GRAMMAR A2

Definite and indefinite articles

Use:
1) Use a before a singular noun.
I've got a brother and a sister.
Use an if the noun begins with a vowel.
I've got an aunt in Texas.

2) Use plural nouns or uncountable nouns to talk about things in general. Don't use an article
here.

I like cats.
Dolphins are very intelligent.
Crime is increasing.

3) Use the to talk about one particular thing, or a particular group of things.
Books are interesting. The book on the table is interesting.
Children are noisy. The children in this class are noisy.

4) Use a to introduce a new thing or person. Use the when you already know this person or
thing.
There is a restaurant near my house. The restaurant serves good food.

5) Use the when there is only one of these things.

The moon is very big tonight.
My dad is the only doctor in our village.
Joe is the best student in the class.

6) Use the when there are many things, but it is clear which one you mean.
Let's go to the pub! We need to go to the supermarket.

7) Most 'general' nouns do not use an article.

Life is not the same as it used to be NOT: The life

Health is important to everyone. NOT: The health

We're worried about pollution. NOT: The pollution

But some general nouns use the:

the environment People are increasingly worried about the environment.

the weather What's the weather like today?
the countryside I love walking in the countryside.
the sea / ocean I'd love to live near the sea.
the radio There's an interesting programme on the radio.
the theatre / cinema We went to the theatre last night.
the economy The economy is affecting everyone.

Common mistakes:

1) Some students use the when they talk about things in general.
I love the romantic films! => I love romantic films!

2) Some students use singular nouns without a or the.

I want book about the weather. => I want a book about the weather.

3) Some students use the when they talk about things in general.
I want the book about the weather. => I want a book about the weather.

Adverbial phrases of frequency, time and place

Use:
An adverbial phrase is a group of words which always go together. they describe where, when or
how often something happens.

Adverbial phrases of frequency describe how often something happens.

every morning, every afternoon

every day daily
every week weekly
every month monthly
every year annually

every Sunday on Sundays on Sunday afternoons

once a day
twice a day
three / four / five times a day

all the time

Form:
1) Adverbs of frequency often go in present simple sentences.
I have toast for breakfast every day.
We visit our grandparents twice a month.

2) Note that on Saturday refers to one day. On Saturdays means every Saturday.

Common mistakes
1) Some students write adverbs of frequency in the wrong place.
We every day go the park. => We go to the park
every day.
2) Some students use the plural form with every.
John goes swimming every days. => John goes swimming
every day.

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Use:
Use adverbs and adverbial phrases of time to talk about when you do something.

Adverbs of time include:

today, tomorrow, tonight, yesterday, tomorrow, nowadays
now, first of all, beforehand
soon, afterwards, later, next, then

Form:
1) Adverbs of time usually go at the beginning or the end of a sentence or clause.
Tomorrow, Im going to the beach.
Im going to the beach tomorrow.

First of all, we had a drink at a caf.

We had a drink at a caf first of all.

Im going to the supermarket, and afterwards Im going to the library.

Im going to the supermarket, and Im going to the library afterwards.

2) It is more common to use then at the beginning of a sentence or clause.

Then we arrived at the castle.
Im going to finish my work and then Im going to have a drink.

It is more common to use soon and now at the end of a sentence.

Were going on holiday soon.
Im going home now.

Common mistakes
1) Dont use an adverb of time between the subject and the object of a sentence.
I went yesterday to the zoo. => I went to the zoo yesterday. / Yesterday I went to the
zoo.
Im going now to the bank. => Im going to the bank now.

2) You must use a noun after After and Before. Otherwise,

use afterwardsor beforehand.
Ill be late to class tomorrow. Im going to the doctors before. => Ill be late to class
tomorrow. Im going to the doctors beforehand.

Im going to my English class and Im going to the bar after. => Im going to my
English class and Im going to the bar afterwards.
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Use:
Use adverbs and adverbial phrases of place to talk about where something happens.
Adverbs of place include:
outside, inside, indoors, upstairs, downstairs
(over) here, (over) there
abroad, overseas

Form:
1) Adverbs of place usually go after a verb.
She lives abroad.
Lets go indoors.

2) Adverbs of place can also go after the object of the sentence.

Rachel works in the office upstairs.
Your bag is on the table over there.

ADVERBS

Use:
Adverbs can be used to describe verbs. They describe HOW you do something.
Examples: She walks quickly; He sings nicely.

Form:
1) You can make many adverbs by adding ly to an adjective.
slow -> slowly; loud -> loudly
If an adjective ends in y, change it to an i.
heavy -> heavily; funny -> funnily
Add ally to adjectives ending in ic.
Physical -> physically; energetic -> energetically

2) Some adverbs are irregular, and do not end in ly. These include:
good -> well She dances well.
hard -> hard He works hard.
fast -> fast He runs fast.
late -> late He arrives late.

3a) Usually, the adverb goes after the verb it describes.

She talks quietly NOT She quietly talks.
He runs fast. NOT He fast runs.

3b) If the verb has a direct object WITHOUT A PREPOSITION the adverb should go after the
object.
You sang that song nicely. NOT You sang nicely that song.
He did the job well. NOT He did well the job.

3c) If the verb is followed by a preposition and an object, you can put the adverb in different
places.
He quickly walked to the shop.
He walked quickly to the shop.
He walked to the shop quickly.

4) Adverbs are NOT used to describe the following verbs. These verbs use adjectives.
Be I am quiet. NOT I am quietly.
Seem It seems strange. NOT It seems strangely.
Look That looks nice. NOT That looks nicely.
Smell That smells good. NOT That smells well.
Sound That sounds great. NOT That sounds greatly.
Feel That feels funny. NOT That feels funnily.

5) Some words end in ly but they are not adverbs. Friendly is an example. Friendly is an
adjective. We can say She is friendly but not She talks friendly. There is no adverb for friendly,
but we can say She talks in a friendly way.Elderly and lonely are also adjectives, not
adverbs. Kindly and early are adjectives and adverbs.

Uncountable Nouns

Use:
Some nouns are countable you can count them. These include:
apples, books, cars, trees
Some nouns are uncountable you cannot count them. These include:
water, oil, rice, fruit, bread, information, money

Uncountable nouns have different grammar rules from countable nouns.

countable singular nouns countable plural nouns uncountable nouns

e.g. apple e.g. apples e.g. fruit

Singular countable nouns
always need a determiner:
a, this, that, my, the etc.
Look at that cat!
Can I have an apple?
Is this your bag?
Plural countable nouns do not
need a determiner.
I like apples.
Dogs are friendly.
But they can be used with
determiners:
Where are my shoes?
Are those pens yours?
Uncountable nouns do not
need a determiner.
I like fruit.
But they can use singular
determiners:
This fruit is nice.

You can count countable nouns. You cannot count uncountable

Can I have five apples please? nouns.
 Can I have five breads please?

Use singular verbs and Use plural verbs and Use singular verbs and
determiners. determiners. determiners.
This apple is nice. These apples are nice. This bread is nice.

Some determiners can be used with both countable and

uncountable nouns.

some, a lot of, lots of, loads of, plenty of, any

Weve got some potatoes. We need some bread.

We dont have any potatoes. We dont have any bread.

Some determiners can only be Some determiners can only be

used with countable nouns: used with uncountable nouns:

several, various, a few, many much, a bit of, a little

Gerunds and Infinitives

Use:
1) A gerund is a verb in its ing form, used as a noun.
For example: eating, going, seeing

Gerunds are used:

a) As the subject of a sentence.
Smoking is bad for you.

b) After some verbs, such as: like, hate, enjoy, quit, suggest, dislike, deny
I like cooking. I enjoy fishing.
A good learners dictionary will tell you whether a verb is followed by a gerund or not.

c) After prepositions.
Im interested in buying a computer. Im scared of walking alone in the dark.

2) The infinitive form of the verb is the original verb. It can be with or without to.
For example: (to) eat, (to) go, (to) see.

The infinitive form is used:

a) After some verbs, such as; agree, arrange, ask, promise, decide, afford
I agreed to do the work. I arranged to see the doctor, They decided to get married.
A good learners dictionary will tell you whether a verb is followed by an infinitive or not.
b) To show the reason why you did something.
Tony went to the post office to pay a bill.

c) After adjectives.
I was surprised to see Erica. Im pleased to meet you.

3 a) Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or infinitive with NO CHANGE in meaning:

For example: start, begin, hate, like, prefer, continue
She started to cry = She started crying.
I hate watching horror films = I hate to watch horror films.
b) Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or a infinitive, but there is a change in meaning.
For example: try, remember, stop
I tried to get into the house. (Getting into the house is your goal or objective).
I tried climbing through the window. (Climbing through the window is one thing you
tried in order to obtain your final objective.)

I stopped cleaning the windows. (I was cleaning the windows and then I stopped).
I stopped to clean the windows. (I was driving, and I stopped driving in order to clean
the windows).
I remembered to lock the door. (I remembered, and after that I locked the door).
I remember locking the door. (I remember (now) that I locked the door (in the past)).

be going to
Use:
Use be going to to talk about your personal plans for the future.

Im going to see my sister at the weekend.

Are you going to marry Paul?

Form:
1) The form of the positive and negative sentences and questions is shown below.

Positive

am / m
I
going to verb (infinitive form)
you are / re

he / she / it is / s

we are / re

they are / re

Negative

m not
I
going to verb (infinitive form)
you arent OR re not
he / she / it isnt OR s not

we arent OR re not

they arent OR re not

Questions

I
Am
going to verb (infinitive form) ?
Are you

Is he / she / it

Are we

Are they

2) The short reply to a be going to question is Yes, I am, Yes, she is etc. You cannot contract
these short sentences.
Yes, hes. => Yes, he is.

The short negative replies are:

No, Im not.
No, youre not / No, you arent.
No, hes not / No he isnt. No, shes not / No she isnt. No, its not / no it isnt.
No, were not / No, we arent.
No, theyre not / No, they arent.

Common mistakes:

1) Some students forget to add the verb be before going to.

I going to see my friends tonight. => Im going to see my friends tonight.

2) Some students forget to invert the subject and be in questions.

What time you are going to leave? => What time are you going to leave?

will / wont

Use:
Will and wont are used to talk about the future. Will is positive and wont is negative.
I will be late tomorrow.
John wont be at the party next Saturday.
Use will and wont to:
a) Make predictions.
In the year 2050, people will live under the sea.

b) Make an offer or promise.

Ill buy you a drink.
John will help you with that box.

c) Make a decision about the future at the same time as you speak.
Sorry, we dont have any tea.
Thats OK, Ill have coffee.

Form:
1) Will is the same for all persons.
I will go, you will go, he / she will go, we will go, they will go.

2) Always write a verb in the infinitive form after will.

You will happy when you hear the news. => You will be happy when you hear the news.

3) You can contract will to ll for pronouns.

Ill buy it. Well be late.
Hell be late home today. Theyll be delighted.

But dont contract will with names.

Markll be late. => Mark will be late.

4) To write questions, write will before the subject.

Will you buy me a drink?
Will Tom get the job?

5) The short answer for Will questions is: Yes, I/you/he/she/he/they/we will
No, I/you/he/she/he/they/we wont.
Do not contract will in short answers.

Will John be late?

Yes, hell.=> Yes, he will.

Common mistakes:

1) Some students forget to write will before the subject in questions.

You will be late? => Will you be late?

2) Many students use will to talk about their plans. But you should use going to or the present
continuous.
I will meet my friends on Friday. => Im meeting my friends on Saturday.
Im going to meet my friends on Saturday.

Imperative Forms
Use:
Use the imperative form to give instructions, orders and warnings.

Must is often used in signs and notices to give instructions.

Form:
1) Do not use a subject when giving orders.
You wash your hands. => Wash your hands.

Always use the infinitive form of the verb, without to.

To sit down please. => Sit down please.

Use Dont to make the negative form.

Dont sit there!

2) Written instructions on signs often use Do not, not Dont.

Do not cross this line.

3) When giving instructions to a friend, you can soften the order by using you. However,
this is usually only done in spoken English.
First you put the mixture into a bowl, and then you add two eggs. Then you whisk it.

4) Some written signs use Must / Must not.

All visitors must wear a badge.
Passengers must not talk to the driver.

Notice how plural nouns (visitors / passengers) are generally used in signs.

Common mistakes:
1) Some students use to after Dont / Must
Dont to go in that door. => Dont go in that door.

Can / Could

Use:
1) Use can / cant to talk about your abilities now.
I can speak English. I cant speak German.

Use could / couldnt to talk about abilities in the past.

I could speak French when I was a child, but I can't now.
I couldnt speak English when I was a child, but I can now.

2) Use can and could to make requests. Could is more polite.

Can you cook this evening please?
Could you pass me the salt?
 Use can to reply to requests.
Can I sit here? => Yes, you can. Sorry, you cant.
Can you cook this evening please? => Yes, I can. Sorry, I cant.

DONT use could in replies to requests.

Could you lend me some money?
Yes, I could. => Yes, sure! Sorry, I cant.

Form:
1) Can and could are the same for all persons.
I can/could speak English
you can/could speak English
he / she / it can/could speak English
we can/could speak English
they can/could speak English.

2) The negative form of can is cannot, or cant. The negative form of could iscouldnt.

3) There is always a verb after can and could, and the verb is always in theinfinitive
form (without to).
Sally can help you. NOT Sally can helps you. / Sally can to help you.

4) Make questions by inverting can and the subject.

I can see you this afternoon. => Can I see you this afternoon?
You could help me. => Could you help me?

5) Use can/cant and could/couldnt in short answers.

Can your brother swim? => Yes, he can. No, he cant.
Could you do the test? => Yes, I could. No, I couldnt.

Common mistakes:
1) Some students make questions incorrectly.
You can speak English? => Can you speak English?
I could sit here? => Could I sit here?

Possessive s
Use:
Possessive adjectives after a name and before a noun.
They tell you who owns something.
This is Johns coat.
Is this Tinas bag?

Dont use s after things.

I clean the gardens pond every week. => I clean the pond in the gardenevery week.
Whats the books name? => Whats the name of the book?
You can usually use s after organisations and groups of people.
Its the governments decision. OR Its the decision of the government.
Tom is the companys new director. OR Tom is the new director of the company.

You can use s after time expressions.

What time is tomorrows meeting?

You can sometimes use s after countries and cities.

Indias population is rising.
But you cannot do this if it refers to a person.
I met Londons mayor last week. => I met the mayor of London last week.
Englands Queen is well-known. => The Queen of England is well-known.

Form:

To make the possessive form, add s to the end of the name.

Is that Jacks bag?

With two names, only add s to the second name.

Thats Jane and Harrys house. NOT Thats Janes and Harrys house.

If something belongs to two or more people, put the apostrophe() after the plural s.
Do not write a second s.

My parents house is really big. NOT My parentss house is really big.

However, if the plural noun is irregular, write the apostrophe () before the S.
The childrens party was great. NOT The childrens party was great.

Prepositions of Time
Use:
Use prepositions of time before days, months, years and other time words.

AT:

Use before:
Times: Were leaving at 3 oclock
Lunchtime / bedtime: Hes arriving at lunchtime.
Night: I cant sleep at night.
The weekend: See you at the weekend!
Festivals: We went away at Easter.
IN:

the morning / afternoon / evening: See you in the morning!

Months: My birthdays in June.
Seasons: We always go on holiday in summer.
Years: He was born in 1996.

ON:

Dates: We arrived here on 4th August.

Days of the week: Lets go to the zoo on Saturday.
Single day events: We always eat out on Christmas Day.

Use ON before a day + morning/ afternoon/ evening/ night. See you on Tuesday night!

Dont use a preposition before: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday.

Verbs of Preference + gerunds

Use:
We can use several different words and phrases in English to talk about things we like and
dislike.

like love enjoy

dont mind

dislike hate cant stand

Form:
After these words you can use a noun or a verb in the ing form.

I like water. I like swimming.

I love sports. I love running.
We enjoy good food. We enjoy eating out.

I dont mind housework. I dont mind cooking.

I dislike buses. I dislike waiting.

I hate housework I hate cleaning.
I cant stand planes. I cant stand flying.

Spelling rules
Remember the spelling rules when you make the ing form.

If a verb ends in e, delete the e before you add ing.

have => I love having breakfast in bed.

 If a verb ends one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant.

swim => I dont like swimming.

Exceptions: words that end in w or y.

row => I love rowing.
sew => I dont like rowing.
play => I like playing football.

Other exceptions:
iron => My mum hates ironing.
open => I dont mind opening the window for you.

Would like/ like

Use:
1) Would like means want, but it is more polite.
You can use it in sentences and questions.
Id like a biscuit.
Would you like some tea?

2) You can also use it to talk about your dreams and ambitions.
Id like to go to Japan.
I wouldnt like to live here!

You can also use Id love and Id hate to talk about dreams.
Id hate to live in the countryside.
Id love to work with Simon.

Form:
1) Would like is the same for all persons.
I would like some tea.
You would like some tea.
He / she / James would like some tea.
We would like some tea.
They / our clients would like some tea.

2) To make questions, invert the subject and would.

Would you / James / your clients like some tea?

3) Use wouldnt to make the negative form.

I wouldnt like to work there.
4) Would like can be followed by a noun or to + verb.
noun: Would you like a biscuit?
verb: Would you like to go to Malaysia?

5) In positive sentences, you can contract would to d.

I would like to go to the USA. => Id like to go to the USA.
But NOT in negative sentences:
Idnt like to work in a factory. => I wouldnt like to work in a factory.
And NOT in short answers:
Would you like to have a horse?
Yes, Id. => Yes, I would.

6) Be careful not to confuse would like and like.

Use like to talk about things you like all the time.
I like chocolate cake. Its my favourite food.
Use would like to talk about things you want now, or at some time in the future.
Id like a cup of coffee please.
Id like to work in a chocolate factory.

Zero Conditional

Use:
The first conditional structure is used to talk about something which is always true. It always
happens, on the condition that something else happens.
Example: If it rains a lot, our garden floods.

Form:
1. Make the first conditional in this way.

If I present simple , I present simple

When you you
Unless he he
she... she...

Examples: If you fly on a budget airline, you have to buy your own drinks.
When we visit Geoff, he always cooks us a roast dinner.

Or
I present simple if I present simple
you when you
he unless he
she... she...

Examples: You have to buy your own drinks if you fly on a budget airline.
Geoff always cooks us a roast dinner when we visit him.

2. You can also form the zero conditional with the imperative form.
If you have a membership card, enter through the door on the left.
Enter through the door on the left if you have a membership card.

3. You can also form the zero conditional using a modal verb.
If the alarm goes off, we should leave the building.
If its rainy and sunny at the same time, you can often see a
rainbow.
4. Different tenses can be used in the If / When (condition) clause. However, only the
present simple, a modal or imperative form can be used in the result clause.
If weve finished all our work, we can leave early.
If people are getting enough exercise, they usually feel better emotionally as
well as physically.

First Conditional
Use:
The first conditional structure is used to talk about something which will or may happen in the
future as a result of something else.
Example: If it rains tomorrow, Ill stay at home.

Form:
Make the first conditional in this way.

If I present simple , I will / wont verb

When you you might / might not (infinitive form)
he he
she... she...

Examples: If I see Tom, I will tell him the news.

When you visit, we might go to the park.

Or
I will / wont verb if I present simple
you might / might not (infinitive form) when you
he he
she... she...

Examples: Shell be late if she doesnt hurry up.

You might not pass your exams if you watch television all the time.

Common Mistakes:
1) Dont use will or might directly after will or might.
If I will arrive first, Ill make lunch. => If I arrive first, Ill make lunch.

2) Always use an infinitive verb after will and might.

I might to go out tonight, if Im not too tired. => I might go out tonight if Im not too tired.

Inseparable phrasal verbs

Use:
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and one or more prepositions. They are often used, especially in
informal spoken English. The meaning of phrasal verbs is often completely different from the
meaning of the verb alone.

Form:
1) Some phrasal verbs never use an object.
get up = get out of bed
I get up at seven oclock every morning.
take of = leave the ground
The plane took off on time.
look out = beware! be careful!
Look out! That car is going to hit you!
get on = be good friends
My dad and my brother dont get on.
break down = stop working (for vehicles)
Our car broke down on the way home from Scotland.
make up = become friends again after an argument
The kids often fight but they always make up afterwards.

2) Some phrasal verbs need an object.

get on / of something = exit transport
Get off the bus at the next stop.
look after someone / something = take care of someone / something
Please can you look after our cats while were on holiday?
see to something = do, arrange, prepare, organise
Dont worry about dinner. Ill see to it.
look into something = investigate
There has been a burglary at the school. Police are looking into it.
get to = arrive at
When you get to the end of the street, turn right.

3) Some phrasal verbs contain three words and an object.

look up to someone = respect someone
I look up to my teachers.
look forward to something = be excited about (a future event)
Im looking forward to the party.
get on with someone = be good friends with someone
I dont get on with Karen.
get on with something = continue doing something
Please be quiet and get on with your work.
put up with something = tolerate
I cant put up with that noise any longer!