Metal Science and Heat Treatment Vol. 47, Nos.

3 4, 2005

BUILDING STEELS
UDC 621.785.7:621.789

THERMOMECHANICAL AND HEAT HARDENING OF BUILDING STEELS

P. D. Odesskii,1 A. V. Rudchenko,1 and I. P. Shabalov1

Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 3, pp. 34 43, March, 2005.

Hardening treatment of steels used in welded metal structures like steelwork of industrial and civil buildings,
towers, poles, reservoirs, railway bridge girders, cranes, construction machines, truck bodies, etc. is consi-
dered. The structures mentioned are produced from rolled stock supplied by metallurgy in an annual amount
of tens of million of tons. In the first turn these are plates, shapes, rolled bars and sections, and pipes with dif-
ferent wall thickness and cross section. A classification of steels for metallic structures with respect to chemi-
cal composition and microstructure is presented.

INTRODUCTION (I ) Low-carbon low-alloy steels with up to 1.5% alloy-

The high efficiency of heat and thermomechanical hard-
ening of rolled stock at metallurgical enterprises is well
known [1 8], because these ecologically safe and power-
saving processes ensure a high set of service properties with
a simultaneous decrease in the content of alloying elements
in steel.
A special combination of design and process measures
developed for steels used in metallic structures provides a
high operating capacity of the structures [9]. In the general
case their reliability both in production and in service is de-
termined by the microstructure of the rolled stock. It is the
main parameter of structural strength [10].
In order to obtain a favorable combination of operating
properties of rolled stock world producers subject virtually
any building steel to heat and thermomechanical treatment,
which changes radically their structure and properties.
The present work was devoted to an investigation of the
operating properties of rolled stock hardened by various pro-
cesses at enterprises of the metallurgical industry.
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING STEELS
Building steels subjected to heat and thermomechanical
treatment can be divided into the following four groups [1].
1 vided [2] into steels with conventional (sy = 230 300 MPa),
V. A. Kucherenko Central Research Institute for Building Struc-
tures (TsNIISK), Moscow, Russia.
111
ing elements including microalloyed steels like 18SATYu.
These steels belong to the ferrite-pearlite class.
(II ) Low-carbon low-alloy steels with up to 2.5% total
content of manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper and a low
content of chromium that prevents formation of special car-
bides of type Me7C3. These steels belong to the ferrite-
pearlite class. The most widely used are manganese-silicon
steels 09G2S, 12G2S, and 10G2S1 and chromium-nickel
steels 15KhSND, 10KhSND, etc.
(III ) Low-alloy steels microalloyed with strong carbide-
and nitride-forming elements like 15G2SF, 16G2AF,
09G2FB, 12KhNGDB, etc. These steels form a special inter-
mediate ferrite-bainite class. The expediency of such divi-
sion is discussed in detail in [1]. We will only mention here
that such rolled stock has a fine-grained ferrite-pearlite struc-
ture in normalized condition. However, after hot rolling such
steels often acquire a coarse intermediate-type structure and
nonuniform grain size.
(IV ) Medium-alloy steels with 0.2 0.6% Mo bearing
up to 5% alloying elements. These steels can be of two struc-
tural classes, i.e., bainite (13KhGSN1MD, 14KhGSNMFR,
etc.) and martensite (for example, 07G3NMF).
Typical thermokinetic diagrams of transformation of aus-
tenite in the considered steels are presented in Fig. 1.
As a rule, the rolled stock for metal structures has a yield
strength sy = 230 1000 MPa (Table 1). Such steels are di-
enhanced (sy = 300 390 MPa), and high (sy 390 MPa)
0026-0673/05/0304-0111 2005 Plenum Publishing Corporation
112 P. D. Odesskii et al.

t, C
CLASSIFICATION OF MAIN PROCESSES
900 A3
OF HARDENING TREATMENT OF ROLLED STOCK
A1
F P A classification diagram for treatment of rolled stock is
500
B presented in Fig. 2. In this diagram the hardening treatment
M 156 143 is divided into two groups, i.e., (1 ) rolling with hardening
415 352 197 159
100 from separate heating and (2 ) rolling with hardening directly
0.1 1 10 102 t, se from the deformation temperature. The final treatment stage
is tempering.
t, C Let us consider each variant individually.
A3
800
A1 Heat Hardening of Rolled Stock
F
P In domestic metallurgical industry heat treatment of
B
400 rolled stock is performed from separate heating. As a rule,
M
heating and austenization of rolled plates before quenching
427 391
344 264 198 177 164 b are realized in trough roller furnaces. After the heating the
222
0 plates are cooled in water at an enhanced rate of about
0.1 1 10 102 103 t, se
30 K/sec in special quenching presses or in more efficient
t, C c roller quenching machines. The subsequent tempering is also
A3 performed in through furnaces.
800 The problem of the choice of optimum tempering tem-
A1
F peratures for building steels is discussed in many works in-
cluding monographs [1, 2].
500 B The tempering temperatures in toughening of low-carbon
steels range between 600 and 620C; for low-alloy steels the
M 227
range is 650 680C. For steels of bainite and martensite
200
406 403 375 348 246 236 230 225 180 classes the range is 680 720C. In accelerated tempering
1 10 102 103 t, se processes the temperature modes can change.
Let us consider the variation of mechanical properties
Fig. 1. Thermokinetic diagrams of transformation of austenite in
and the form of dependences of tensile deformation (s e)
steels (the numbers at the curves denote the HB hardness): a) St3sp;
b ) 15G2SF; c) 14Kh2GMR (0.5% Mo). and impact bending (P f ) on the tempering temperature for
bainitic steel (Figs. 3 and 4). It can be seen that as the tem-
pering temperature increases from 450 to 680 720C, the
parabolic s e diagram is replaced by a diagram with a yield
strength. Among high-strength steels for metal structures we plateau, and the triangular P f diagram acquires the shape
should distinguish rolled stock with sy 590 MPa produced of a polyhedron. The form of the diagrams obtained after
from steels of bainite or martensite classes. tempering at 650 700C reflects the high resistance of the

TABLE 1. Yield Strength of Low-Alloy Plate Steels

Thickness sy , MPa
State Volume
Grade of steel of rolled stock,
at delivery of sample
mm X , MPa S, MPa V, %

10G2S1 N 1705 10 50 384 25.0 6.4

T 438 10 50 429 35.0 8.1
16G2AF N 1125 10 50 479 39.0 8.2
T 1089 10 40 555 55.0 10.0
12GN2MFAYu T 855 10 40 730 67.0 9.2
10KhSND* (1970) T 622 10 40 446 38.4 8.60
10KhSND* (2000) T 1369 16 40 479 29.4 6.14
* Produced at the Orsko-Khalilovskii Iron and Steel Works.
Notations: N) normalizing; T) toughening; X ) mean mathematical deviation; S ) standard deviation; V = S/X ) coef-
ficient of variation.
Thermomechanical and Heat Hardening of Building Steels 113

Diagram From separate heating From rolling heating

of heating
for hardening

Hot rolling Hot rolling

Kind of rolling
in conventional modes in controlled modes

Temperature Between Ar3 and Ar1

range of the end Above Ar3 Somewhat
(double-phase
of deformation (CRR) higher than Ar3
domain)
of austenite

High (in water): Enhanced Accelerated Enhanced

Rate of cooling in tanks, presses (by laminar (including that In air (by laminar
of roller quenching water flows) by turbulent water flow)
machines, etc. water flows)

Diagram From separate Due to the heat In cooling From separate Without
of tempering heating accumulated of coils heating tempering
in central zones

Fig. 2. Diagram of heat and deformation-heat (thermomechanical) treatment of rolled stock from building steels
(CRR is used for controlled recrystallization rolling).

sr ; sy ; s0.01 , P d5 ; y, % s, P
450 600 650 700
y
sr 400
600 60
sy
400
s0.01
40 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 e, %
P, kN
200 20
d5
10 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.9
0 0
450 500 550 600 650 700 t
temp ,
0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 f, mm
Fig. 3. Dependence of mechanical properties of steel 14GSMFR on
the tempering temperature. Fig. 4. Strain diagrams s e obtained by testing for tensile strength
and P f diagrams obtained by testing for impact bending at 40C
(the numbers at the curves denote the values of KCU 40, MJ/m2 ).
material to crack nucleation and propagation, i.e., formation Steel 14GSMFR after tempering at 450, 600, 650, and 700C.
of an optimum structure in the rolled stock. In this case it
would be more appropriate to threat the heat treatment pro-
cess as toughening.
Any required yield strength can be obtained by toughen- cifically, in toughened steel such a structure is formed due to
ing of any building steel, even the conventional low-carbon high-temperature tempering. In a typical case of heat harden-
steel [11]. However, the specified strength parameters can be ing such a microstructure is identified as secondary sorbite.
combined with resistance to various loads arising in the pro- The processes of polygonal cell formation and recrystalliza-
duction and service of a structure only if the rolled stock has tion of the ferrite matrix in it have developed fully enough;
a microstructure of specific kind, which should ensure in the cementite is present in the form of globular particles. In addi-
first turn a high resistance to brittle fracture. tion, in steels alloyed with strong nitride- and carbide-form-
Numerous studies of general dependences of the strength ing elements the microstructure contains a fine carbide or
of rolled stock and welded joints on the kind of treatment and carbonitride phase. The amount of nonmetallic inclusions,
hardening mechanisms have shown that a high resistance to harmful impurities, and gases should be minimum. In mod-
loads and actions can be ensured only by the presence of a ern toughened steels the content of S and P does not exceed
structure with dominant grain- or subgrain-boundary mecha- 0.015%. A typical structure of toughened steel is presented
nism of hardening in the considered steels [1, 2, 12]. Spe- in Fig. 5.
114 P. D. Odesskii et al.

classes can have sy 590 MPa [2]. Analyzing the data of Ta-
ble 1 for steel 10KhSND we will see that as the production
process is improved (stricter requirements on the top permis-
sible level of sr , decrease in the possible scattering of the
content of elements, etc.) the metal becomes more homoge-
neous, i.e., the yield strength increases and the standard devi-
ation decreases as well as the coefficient of variation.

Thermomechanical Hardening of Rolled Stock
Let us consider the modes of hardening of rolled stock in
a train of mills with direct use of the rolling heat (see Fig. 2).
This hardening variant is characterized by considerable sav-
ing of power resources relative to the variant of hardening
from special heating after rolling.
Studying the processes of hardening and softening in hot
deformation and subsequent cooling of the metal we found it
b useful to study the diagrams of hot straining in combination
with metallographic analysis [8].
Fig. 5. Fine structure of toughened steel 15KhG2SMFR ( 50,000): Different types of substructure can be present in actual
a) matrix with formed polygonal cells; b ) initial stage of recrystalli- rolled products. Depending on the conditions of hot deforma-
zation (arrow A shows a large-angle boundary). tion (temperature, reduction ratio, deformation rate, duration
of post-deformation hold, and cooling conditions of the
metal) we can obtain a wide spectrum of structural states in
As a rule, the standardized rejection characteristic is the the deformed metal ranging from work-hardened to statically
value of the impact toughness that ensures the presence of fa- recrystallized ones [8].
vorable structures in the rolled stock. Below we present the The simplest cases of hardening from the rolling temper-
values of impact toughness corresponding to European stan- ature correspond to deformation in conventional modes
dard (EN 10113) for steels with sy 460 MPa: (Fig. 2), i.e., austenite is fully recrystallized before the cool-
ing, the cooling occurs at enhanced rates (in a tank with wa-
t, C KCV, MJ/m2 ter, in devices with laminar water flows, etc.), and tempering
+ 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50 is conducted after special heating. This process has been
0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.42 used successfully at the Nizhny Tagil Steel and Iron Works
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 (NTMK) for hardening sheet steel 15G2SF of the ferrite-
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 bainite class; rolled sheets with thickness of 50 and 60 mm
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 were produced for columns of multi-storied buildings
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 (Izmailovo Hotels, Moscow).
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20
Table 2 presents the modes of treatment and Table 3 the
main mechanical properties of the considered steel. It can be
Conventional domestic hot-rolled steels of type St3sp
seen that the steel has the highest properties after quenching
have KCV 0.29 MJ/m2 (at 20C), and low-alloy ferrite-
from the rolling temperature (mode 1 ). In this case the
pearlite steels like 09G2S have KCV = 0.29 MJ/m2 (at 0C). strength characteristics are about 100 MPa higher than after
According to EN 10025 a level of KCV 20 0.34 MJ/m2 is
guaranteed in the case of microalloying of steels of type
St3sp or 12G2S with aluminum or titanium and subsequent TABLE 2. Temperature Modes of Heat Treatment of Sheet
normalization. In Russia such processes are also used for (50 mm) Steel 15G2SF
low-alloy steels of the ferrite-pearlite class. Treatment
Numerous studies performed by us on various heat hard- ti.r , C tf.r , C tq , C ttemp , C
mode
ened steels have shown that the level of mechanical proper-
Toughening 930 650
ties in stretching is determined by the group of the steel with
1 1200 890 860 650
respect to the chemical composition and to the class of the
2 1300 930 920 650
microstructure. Toughened steels of type St3 in rolled plates
3 1200 1000 930 650
have sy 300 MPa (GOST 1463789). Low-alloy ferrite-
4 1300 1000 950 650
pearlite steels (10G2S1, 10KhSND) can have guaranteed
properties of S390 (sy 390 MPa), ferrite-bainite steels can Notations: ti.r and tf.r ) initial and final rolling temperatures, respec-
have sy 490 MPa, and steels of bainite and martensite tively; tq ) quenching temperature; ttemp ) tempering temperature.
Thermomechanical and Heat Hardening of Building Steels 115

HV
toughening. In fact the steel can be classified as S590. Its im-
pact toughness increases too, i.e., the effect of thermomecha-
nical treatment is attained. This optimum mode of treatment 250

for steel 15G2SF is characterized by minimum (for the con-
sidered cases) initial and final rolling temperatures and mini-
mum quenching temperature.
In our opinion the observed effect is connected with ad-
ditional (as compared to toughening) disintegration of aus-
tenite grains before the quenching and, in the first turn, with
more effective segregation of the fine phase due to the rela-
tively low initial and final rolling temperatures, special hold
of the rolled products between the end of roughing and the
beginning of finishing, higher density of grain boundaries on
which particles of VC carbide nucleate before the quenching,
and, finally, with the effect of silicon that intensifies the pro-
cess of segregation of vanadium carbide from austenite.
In hardening of steels of ferrite-pearlite class from the
rolling temperature by the described process the mechanical
properties do not improve [13] due to the full development of
recrystallization processes in austenite before quenching.
However, such processes are effective due to saving of en-
ergy carriers.
It is principally interesting to work out the processes of
hardening from the rolling temperature in a train of mills
with hot rolling by conventional modes and intense cooling
by turbulent water flows (Fig. 2). Such methods have been
used for hardening rolled sections and reinforcing bars
[6, 11]. In such cases tempering is realized due to the heat ac-
cumulated in the central zones of the sections.
The process of heat hardening of sections in a mill train
with rapid cooling of the surface of the rolled products has
been installed in continuous medium-section rolling mills.
A 450 mill of the East Siberian Iron and Steel Works
(ZSMK) is used for hardening angular shapes with flange
5 12 mm thick, channel sections Nos. 8 16, and I-bars
Nos. 14 16 from commercial-quality low-carbon and
low-alloy steels. Cooling is performed over the perimeter of
the rolled products by a turbulent water flow arriving
through an injector in special sections located behind the fin-
ishing stand [14]. The final rolling temperature of the shapes
in the mill is 1000 1100C at a speed of their motion of
8 15 m/sec; the rate of cooling of the surface by turbulent
water flows is about 1000 K/sec. Passing through the cham-
ber the rolled shapes are cooled to what is known as the aver-
Back axis
225
0.5
200
1.2
1.9
2.6
175 3.3
4.0
45 90 h, mm
Blade Back
Fig. 6. Distribution of hardness over the cross section of angles
90 90 8 mm in size with sy = 470 MPa thermomechanically
hardened in mill train. The numbers at the curves denote the distance
from the rolled surface, mm.
age mass temperature of 580 680C (depending on the in-
tensity of water feeding). In the final stage the shapes get on
cooling tables, where the surface layers of the metal are tem-
pered due to the heat accumulated in the core of the shapes
during heating for rolling.
A distinctive feature of the considered rolled stock is the
variation of the structure over the cross section, which is re-
sponsible for considerable nonuniformity of mechanical
properties over the cross section and over the perimeter
(Fig. 6); the surface hardness exceeds that of the core by
50 100 HV. In addition, the surface layers of such shapes
have substantial residual compressive stresses (about
100 MPa) that raise the operating capacity of the rolled stock
at low temperatures and variable loads [11]. Such a structure
can be described as a natural fiber composite. The stronger
fibers on the surface of a shape enclose and compress the less
strong tough core. This type of nonuniformity of properties
over the cross section is known as structural anisotropy [11].
The structural anisotropy observed in the mentioned
rolled shapes is directly connected with the inhomogeneity
of the microstructure over the cross section. The surface lay-
ers of the metal with microstructure of tempered martensite
and partially of acicular lower bainite have a hardness of
220 260 HV. The central layers of the shapes have a hard-
ness of 150 180 HV. An intermediate layer with a hardness
of 180 200 HV can be distinguished between these layers.

TABLE 3. Mechanical Properties of Sheet Steel 15G2SF after Various Kinds of Treatment
Treatment s0.01 , MPa sy , MPa sr , MPa d10 , % d5 , % dp , % KCU 70, KCV 70,
mode MJ/m2 MJ/m2
Toughening 510 530 640 16.5 23.0 9.5 0.45 0.20
1 600 610 750 16.0 22.0 10.0 0.90 0.40
2 580 600 760 14.5 19.0 7.8 0.37 0.15
3 570 580 685 16.0 21.5 8.1 0.40 0.18
4 650 670 730 13.0 16.0 6.1 0.21 0.10
116 P. D. Odesskii et al.

sr ; sy , P
TABLE 4. Impact Toughness of Hardened Steels

Class of strength KCU 70, MJ/m2 S , MJ/m2
KCU - 70
1400
sr S390 1.36 0.030
S440 1.58 0.038
1200 sy
S490 1.67 0.041

1000

TABLE 5. Modes of HTMT and Quenching (without HTMT)

800
of Steel 12GN2MFAYu (in the finishing mill)
Mode
600 ta , C td , C e, % hi , mm hf , mm n
100 200 300 400 500 600 ttemp , of treatment

KCU 40, J/m2 5 (quenching) 950 20 20

6 950 950 30 30 20 1
b
0.8 7 950 800 30 30 20 1
0.6 8 1000 1000 50 40 20 2
9 1000 900 50 40 20
0.4
0.2 Notations: ta ) austenization temperature; td ) deformation tempera-
ture; e) degree of deformation; hi and hf ) initial and final thickness
0
150 250 350 450 550 ttemp , of the preform; n ) number of passes.

Fig. 7. Dependence of mechanical properties of steel 15KhG2SMFR

on the tempering temperature after different kinds of hardening
treatment (the solid lines are used for HTMT, the dashed lines are
used for conventional hardening).
The microstructure of the mentioned shapes is described in
detail in [15, 16].
Depending on the intensity of the cooling, carbon steels
can be produced with sy = 300 400 MPa at a high impact
toughness. In accordance with the requirements of the GOST
2777288 standard, rolled products from hardened low-car-
bon steels can be produced with properties S285, S345,
S375, and even S390 and higher, i.e., with sy = 285, 345,
375, and 390 MPa, respectively, with strict requirements on
the impact toughness satisfied.
Table 4 presents a statistical analysis of data of impact
toughness acceptance tests of angle sections 90 90 8 mm
in size produced on a 450 mill of the ZSMK Company. The
tests were performed at the limiting standardized negative
temperature ( 70C) for specimens with a U-notch.
It should be noted that the strength of the rolled sections
increases simultaneously with the impact toughness at nega-
tive temperatures. This result shows that the mode for com-
mercial hardening has been chosen correctly.
Rolled sections with the considered microstructure hard-
ened from the rolling temperature possess high operating
properties, i.e., cold resistance, enhanced resistance to vari-
able loads, and enhanced damping parameters [11]. In for-
eign countries a similar process is used for hardening beams
with flanges up to 40 mm thick [17].
In [10] we observed the effect of grain disintegration in
recrystallization of austenite grains due to high-temperature
mechanical treatment (HTMT) performed with the aim of
producing rolled stock with sy = 750 MPa from bainitic
steels. The process (Fig. 2) involved hot rolling in recrystalli-
zation mode, water (and air) cooling, and high-temperature
tempering after special heating. In [10] we presented data on
the effect of HTMT on the properties of bainitic steel
15KhG2SMFR with final thickness of the rolled stock of
30 mm. The results of such treatment were compared with
data obtained for conventional heat hardening involving
quenching from 950C and tempering at 150 650C. In the
HTMT the deformation (25%) was performed at 1000C in
one pass and the hardening was performed from 950C with
cooling in a tank with water. The temperature Ar3 = 730C.
The data of Fig. 7 illustrate that the suggested thermomecha-
nical treatment increases considerably both the strength char-
acteristics and the impact toughness. A study of actual aus-
tenite grains after etching in picric acid showed that the size
of the grains after HTMT was much smaller than after the
toughening due to the active development of initial stages of
recrystallization.
This effect was studied in greater detail for steel
12GN2MFAYu [1, 8]. The conditions of hot deformation in
the finishing mill with subsequent cooling of the sections in
water (we also studied cooling in air) are presented in Ta-
ble 5. In all cases the temperature of heating for quenching
exceeded Ar3 = 730C substantially.
Table 6 presents the mechanical properties of the steel
right after the hardening. It can be seen that as a result of
HTMT the strength parameters have grown by 100
Thermomechanical and Heat Hardening of Building Steels 117

TABLE 6. Mechanical Properties of Steel 12GN2MFAYu P

after HTMT and Quenching
5
Mode sy , MPa d5 , % KCV 60,
y, % 6
of treatment MJ/m2 7
5 (quenching) 1095 10 40 0.28 8
9
6 1250 11 40 0.30
7 1210 11 42 0.35
8 1270 9 38 0.30
9 1270 10 37 0.32 f

Fig. 8. Oscillograms of impact bending of steel 12GN2MFAYu

TABLE 7. Mechanical Properties of Toughened Steel
12GN2MFAYu
Mode of treat-
ment before sy , MPa sr , MPa d5 , % y, %
toughening
5 630 760 23 56
6 780 850 18 52
7 750 880 19 52
8 760 900 19 52
9 770 870 19 52
200 MPa, whereas the ductility and the impact toughness
have changed little.
The results of testing of steel 12GN2MFAYu for the ten-
sile strength after HTMT and tempering at 680C are pre-
sented in Table 7. It can be seen that after the toughening
(mode 5 ) the steel acquires the expected strength of class
S590 (sy 590 MPa, sr 690 MPa), whereas the HTMT
followed by high-temperature tempering raises the strength
of the rolled sections substantially and brings it to class S750
(sy 750 MPa, sr 850 MPa). The special features of the
treatment (the interim cooling, the degree of deformation,
etc.) virtually do not affect the mechanical properties.
Tests for impact bending also showed certain advantages
of thermomechanical treatment, i.e., KCV 60 0.29 MJ/m2.
An oscillographic fracture diagram (Fig. 8) also showed that
the resistance to crack propagation was higher after HTMT,
i.e., the load after the appearance of the crack decreased
more slowly. The elevated resistance of steel 12GN2MFAYu
to crack propagation after HTMT also manifested itself in
tests for low-cycle fatigue [25].
A study of the fine structure of the steel allowed us to ex-
plain the growth in the combination of mechanical properties
after HTMT relative to toughening. After quenching, the
sizes of austenite grains were somewhat larger than after
HTMT. In addition, the grains became elongated due to the
HTMT, especially after the interim cooling. This is a sign of
some suppression of the processes of recrystallization and
grain disintegration after HTMT of this complexly alloyed
steel. Immediately after the quenching the steel has a struc-
ture of lath martensite. HTMT reduces the sizes of the laths
(specimens with V-notch) after treatment in modes 5 9 (see Ta-
ble 5) and subsequent tempering at 680C.
substantially and lowers the variance of their distribution [1].
The mean width of the laths after HTMT is about twice
smaller than after conventional quenching. The size of the
laths is about 0.15 0.70 mm after quenching and 0.08
0.5 mm after HTMT. Growth in the density of the boundaries
increases the resistance to crack propagation. In addition to
the disintegration of martensite laths due to HTMT, the laths
become more turned relative to each other (the structure be-
comes more fan-shaped), which increases the strength and
the resistance to crack propagation additionally.
HTMT followed by high-temperature tempering yields a
finer carbonitride phase than toughening, because the former
increases the density of small-angle boundaries that are
places of nucleation of particles. The mean size of the parti-
cles is about twice smaller than after toughening (33 and
63 nm, respectively), which also promotes fuller realization
of the effect of the thermomechanical treatment. On the
whole, we can state in the first approximation that the ob-
served effect of HTMT in the discussed case is explainable
by the increased dispersity of the structure. The physical na-
ture of the effect is described in greater detail in [25].
Hardening in Controlled Rolling
The term controlled rolling is not accurate enough and
is not used today in the foreign literature, at least in reference
works. Steel rolled by the thermomechanical method is men-
tioned as a rule (EN 10113, Part 3). We agree with the opin-
ion of L. I. fron [18] that only processes that ensure a spe-
cific state of austenite directly before the g a transforma-
tion can be referred to as controlled rolling.
It seems that the proportion of the temperatures of defor-
mation, recrystallization of austenite, and g a transforma-
tion is the most important classification feature [18, 19].
The treatment variants are usually as follows.
(1) High-temperature (recrystallization) treatment, when
austenite recrystallizes in the interval between the end of the
deformation and the beginning of the g a transformation.
(2) A variant when the deformation is performed above
the point Ar3 but in the temperature range where the
recrystallization of austenite is fully suppressed. Since the
118
b
Fig. 9. Structure of low-carbon steel hardened in mill train:
a) 10,000; b ) 12,000.
recrystallization is suppressed, the austenite grains have the
form of oblate pancake ellipses [19]. The temperature
range intermediate between the two described ones should
not be used for finishing the rolling, because the process oc-
curring here is intermediate between recrystallization and its
suppression, which results in nonuniform grain size in the
structure [20].
(3) Deformation in the double-phase domain, i.e., below
Ar3 but above Ar1 .
Controlled recrystallization rolling is used for ensuring
elevated strength (sy 345 MPa) in plate low-carbon steels.
Hardening of steels in the mode of controlled recry-
stallization rolling with accelerated cooling turned out to be
an economically expedient variant. Such a process is de-
scribed in [21]. Its distinctive feature is a pause between the
end of the rolling and the beginning of the accelerated wa-
ter-cooling, which lasts for 15 20 sec depending on the
thickness of the plate; the cooling rates attain 10 30 K/sec.
The pause is enough for the development of the initial stage
recrystallization of austenite (the deformation ends at
870 920C).
It has been shown in [2] that one of the most important
parameters of such treatment affecting the properties (the im-
pact toughness in the first turn) is the size of austenite grains
in the end of the process, which determines in its turn the size
of ferrite grains. The mentioned hold ensures fine austenite
grains in the rolled articles due to the initial stages of
recrystallization, and the cooling also promotes formation of
degenerated pearlite (Fig. 9a ). The content of such pearlite
increases from 20 25% (hot-rolled steel) to 60 70%. Fer-
rite grains disintegrate to 10 15 mm. Such rolled articles
have sy = 325 360 MPa, sr = 490 510 MPa, and
P. D. Odesskii et al.
KCU 40 = 0.50 0.90 MJ/m2. At a thickness of the rolled
stock of 10 30 mm transverse specimens exhibit
T50 = 20C (at a thickness of 30 mm T50 = 0C). In such
steels with disperse microstructure high values of impact
toughness are ensured in the entire range of climatic temper-
atures if the content of S and P, harmful impurities in the
metal, is decreased to < 0.025% [11].
Controlled recrystallization rolling has been used effi-
ciently for the production of rolled stock with enhanced
strength and cold resistance from microalloyed low-carbon
steel of type 18SATYu. In such steels the mass fraction of
carbon and manganese is equal to that in standard low-car-
bon steel St3 ( 0.20% C, 0.65% Mn). The properties of
hot-rolled stock from steels of type 18SATYu are elevated
due to complex microalloying by inexpensive nitride-form-
ing additives of titanium and aluminum in combination
with nitrogen (0.01 0.03% Ti, 0.02 0.05% Al,
0.008 0.016% N). In addition, the metal is alloyed with
about 1.0% Si for improving the kinematic conditions of seg-
regation of fine nitrides and carbides during the deformation
of austenite, which promotes diminution of austenite and fer-
rite grains. Such alloying ensures enhanced strength in the
rolled stock due to hardening of the solid solution, which
compensates the diminished content of manganese. Finally,
the rolling of such steel ends at a temperature of 850 880C.
On the whole, this ensures the occurrence of hardening pro-
cess by a mechanism close to high-temperature controlled
recrystallization rolling. Steel 18SATYu has exhibited en-
hanced strength characteristics (sy = 325 390 MPa) in
combination with high cold resistance (KCU 70
0.39 MJ/m2, KCV 40 0.34 MJ/m2, T50 = 10C [22, 23]).
The mentioned high results of tests for impact bending
are explainable by the dispersed and homogeneous ferrite-
pearlite structure (with grains less than 12 mm in size) and by
the absence of streak segregations of sulfide and oxysulfide
nonmetallic inclusions.
It is often presumed [24] that the optimum alloying sys-
tem for steel subjected to controlled recrystallization rolling
should include a microadditive of vanadium in order to
achieve maximum disintegration (about 4 mm) of the grains
and to avoid maximum reduction. We have seen the validity
of this presumption when we considered the example of
hardening of steel 15G2SF. It is shown in [24] that steels
microalloyed with vanadium have (in the rolled condition)
grains 3 5 mm in size, sy = 500 550 MPa, and
KCV 40 @ 0.20 MJ/m2 after recrystallization thermomecha-
nical treatment (25% reduction in finishing mills, final roll-
ing temperature about 1050C, rate of cooling 3 5 K/sec).
The process [26, 27] of hardening of coiled strips
4 12 mm thick from steel St3sp in the train of continuous
broad-strip mill 2000 at the Severstal Plant is an example
of controlled rolling with the end of the process close to the
critical point Ar3 (see Fig. 2) under conditions of absence of
recrystallization of austenite. The rolling is performed at
1250 1050C with reduction of 60%. Then the stock is
Thermomechanical and Heat Hardening of Building Steels
subjected to interim cooling to ensure a final rolling tempera-
ture of 800 780C (close to the point Ar3 ) in finishing
stands with total reduction of at least 40%, accelerated cool-
ing after the end of the rolling at a rate of 15 K/sec, and sub-
sequent coiling at a temperature not exceeding 580 600C.
The microstructure of the rolled stock is represented by a
ferrite-cementite mixture with morphology (Fig. 9b ) typical
of a metal hardened by the variant of controlled rolling with
deformation of nonrecrystallized austenite and full enough
occurrence of the tempering processes (in cooling of the
rolled strips after the coiling). The size of ferrite grains is
8 12 mm. Subgrains 3 4 mm in size are detectable inside
the grains. In their turn, the subgrains have a fine polygon-
cell structure with the size of the polygons equal to
0.3 0.4 mm [15].
The cementite phase often contains forms of degenerated
pearlite, i.e., thin discontinuous plates of cementite in the fer-
rite matrix. In some cases extended segregations of cementite
type 0.2 0.3 mm thick occur over boundaries of ferrite
grains (Fig. 9b ).
Coiled low-carbon steel hardened by the mentioned
method and having the described structure has sy = 350
375 MPa and sr = 490 580 MPa.
The results obtained in tests for impact toughness show
that the metal possesses a high cold brittleness, for example,
on transverse specimens KCU 70 0.35 MJ/m2, KCV 40
0.35 MJ/m2, and T50 = 40C, which indicates high resis-
tance of the hardened rolled stock to crack propagation.
Thus, rolled stock from low-carbon steels hardened in a
mill train in the mode of controlled recrystallization rolling
or controlled rolling with deformation of nonrecrystallized
austenite can have an elevated strength (sy = 325
385 MPa) in combination with high parameters of impact
toughness (KCU 70 0.35 MJ/m2, KCV 40 0.35 MJ/m2
on transverse specimens). The result obtained is explainable
by realization of the effects of thermomechanical treatment;
the rolled stock acquires a specific combination of fine
grains and subgrains, and a cementite phase in the form of
degenerated pearlite. Such rolled stock is superior to heat
hardened rolled stock from the same steels with respect to
strength and impact toughness and with respect to economic
and ecological parameters. Results close to the described
ones have been obtained in [28] in hardening of rolled stock
in 2000 NLMK mill.
CONCLUSIONS
1. At the present time metallurgical works in the world
and in Russia widely employ hardening processes in mill
trains in modes that ensure specified characteristics of
strength and resistance to brittle fracture with maximum eco-
nomic and ecological effects.
2. Thermomechanical treatment including accelerated
(with different intensity) cooling of rolled stock is a very ef-
119
fective technology for manufacturing metal products with
enhanced and high strength from steels with diminished car-
bon equivalent sparingly alloyed with manganese and guar-
antees their good weldability. It is possible to obtain rolled
stock for building structures with yield strength ranging from
350 to 600 MPa by controlling the temperature parameters of
the deformation and the cooling rate.
3. It is expedient to equip the existing and constructed
hot-rolling mills with systems for accelerated cooling of
rolled stock to ensure controllable cooling rate from 7 to
120 K/sec. At such cooling rates after thermomechanical
treatment low-alloy steels with low carbon content acquire a
dispersed structure with grains less than 1 mm in size. In ad-
dition to high strength such steels possess very high impact
toughness and operating properties.
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