SOCIALBEHAVIORANDPERSONALITY, 2010, 38(9), 1219-1228

Society for PersonalityResearch (Inc.)

DOI 10.2224/sbp.2010.38.9.1219

self-efficacy, social support, and coping

strategies OF adolescent earthquake
survivors IN CHINA

Jun Yang, Yebing Yang, Xufeng Liu, Jianquan Tian,

Xia Zhu, and Danmin Miao
Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, Peoples Republic of China

In this study, the relationships among psychological health and self-efficacy, social support,
and coping strategies soon after a devastating natural disaster was explored using path analysis,
in order to provide guidelines for early psychological intervention. Participants comprised 172
senior middle-school students, in the stricken area of the May 2008 earthquake in Wenchuan,
China, of whom 167 completed the scales. Three different models were tested consecutively
and compared. According to the model that provided the best fit to the data, emotion-focused
coping significantly predicted psychological problems, while subjective social support and
problem-focused coping significantly predicted self-efficacy. The results showed that soon
after a disaster, the most important mediating factor for people is emotional regulation.

Keywords: psychological health, self-efficacy, social support, coping strategy, earthquake

survivors.

There is a general recognition that there will often be an adverse psychological

consequence associated with disasters. Many researchers have sought to
elucidate the connection between the period following a disaster and adverse
psychological outcomes (Murphy, 1988; Shikai et al., 2007). However, there

Jun Yang, Yebing Yang, Xufeng Liu, Jianquan Tian, Xia Zhu, Professor, and Danmin Miao, Professor,
Department of Psychology, School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University,
Xian, Peoples Republic of China.
Appreciation is due to reviewers including: Sibel Erkal, PhD, Department of Family and Consumer
Sciences, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Hacettepe University, Samanpazar,
Ankara, Turkey, Email: erkalsibel@hotmail.com
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Xia Zhu or Danmin Miao, Department of
Psychology, School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le Western
Street No. 17, Xian Shannxi, CO.710032, Peoples Republic of China. Phone: +86-029-8477-4814;
Email: psych@fmmu.edu.cn

1219
1220 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH

have been few studies focused on the adolescent survivors of natural disasters,
especially in the early stages. Of the many factors that can mediate between
stress and psychological problems, the most commonly mentioned in research
are self-efficacy, social support, and coping strategies. The aim in this paper was
to find out the mediating effects of these factors on the psychological health of
adolescent survivors in the early stage of a natural disaster.
According to Bandura (1977), in order to carry out and maintain a particular
behavior, one needs to believe that this behavior will lead to the desired outcome,
and also that the behavior can be successfully executed to produce the outcome
(high self-efficacy expectancy). Since its first introduction, both specific and
general self-efficacy have been used and studied in many kinds of areas. For
example, Murphy (1988) investigated the mediating effects of self-efficacy and
social support on mental health in a longitudinal study, finding that self-efficacy
was a significant predictor of health outcome. In a cross-sectional study of
adolescents, Ehrenberg, Cox, and Koopman (1991) found a negative correlation
between perceived self-efficacy and depression. Vieno, Santinello, Pastore, and
Perkins (2007) found that self-efficacy and a sense of community in school
contributed to mediating effects of social support on psychosocial adjustment.
There are many other studies in which the relationship between self-efficacy and
psychological problems, such as depression and anxiety, has been explored. The
results were in agreement that self-efficacy served as a protective or resilient
factor in the relationship between stress and psychological health.
The positive effect of social support on health was established by Durkheim
(1951). It was defined as the process through which the social relationships
promote health and well-being (Cohen et al., 2000, p. 4). This kind of effect
has been supported by many researchers (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Miller &
Ingram, 1979). Cohen (1988) also viewed social support as a protective factor
among adolescents. However, within different cultures and circumstances, the
relationship between social support and psychological well-being has become
complex (Cohen et al.). In studies by Schonert-Reichl (1994) and Ayman and
Antani (2008) the protective effects of social support on psychological well-
being were found. However, Murphy (1988) found that the F value for social
support was not of sufficient magnitude to appear in any of the analyses. Its effect
for Chinese adolescent survivors was affirmed in this study.
In addition to self-efficacy and social support, another important factor is
coping strategy (Hallis & Slone, 1999). Throughout history countless natural
disasters have affected a great number of people whose reactions and outcomes
have varied greatly. Some developed symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) which persisted for the rest of their lives. Most people continued their lives
 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH 1221
normally, while some became more successful. Coping strategy may have been
an important mediating factor (Langley & Jones, 2005). As shown in the theories
of Lazarus and Folkman (1984), stressors do not inevitably lead to depression or
other negative outcomes. The outcome depends upon the efficacy of a persons
coping efforts. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), there are two broad
ways of coping: problem-focused and emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping
is directed at dealing with the problem causing the distress. This form of coping is
more likely to be used when harmful, threatening, or challenging environmental
conditions are considered to be amenable to change. Emotion-focused coping is
directed at regulating emotional responses to a problem. This form of coping is
more likely to be used when a person believes that nothing can be done to modify
the harmful, threatening, or challenging environmental conditions (Folkman &
Lazarus, 1980). Many researchers have used this kind of category to analyze the
effects of coping strategies (Littrell & Beck, 2001). However, the relationship
between coping strategies and psychological well-being is very complicated.
Different coping styles result in different outcomes, and the relationship could
also be influenced by the controllability of the stressors and other factors such
as self-efficacy (Forsythe & Compas, 1987; Littrell & Beck, 2001). In most of
the above literature, problem-focused coping was more likely to correlate with a
positive outcome when the stressor was relatively controllable, and it was more
likely to correlate with a negative outcome when the stressor was uncontrollable.
Emotion-focused coping was a predictor of negative outcomes when the stressor
was controllable and a predictor of positive outcomes when the stressor was
uncontrollable. However, the focus of this concept in most studies was on
ordinary life events and stressors that were not so devastating. In addition, in
only a few of these studies were the conclusions based on adolescents results
(Langley et al., 2005).
This study was undertaken one month after the May 12, 2008 earthquake
measuring 8.0 on the Richter scale in Wenchuan, China. This severe earthquake
resulted in more than 69,000 deaths and 370,000 injuries, of which adolescents
were a significant number. Students were ready to begin classes when the
earthquake happened, and the complete chaos affected them greatly. According to
the results of an 18-month consensus building process by the Early Psychological
Intervention Subcommittee (EPI) of the National Volunteer Organizations Active
in Disaster (NVOAD), early psychological intervention is valuable (Everly,
Hamilton, Tyiska, & Ellers, 2008). Thus, identifying the resilience factors and
the relationship between them is very important for early intervention. It is clear
from the above literature review that the mediating factors of self-efficacy, social
support, and coping strategies can all have direct and indirect effects during
1222 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH

the process of dealing with stress. We therefore analyzed and compared three
models, with a different mediating factor used in each model.

Method

Sample
Four of 31 classes of senior students from a major middle school in the
earthquake stricken area in Sichuan province, China were randomly selected to
complete the questionnaires during their first class after the earthquake. After
being introduced by their headmaster and teachers, we told the students the aim
in our study and they were informed that participation was voluntary.
The total number of participants was 172, of whom 167 (82 male, 85 female)
completed the scales. They were all of Han nationality with a mean age of 18.6
and a standard deviation of 2.2. All the students were in their classrooms when
the earthquake happened, and their classrooms were severely damaged. All of
their families were severely affected, but none had lost relatives.

Measures
Four frequently used scales (Chinese versions) were used in this study, as
follows:
Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS) was developed on the basis of the theory
of social support and Chinese culture by Xiao (1987). The psychometric charac-
teristics were excellent, with a test-retest reliability of 0.92, and good predictive
validity. The scale is a 10-item measure consisting of three dimensions of social
support: subjective support, objective support, and availability of support. In the
present study we employed two dimensions of this scale, subjective support and
objective support, involving seven items. One item question was: How many
intimate friends do you have, from whom you can get support and help? (1) none;
(2) 1-2; (3) 3-5; (4) 6 or more. Subjective support focuses on subjective and
perceived support from others, that is, the perceived degree of being esteemed,
supported, and understood in a social relationship (Cronbachs = 0.63, in this
study). Objective support focuses on objective and actual support in a social
relationship (Cronbachs = 0.67, in this study).
Coping Style Scale for Middle School Students (CSS-MSS), which was
developed by Chen, Zheng, Pan, and Zhen (2000), is based on Folkmans theory
of coping (Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & DeLongis, 1986) and actual situations
of Chinese middle school students. There are two main parts in this scale,
problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping, and seven subscales. An
example of an item was I make use of the experience of myself and others
 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH 1223
to get through difficulties. The psychometric characteristics were sound, its
test-retest reliability was 0.89, and all the subscales accounted for 73% of total
variance. Cronbachs of problem-focused coping was 0.78, and Cronbachs
of emotion-focused coping was 0.76, in this study. Respondents were asked to
rate to what extent a statement is true for them on a 4-point Likert scale.
Generalized Perceived Self-efficacy Scale (GSES), which was developed by
Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995), contains 10 items that measure participants
generalized self-efficacy, or beliefs about ones general ability to successfully
reach goals. Respondents were asked to rate to what extent a statement is true for
them on a 4-point Likert scale. The higher the score the higher degree of general
self-efficacy is indicated. The Chinese version of this scale was completed by
Zhang and Schwarzer (1995). An example of an item question was I can always
manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough. The psychometric char-
acteristics of this scale are well-established with a test-retest reliability of 0.82,
and good construct validity (Wang, Hu, & Liu, 2001). Cronbachs was 0.85 in
this study.
Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90), was developed by Derogatis (1975). It is a
90-item 5-point Likert rating scale with nine primary symptom dimensions. It is
a self-report tool to measure general psychological condition. Each item of this
scale represents one common symptom, for example, headache, that is relevant
to ones psychological status. We used the general symptomatic index, which
involves dividing the sum of the total scores of all the 90 items by 90, as the index
of the psychological problems (Cronbachs = 0.96, in this study).
In order to testify the hypotheses, we used path analysis to analyze the data.
Descriptive analysis was carried out using SPSS version 13.0, and path analysis
using LISREL version 8.50.

Results

Descriptive Analysis
The means, standard deviations, and the correlation matrix between all
variables included in this study are presented in Table 1. According to a series of
analyses of variance (ANOVA), males reported significantly fewer psychological
symptoms than did females (M = 1.87 versus 2.05, respectively, F(1,167) = 5.01,
p = 0.027). They also reported lower objective social support (M = 7.80 versus
8.78, respectively, F(1,167) = 7.93, p = 0.005) and lower emotion-focused coping
strategies (M = 33.78 versus 36.23, respectively, F(1,167) = 6.05, p = 0.015). No
other significant differences were noticed regarding gender.
1224 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH

Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations of the Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Psychological problems 1.000

2. Self-efficacy -0.044 1.000
3. Subjective social support 0.154* 0.233** 1.000
4. Objective social support 0.148 0.211** 0.346** 1.000
5. Problem-focused coping -0.004 0.292** 0.190* 0.343** 1.000
6. Emotion-focused coping 0.926** -0.031 0.170* 0.148 0.019 1.000

Mean 1.968 24.704 19.716 8.308 53.562 35.059

Standard deviation 0.509 5.455 2.839 2.299 8.325 9.520
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

Path Analysis
The main hypothesis was tested through the application of path analysis
employing LISREL version 8.50. Three different models were compared. In
Model 1, self-efficacy served as a partial mediator between psychological
problems, and social support and coping strategies. According to this model,
psychological problems were partially predicted by self-efficacy, and self-efficacy
was predicted by social support and coping strategies, while social support and
coping strategies could also directly predict psychological problems. In Model 2,
social support (including both subjective and objective social support) served as
a partial mediator between psychological problems, and self-efficacy and coping
strategies (i.e., self-efficacy and coping strategies predicted social support,
which in turn predicted psychological problems, while self-efficacy and coping
strategies could also predict psychological problems directly). In Model 3,
coping strategies were the partial mediators (i.e., self-efficacy and social support
predicted coping strategies, which in turn predicted psychological problems,
while self-efficacy and social support could also predict psychological problems
directly). The summary of fit indices of these models, and the tests of the models
comparisons are presented in Table 2. The results showed that Models 1 and 3
both differed from Model 2 significantly, which indicated that Model 2 had the
least fit to the data. Model 1 also differed from Model 3 significantly, so Model
1 presented the best fit to the data, in which self-efficacy served as a partial
mediator.
 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH 1225
Table 2
Fit Indices for the Three Models, and Their Comparison

Model c2 df p NFI CFI RMSEA c2diff

Model 1. Self-efficacy 3.09 11 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.00

Model 2. Social support 18.03 10 0.05 0.95 0.98 0.07
Model 3. Coping strategy 9.20 12 0.69 0.98 1.00 0.00
Difference between Models 1 and 2 14.94**
Difference between Models 1 and 3 6.11*
Difference between Models 2 and 3 8.83*
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

Figure 1 presented the maximum likelihood estimates of Model 1. Nonsignificant

estimates were not presented. According to this path model (c2 = 2.85, df =
10, p = 0.98, AGFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.0), self-efficacy was positively and
significantly predicted by subjective social support and problem-focused coping,
and psychological problems were predicted positively and significantly only
by emotion-focused coping. However, no significant correlation between self-
efficacy and psychological problems was found, and objective social support did
not predict self-efficacy or psychological problems in any significant way.

0.88 0.14

Psychological
Self-efficacy
problems

0.18 0.26 0.93

Subjective Objective Problem-focused Emotion-focused

social support social support coping coping

Figure 1. Path analysis between psychological problems, self-efficacy, social support, and coping
strategies.
Note: R2 psychological problems = 0.86; R2 self-efficacy = 0.12.

Discussion

In stressful situations, a person needs to find resources to support him/herself

to cope with the negative effects, and to regulate his/her emotions. Self-efficacy,
social support, and coping strategies were found to be very important mediators
1226 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH

among such resources. In this study we looked into the possible roles of these
factors in dealing with the stress by examining a sample of adolescent survivors
of the earthquake, Wenchuan, China, which occurred in 2008.
The results of the descriptive analysis showed that female students were more
negatively affected than were males. Females felt less objective social support,
employed more emotion-focused coping strategies, and had more psychological
problems. According to Model 1, as psychological problems were significantly
predicted by emotion-focused coping, the latter may be the reason for the female
students worse psychological condition. Resources like self-efficacy, social
support, and coping strategies did not make a significant contribution to the
participants psychological condition in the early stage after the disaster. The
most important factor at this stage was an adjustment of their emotions.
A number of researchers found that self-efficacy served as a buffer to reduce
the negative effects of stress. However, this was not supported in our study.
Consistent with the result of Karademas (2006) study, the mediating effect of
self-efficacy was negative. This may be because the situation was so devastating
that even the most optimistic person could not find a bright side in the early
stage of this disaster. As a result, self-efficacy could not adjust the participants
psychological well-being in these circumstances. On the other hand, there was
a significant positive correlation between subjective social support, problem-
focused coping, and self-efficacy. This information might present the beginning of
the participants positive adjustment. Proper social support and coping strategies
could ensure that ones self-efficacy may begin to be enhanced, and furthermore,
his/her psychological condition might be adjusted in the long run. However, this
is just a hypothesis, which needs the support of longitudinal evidence.
Previous researchers have found that problem-focused coping was more likely
to correlate with a negative outcome when the stressor was uncontrollable,
while emotion-focused coping was more a positive predictor. However, in our
study, in which the devastating earthquake was completely uncontrollable, the
results were inconsistent with previous findings. Problem-focused coping did
not significantly correlate with psychological problems, and emotion-focused
coping was significantly and positively correlated with psychological problems,
with the correlation coefficient being 0.92. This meant that for the adolescents
in this situation, problem-focused coping had little effect on their psychological
condition, while emotion-focused coping could make them feel more pessimistic.
In addition, no significant correlation was found between social support and
psychological problems in our study. However, these findings require further
evidence to support them.
In our study we were significantly limited by being totally reliant on self-
reported data. A study with a prospective methodology conducted on other
populations in the early stage after a natural disaster would provide us with
 ADOLESCENTS POSTDISASTER PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH 1227
more concrete results regarding the relationship between peoples psychological
condition and mediating factors, for example self-efficacy, social support, and
coping strategies.
Studying the relationship between psychological health and self-efficacy,
social support, and coping strategies under different circumstances is important
because it allows us to understand the ways that social relationships relate
to personal expectations in shaping outcomes. The variables included in this
study were part of the broader cognitive appraisal process. The mapping of the
relationship between these representations will provide us with the opportunity
not only to outline underlying processes, but also to use all relevant information
in order to design effective intervention models, in both the early and later stages
after a disaster.

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