apart, depending on the prevailing wind. This measurements are taken over a long period of time in order to
minimises efficiency losses caused by turbine interference. assess the sites wind characteristics.
Optimal geographic areas for wind power are often in coas-
Wind power and electricity generation tal and open landscape areas where winds are strong. Offshore
Wind turbines can only produce electricity when the wind speed sites away from the coast are usually optimal in terms of wind
is right. When there is light or no wind, turbines rest in standby strength. At the same time, it is important that turbines are
mode. When wind blows to a sufficient degree, approximately located relatively close to roads and power lines so that they
4 m/s, the turbine starts operating automatically and feeds can be serviced and so that cables can be installed to transport
electricity into the grid. It operates at full power when winds are the generated electricity.
around 12 to 14 m/s. In strong winds (wind speeds in excess of
around 25 m/s) the loads are so great that the turbine is shut off
to prevent unnecessary wear and tear.
Wind turbines in a wind farm are connected through an inter-
nal grid that feeds the produced electricity to a transformer
station. The transformer station increases the electricitys vol-
tage (e.g., from the internal grids 30 kV to 130 kV for the regional
grid) and the electricity is then transported to a nearby regional
grid through a connection point. Individual turbines can also be
connected directly to local grids.
Special facilities are required for offshore wind farms. In
most cases, turbines feed produced electricity to an offshore
MW
80,000
74,767
70,000
64,719
60,000
56,517
50,000
48,031
40,000
40,500
34,372
30,000
24,491
23,098
20,000
3,476
17,315
3,476
3,476
10,000
12,887
3,476
2,497
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Source: European Wind Energy Association, Wind in power 2009 European statistics
Extensive authorisation process in European countries mission can also be difficult to meet. In the Netherlands and
To plan, obtain permissions for and build a wind farm is a long- Sweden, there is a great degree of local authority over the plan-
drawn-out process in most European countries. A project may ning process. In the Netherlands, municipalities need to actively
take anywhere from two to 10 years from initial planning to con- plan to set up a wind farm; if they are passive on the issue, they
struction start, depending mainly on issues related to obtain- are saying No for all practical purposes. In Sweden, munici-
ing planning permissions. Planning is done in close dialogue and palities have the authority to veto planned wind power projects
consultation with local authorities, local residents, the gene- within their own borders.
ral public and other stakeholders. Consideration is taken of In Denmark, which has seen dramatic wind power expan-
the natural and cultural environment. The area where the tur- sion, local authorities are legally required to mark out areas for
bines will stand is thoroughly inspected and possible impact on setting up wind turbines. This has worked particularly well
humans, animals and plants in the area is assessed. in Denmark where municipalities have generally worked co-
The process of obtaining planning permission differs from operatively.
country to country. The terms and conditions for obtaining per-
Wind power installed capacity in Europe (2009) Wind power share of total electricity generation (2008)
Germany 34% %
(25,777 MW) 20
Netherlands 3%
(2,229 MW) 18
16
Denmark 5%
(3,535 MW) 14
12
Portugal 5%
(3,535 MW) 10
8
UK 5%
(4,051 MW) 6
2
France 6%
(4,492 MW) 0
n Denmark 19% n Netherlands 4% n Sweden 1%
n France 1% n Poland 1% n UK 2%
Italy 6% n Germany 6% n Spain 10% n Finland 0%
(4,850 MW)
Spain 26%
(19,149 MW)
Source: EWEA Annual Report 2009 Source: IEA Statistics, Electricity Generation, 2010
is used (lowering the risk of conflict with nearby residents or EU continues to invest in wind power
other stakeholders). At the close of 2009, offshore wind power The EU has set a number of targets to be met by 2020. One of
accounted for less than three per cent of the EUs total wind these targets is that renewable energy will constitute 20 per
power inventory, though forecasts indicate that offshore wind cent of all energy consumed within the EU by 2020. In a recent
power will be greater than land-based by around 2030. EU Commission scenario, wind power is expected to account
Future wind power research and development will focus on for 14 per cent of electricity consumed within the EU by 2020.10
things such as wind farm optimisation, increased reliability and As an increasingly large share of the EUs electricity is derived
efficiency. There are also ambitions to reduce wind powers from wind power as opposed to fossil fuels, relative carbon
dependence on maintenance and to make it easier to assemble. emissions are reduced.
Finally, extensive research is being conducted on future elec- The European Commission has initiated a research pro-
tricity grids, as increased wind power generation will place new gramme aimed at improving the technological performance of
demands on functionality. turbines while improving economic conditions. The research
programme comprises six billion EUR through 2020.11 In addi-
New demands on future electricity system smart grids tion to increasing the share of renewable energy and lowering
The electricity grids across Europe today are primarily adapted CO2 emissions, the programme will create several thousand
to electricity from a few large power plants. They are one-way new jobs within the wind power industry. At the same time, the
grids, providing distribution networks with electricity. Future number of jobs in the fossil fuel sector will decrease as demand
energy systems will place new demands on the electricity sys- falls.12 The wind power industry currently employs 192,000 peo-
tem. The increased number of intermittent energy sources, such ple within the EU.13
as wind power, electric vehicles and household-produced elec- In 2008, the share of renewable electricity in the EU was
tricity, will increase the need for an intelligent, flexible and re- roughly 18 per cent, and wind power constituted four per cent
liable electricity grid. And as offshore wind power is construc- of the total electricity generation.14 Renewables accounted for
ted the need increases for a new, high-capacity grid, as well as 62 per cent of new electricity generation capacity installed in
advanced networks dedica- the EU in 2009. With more than 74 GW of total installed wind
ted to collecting wind energy. power capacity in 2009, the installations exceeded the 2010
If grids arent constructed at a target of 40 GW.15 According to the European Renewable Ener-
The European Commission fast enough pace, the expan- gy Council, renewables will account for 34 to 40 per cent of total
has initiated a research sion of offshore wind power EU electricity generation by 2020.16
programme aimed at improving risks being delayed. The proc- With its increasingly important role in Europes energy sup-
the technological performance ess of grid expansion vis-- ply, wind power has a bright future. But it does face challenges.
vis offshore power is compli- One of these, described above, is to simplify the process for
of turbines while improving
cated, however, and differs obtaining planning permissions without sacrificing dialogue
economic conditions. The between European countries. with all interested parties. Another challenge is operational
research programme comprises Until now, research on the security. A wind turbine has a useful life of approximately 20
six billion EUR through 2020. future electricity system has years, and must produce electricity during most of this time to
fallen under the smart grid be profitable. Availability (the amount of time a wind farm can
concept. The basic idea of a produce if winds are sufficient) is a key measure. For example,
new electricity grid is that smart management ensures that the the offshore Lillgrund wind farm off Swedens southern coast
electricity system becomes more efficient, both economically produces electricity between 98 and 99 per cent of the time,
and technically. An IT-based control unit manages and makes and thus has an availability of between 98 and 99 per cent.
decisions based on data on generation, demand, use, etc., con- Generation disturbances must also be kept at a minimum;
tinuously retrieved from various parts of the electricity system. repairs or replacement of vital parts reduces availability and
The control unit collects huge amounts of data that can then be directly impacts profitability. In many cases, a slightly smaller
used for more advanced consumption management. The data turbine with long-proven technology may be a better choice
can also be used to make more reliable forecasts and improve than one of the largest turbines on the market that hasnt yet
planning. had as long an operating life.
Vattenfalls wind power operations For a full list of Vattenfalls wind farms, please see the pro-
Vattenfall is one of the largest wind power generators in Europe. duction site at www.vattenfall.com/powerplants.
Vattenfall operates around 900 turbines in Sweden, Denmark,
Germany, Poland, the Netherlands, Belgium and the UK. Together, Vattenfalls wind power operations going forward
these turbines generate approximately 2.2 TWh of electricity Vattenfall sees significant growth opportunities within wind
annually. power, though profitability is dependent upon support systems.
Vattenfall is the proud owner of many of the worlds largest In terms of offshore wind power, Vattenfall has a competitive
offshore wind farms: Horns Rev off the west coast of Denmark, advantage and intends to grow further.
Lillgrund in the resund Strait in Sweden, Kentish Flats and Vattenfall is investing to increase its electricity generation
Thanet just off the southeast coast of England, Egmond aan from wind power. Between 2009 and 2011, Vattenfall has had
Zee off the Dutch coast in the North Sea, and Alpha Ventus off nine wind farms in six countries under construction. This rep-
the coast of northwest Germany. resents an investment of 20 billion SEK in these facilities and
SUMMARY
g &278=092:;01:;0:;98=279070=-
able energy source and plays a key role in
a near doubling of Vattenfalls wind power electricity generation to 4 TWh (the the attainment of the European Unions
amount needed to power 800,000 households). Vattenfall has also entered into a 20-20-20 targets
joint venture with Stadtwerke Mnchen (SWM) for construction of the Dan Tysk off-
g ; ?0907 27:;550 =27 8=09
shore wind farm in the North Sea, one of the worlds largest offshore wind power capacity produced 3.6 per cent of the elec-
projects. With a capacity of 288 MW and an output of approximately 1,320 GWh, the tricity consumed within the EU
wind farm will produce enough renewable power to supply electricity to more than
g &278=09:781058:;:#8;58:;
500,000 homes.
per produced kilowatt hour is relatively
Vattenfall is continuously exploring possibilities for on- and offshore wind power high due to significant investment costs
projects in several countries. In early 2010 Vattenfall and Scottish Power Renew- and the need for network capacity invest-
ables were awarded one of the zones in the British Round Three for expanding ments for new wind farms. Wind power is
offshore wind power. Vattenfalls zone has the potential to deliver 25 TWh on an therefore largely dependent on support
annual basis, equivalent to the consumption of four million households. The Thanet systems
wind farm, the worlds largest offshore wind farm, opened in September 2010 and g :050;922;?0709;2871986=278=09
increased the UKs wind power generation by 30 per cent. and other energy sources with fluctuating
generation increases, the need arises for
Smart grids an important tool for increasing the share of wind power in an intelligent, flexible and reliable network.
the energy mix Smart grid technology enhances possibili-
As electricity generation from wind power and other energy sources with fluctuat- ties to control and store electricity, making
ing generation increases, the need arises for an intelligent, flexible and reliable net- it an important tool for efficiently integra-
work. Todays European electricity networks were originally planned and construct- ting small- and large-scale power genera-
ed for centralised, large-scale electricity generation and distribution. Demands tion in European electricity networks
placed on electricity networks have changed, and these networks are no longer g &27 8=09 062;: 58= 50<05: 81 9/87
suitable for current and future energy systems. This fact, along with societal, ener- dioxide. Wind turbines do have an impact
gy usage and political trends, has resulted in the development of smart grid techno- on the landscape, which some people may
logy. Smart grids enhance possibilities to control and store electricity, making it an find disturbing
important tool for efficiently integrating small- and large-scale wind power genera- g %;;071552:87081;0/20:;=278=09
tion in European electricity networks. Vattenfall is conducting several smart grid generators and developers in Europe.
technology R&D projects aimed at ensuring secure and reliable network services, Vattenfall operates around 900 turbines
today and in the future. in Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland, the
Netherlands, Belgium and the UK
g %;;07155:00::2727;98=;889-
tunities within wind power. In terms of off-
shore wind, Vattenfall has a competitive
advantage and intends to expand further
1
International Energy Association (IEA) Statistics, 9
World Wind Energy Association, op. cit.
Electricity Generation 2008, www.iea.org 10
European Commission, EU energy trends to 2030.
2
IEA World Energy Outlook 2010 11
European Commission (2009), SE C (2009) 1295
3
IEA Wind Energy Annual Report 2009 12
European Climate Foundation (2010), Roadmap
4
Read more about the EU Climate Change Policy on 2050, Technical Analysis
www.energy.eu 13
EWEA (2010), Wind Energy Factsheets
5
Read more about wind energy on European Renew- 14
IEA Statistics, op. cit.
able Energy Councils webpage. www.erec.org 15
European Commission (2010), www.europa.eu
6
IEA Statistics, op.cit. 16
European Renewable Energy Council, Renewable
7
World Wind Energy Association, www.wwindea.org Energy Technology Roadmap
8
U.S. Energy Information Administration,
www.eia.doe.gov
Word Definition