Sandberg & Ohayon - Computational Aspects Structural Acoustics and Vibration

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The series presents lecture notes, monographs, edited works and

proceedings in the eld of Mechanics, Engineering, Computer Science
and Applied Mathematics.
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organized by CISM, the International Centre for Mechanical Sciences.
INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR MECHANICAL SCIENCES
COURSES AND LECTURES - No. 505
COMPUTATIONAL ASPECTS OF
STRUCTURAL ACOUSTICS AND
VIBRATION
EDITED BY
GRAN SANDBERG
LTH, LUND UNIVERSITY, SWEDEN
ROGER OHAYON
CNAM, PARIS, FRANCE
This volume contains 113 illustrations
This work is subject to copyright.

All rights are reserved,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned
specically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations,
broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine
or similar means, and storage in data banks.
2008 by CISM, Udine
Printed in Italy
SPIN 12567607
All contributions have been typeset by the authors.
ISBN 978-3-211-89650-1 SpringerWienNewYork

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Fundamentals of Fluid-Structure Interaction 25
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134 F. Ihlenburg
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; ;# <NNPHDIB OC<O DON KMJK<B<ODJI DIND?@ OC@ KJMJPN H@?DPH DN BJQ@MI@?
=T "GDNN @LP<ODJI ! KG<I@ R<Q@ DI OC@ KJMJPN H@?DPH >JHKJI@ION JA OC@ R<Q@ Q@FOJM N<ODNAT OC@ ?DNK@MNDJI M@G<ODJI
6 & 6 ' 6
RDOC OC@ KJMJPN R<Q@ IPH=@M 6 AMJH @LP<ODJI &MJH @LP<ODJI
R@ C<Q@
;
D6 & ;
C
DI RCD>C R@ M@KG<>@ 6 & AMJH OC@ OC@ ?DNK@MNDJI M@G<ODJI OJ J=O<DI
'
; 6 '
D6 ;
C 6
!KKMJSDH<ODIB IJR OC@ NLP<M@MJJO RDOC DON N@>JI?JM?@M 2<TGJM @SK<INDJI

R@ B@O
; 6 '
D6 ;
C 6
&DI<GGT R@ PN@ <B<DI @LP<ODJI DI JM?@M OJ M@KG<>@ 6 ' ; RDOC ;D
RCD>C G@<?N OJ
; ;
;
D6 C 6 D
2CPN R@ C<Q@ J=O<DI@? < N@>JI?JM?@M =JPI?<MT >JI?DODJI AJM OC@ DI>D?@I>@
JA < KG<I@ R<Q@ JI < =PGFM@<>ODIB H<O@MD<G 2CDN >JI?DODJI >J@>D@IO >A "GDNN <I? + . DN OC@ >C<M
<>O@MDNOD> DHK@?@ JA OC@ KJMJPN H@?DPH
2C@ M@@>ODJI >J@>D@IO JA OCDN =JPI?<MT >JI?DODJI ><G>PG<O@?
NDHDG<MGT <N AJM OC@ GJ><GGT M@<>ODIB =JPI?<MT >JI?DODJI 2C@ M@NPGO DN N@@
5DOO< >A 5DOO<

E >JN - NDI
#
E >JN - NDI
RDOC E + + <I? OC@ IJI?DH@INDJI<G =PGF >J@>D@IO - 6

)I < OCM@@?DH@INDJI<G N@OODIB OC@ N@>JI? ?@MDQ<ODQ@ <GJIB OC@ O<IB@IOD<G
<SDN DN M@KG<>@? =T OC@ O<IB@IOD<G +<KG<>@ JK@M<OJM 2C@ <=NJM=DIB
=JPI?<MT >JI?DODJI DN OC@I RMDOO@I DI OC@ AJMH
;
; ;
D6 9 6
JM @LPDQ<G@IOGT
;
D ; ;
9 +
647<;);165)3 1473-4-5;);165 2C@ R@DBCO@? M@ND?P<G JA OC@ MDBCO

C<I? ND?@ JA DN
! !

# D + ;</ + < ; /
+
RC@M@ OC@ DIO@BM<ODJI @SO@I?N JQ@M <GG A<>@N JA OC@ PD? QJGPH@ @G@H@ION
OC<O <M@ DI >JIO<>O RDOC OC@ KJMJPN =JPI?<MT 2C@ MNO O@MH JA OC@ M@ND?P<G
156 F. Ihlenburg
G@<?N OJ @G@H@IO DIO@BM<GN JA OC@ AJMH

!

/
D + /
+
RCD>C DI?D><O@N OC<O OC@ M@NDNODQ@ M@<G K<MO JA OC@ IJMH<G =JPI?<MT DHK@?@
JM @LPDQ<G@IOGT OC@ >C<M<>O@MDNOD> DHK@?@ JA OC@ KJMJPN H@?DPH >JI
OMD=PO@N QDN>JPN O@MHN OJ OC@ PD? ?<HKDIB H<OMDS RCDG@ O@MHN HPGODKGD@?
RDOC OC@ M@<>O@ DH<BDI<MT K<MO <M@ <??@? DIOJ OC@ H<NN H<OMDS 2C@
@G@H@IO DIO@BM<GN >JMM@NKJI?DIB OJ OC@ N@>JI? O@MH DI OC@ M@ND?P<G >@ OC@N@ DIO@BM<GN >JIO<DI OC@ BM<?D@ION JA OC@ NC<K@ API>ODJIN OC@DM
M@<G K<MON <M@ <??@? DIOJ OC@ PD? NODI@NN H<OMDS RC@M@<N OC@ DH<BDI<MT
K<MON <M@ <??@? DIOJ OC@ PD? ?<HKDIB H<OMDS 2C@N@ ?<HKDIB @IOMD@N <M@
HPGODKGD@? =T OC@ M@<G K<MO JA + OC@T M@KM@N@IO OC@ @@>O JA H<O@MD<G
?<HKDIB DI OC@ KJMJPN G<T@M
*:69*15/ *6<5,)9@ +65,1;165: 6. 01/0-9 69,-9 2C@ =JPI?<MT >JI

?DODJI AJM =PGF <=NJM=DIB H<O@MD<GN R<N ?@MDQ@? =T M@KG<>DIB OC@ ?DNK@MNDJI
M@G<ODJI DI RDOC DON N@>JI?JM?@M 2<TGJM @SK<INDJI 4<MDJPN <=NJM=DIB
=JPI?<MT >JI?DODJIN JA CDBC@M JM?@M C<Q@ =@@I ?@Q@GJK@? DI JM?@M OJ DHKG@
H@IO < M<?D<ODJI >JI?DODJI AJM ?DN>M@O@ IPH@MD><G H@OCJ?N JI =JPI?@? >JH
KPO<ODJI<G ?JH<DIN N@@ @B )I %ILPDNO <I? ,<E?< KMJKJN@? <
N@LP@I>@ JA <=NJM=DIB =JPI?<MT >JI?DODJIN AJM KG<I<M JM NKC@MD><G =JPI?
<MD@N 2C@N@ >JI?DODJIN >PMNDQ@GT ?@IDIB OC@ =JPI?<MT
JK@M<OJMN 7 C@M@ >DO@? <AO@M "<H=@MB@M @O <G
! !

!
?X 9
! !
! !
? X X
?9

! !
!
X
?
RDOC ?X .? RC@M@ . DN OC@ NK@@? JA NJPI? DI OC@ <>JPNOD> H@?DPH

%
)I OC@ ?@MDQ<ODJI JA >JI?DODJIN V OC@ @SKM@NNDJI DN M@
KG<>@? RDOC DON 9OC JM?@M /<?@ <KKMJSDH<ODJI %ILPDNO <I? ,<E?< KMJQ@?
OC<O PIGDF@ OC@ 2<TGJM @SK<INDJIN OC@ /<?@ @SK<INDJIN G@<? OJ <=NJM=DIB
=JPI?<MT >JI?DODJIN RCD>C <M@ NO<=G@ DI OC@ ODH@ ?JH<DI 2C@ M@@>ODJI
>J@>D@IO AJM OC@ =JPI?<MT >JI?DODJI JA JM?@M 7 DN

>JN
#
>JN
!GG >JI?DODJIN <M@ @S<>O AJM KG<I@ R<Q@N JA IJMH<G DI>D?@I>@ 2C@ HJM@ OC@
<IBG@ JA DI>D?@I>@ ?@K<MON AMJH OC@ IJMH<G ?DM@>ODJI OC@ G<MB@M OC@ DIP@I>@
JA OC@ CDBC@MJM?@M O@MHN DI OC@ N@LP@I>@
2C@ N@>JI?JM?@M %ILPDNO,<E?< >JI?DODJI >JI?DODJI =T N@OODIB E
<I? 6 6 2CDN >C<IB@ JA K<M<H@O@MN DN @LPDQ<G@IO OJ KCTND><GGT M@KG<>DIB
OC@ KJMJPN H@?DPH =T OC@ <>JPNOD> H@?DPH 2C@ AJMH<G NDHDG<MDOT JA =JOC
>JI?DODJIN M@NPGON AMJH OC@ A<>O OC<O OC@ N@>JI?JM?@M /<?@ <I? 2<TGJM @S
K<INDJIN <M@ D?@IOD><G 5@ H<T C@I>@ @SK@>O OJ J=O<DI NO<=G@ CDBC@MJM?@M
=JPI?<MT >JI?DODJIN AJM OC@ DI>D>@I>@ JI < KJMJPN G<T@M =T AJGGJRDIB OC@
?@MDQ<ODJI JA %ILPDNO <I? ,<E?< =PO M@KG<>DIB @Q@MTRC@M@ OC@ PD? R<Q@
IPH=@M 6 RDOC OC@ KJMJPN R<Q@ IPH=@M 6 )I KM<>OD>@ OC@ >JHKPO<ODJI<G
DHKG@H@IO<ODJI JA OC@ CDBC@MJM?@M >JI?DODJIN DN <?Q@MN@GT <@>O@> =T OC@
DI>M@<NDIB JM?@M JA O<IB@IOD<G ?@MDQ<ODQ@N .IGT OC@ MNO <I? N@>JI?JM?@M
>JI?DODJIN <M@ PNP<GGT <Q<DG<=G@ DI >JHH@M>D<G NJAOR<M@ K<>F<B@N
)9)4-;91+ :;<,@ 6. ;0- )*:697;165 +6-+1-5; 2C@ H<O@MD<G K<

M<H@O@MN + JM >JHKPO<ODJI<G KM<>OD>@ DO H<T =@ PN@APG OJ >CJJN@ OC@
K<M<H@O@MN NP>C OC<O OC@T >JMM@NKJI? OJ < ?@NDM@? >J@>D@IO JA =JPI?<MT
<=NJMKODJI )O R<N NCJRI @<MGD@M OC<O # RC@M@ # DN OC@ M@@>ODJI
>J@>D@IO 3NDIB OC@ @SKM@NNDJI AJM # AMJH R@ B@O

E >JN - NDI

E >JN - NDI
)A - OC@I OCDN @LP<ODJI M@?P>@N OJ OC@ R@GGFIJRI M@G<ODJI AJM GJ><GGT

M@<>ODQ@ =JPI?<MD@N >A &<CT K
= >JN

= >JN C >JN
2C@ ?@K@I?@I>@ JA OC@ <=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO JI OC@ <IBG@ <I? JI OC@

M@NDNO@ = DN NCJRI DI &DB AJM C 2C@ <=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO
<OO<DIN DON H<SDH<G Q<GP@ <GJIB OC@ >PMQ@ = >JN
&JM IJMH<G
158 F. Ihlenburg
1/<9-
!=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO JA < GJ><GGT <=NJM=DIB =JPI?<MT <N <
API>ODJI JA OC@ M@NDNO@ = <I? <IBG@ JA DI>D?@I>@
1/<9-
!=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO JA < GJ><GGT <=NJM=DIB =JPI?<MT <N <
API>ODJI JA OC@ M@NDNO@ = >JHK<MDNJI JA IJMH<G NJGD? GDI@ <I? ?DPN@
DI>D?@I>@ ?<NC@? GDI@
DI>D?@I>@ OC@ JKODH<G Q<GP@ DN = N@@ OC@ NJGD? GDI@ DI &DB
RCD>C >JMM@NKJI?N OJ OC@ DHK@?@ H<O>C + +
)I HJNO KM<>OD><G <KKGD><ODJIN JI@ <NNPH@N < ?DPN@ DI>D?@I>@ JA KG<I@
R<Q@N 2C@ <Q@M<B@ <=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO DN OC@I >JHKPO@? <N K
!
NDI /

&JM C OCDN DIO@BM<G >JHKPO@? DI >GJN@? AJMH <N < API>ODJI JA
OC@ M@NDNO@

= = GJB =
= =
2CDN <Q@M<B@? API>ODJI DN NCJRI DI &DB RC@M@ OC@ API>ODJI = AJM IJM
H<G DI>D?@I>@ J=O<DI@? AMJH =T N@OODIB C DN <GNJ ?DNKG<T@?
AJM >JHK<MDNJI
1/<9-
!=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO JA ODJI JA M@NDNO@ <I? M@<>O@ AJM ?DPN@ DI>D?@I>@
2C@ ?@K@I?@I>@ JA OC@ ?DPN@ <=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO JI M@NDNO@ <I?

M@<>O@ DN NCJRI DI &DB 2C@ CDBC@NO <=NJMKODJI DN J=O<DI@? =T >CJJN
DIB < GJR Q<GP@ AJM OC@ M@<>O@ <I? < M@NDNO@ Q<GP@ <=JPO = 2C@
<=NJMKODJI ?@>M@<N@N AJM C JM = =
2C@ <Q@M<B@? <=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO AJM ?DPN@ DI>D?@I>@ <N < API>ODJI JA
= <I? - DN NCJRI DI &DB !N @SK@>O@? OC@ H<SDH<G Q<GP@ JA OC@ <=
NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO DN CDBC@M OCJI?DODJI
1/<9-
!=NJMKODJI >J@>D@IO AJM OC@ =PGF <=NJM=DIB =JPI?<MT >JI
?DODJI <N < API>ODJI JA M@NDNO@ = <I? =PGF <=NJMKODJI - AJM ?DPN@
DI>D?@I>@ ?@O<DG <MJPI? OC@ H<SDHPH JA OC@ NPMA<>@
2C@ =JPI?<MT >JI?DODJI AJM =PGF <=NJM=DIB H<O@MD<GN DN OC@M@AJM@

160 F. Ihlenburg
K<MOD>PG<MGT NPDO@? AJM <>CD@QDIB < CDBC >J@>D@IO JA =JPI?<MT <=NJMKODJI

)I K<MOD>PG<M OCDN >JI?DODJI >JI?JM?@M <KKMJS
DH<ODJI OJ OC@ 1JHH@MA@G? M<?D<ODJI >JI?DODJI =T >CJJNDIB + + <I?
6
('&"! " $""'%& " "$&

2C@ J=E@>ODQ@N JA QD=MJ<>JPNOD> NDHPG<ODJIN DI DI?PNOMD<G KM<>OD>@ Q<MT ?@
K@I?DIB JI OC@ =MC JA DI?PNOMT <I? OC@ API>ODJI<GDOT JA OC@ ?@QD>@N
%S<HKG@N JA OCDIR<GG@? ><=DIN DI>GP?@ OC@ =J?D@N JA K<NN@IB@M ><MN M<DG
R<T R<BJIN NCDKN JM <DMKG<I@N =PO <GNJ MJ>F@ON <I? N<O@GGDO@N )I NJH@
JA OC@N@ <KKGD><ODJIN OC@ <>JPNOD> GJ<? H<T =@ NDBID><IO G@<?DIB @Q@I OJ
NOMP>OPM<G A<DGPM@ )I HJNO ><N@N OC@ G@Q@GN JA IJDN@ <I? NOMP>OPM<G Q@GJ>D
OD@N <M@ DI < NP=>MDOD><G M<IB@ =PO NCJPG? NODGG =@ GDHDO@? DI JM?@M OJ N<ODNAT
DI?PNOMD<G NO<I?<M?N JM >JNOPH@M @SK@>O<ODJIN 2C@ M@<GDNOD> KM@?D>ODJI JA
OC@ NJPI? G@Q@G <O >@MO<DI C@<MDIB KJNDODJIN DN PNP<GGT OC@ KMDH<MT BJ<G JA
QD=MJ<>JPNOD> NDHPG<ODJIN )A OC@ NJPI? G@Q@G ?J@N IJO H@@O OC@ NO<I?<M?N
DO DN I@>@NN<MT OJ >C<IB@ OC@ ?@NDBI JA OC@ QD=M<ODIB NOMP>OPM@N DI JM?@M OJ
M@?P>@ OC@ <>JPNOD> M<?D<ODJI AMJH NOMP>OPM<G K<MON DI OC@ CDBCAM@LP@I>T
M<IB@ JM OJ M@?P>@ >@MO<DI AM@LP@I>TM@NKJIN@ K@<FN JA OC@ NOMP>OPM@PD?
QD=M<ODJIN DI OC@ GJR <I? H@?DPHAM@LP@I>T M<IB@ )O DN OC@M@AJM@ M@<NJI
<=G@ OJ DIOMJ?P>@ N@>JI?<MT <PSDGD<MT >MDO@MD< OC<O M@G<O@ OC@ KM@NNPM@ G@Q@G
DIND?@ OC@ ><QDOT OJ OC@ QD=M<ODJI<G <>ODQDOT JA OC@ NOMP>OPM<G K<MON 2C@N@
<PSDGD<MT BJ<GN NCJPG? @I<=G@ OC@ >JHKPO<ODJI<G <I<GTNO OJ GJ><GDN@ NJPI?
NJPM>@N DI OC@ NOMP>OPM@ <N R@GG <N >MDOD><G AM@LP@I>D@N JA @S>DO<ODJI
"6<5, 9-::<9- )5, 6,)3 )9;1+17);165 )+;69:

2C@ IPH@MD><G NJGPODJI JA OC@ NTNO@H V =T &%, DN J=O<DI@? DI
?DN>M@O@ IJ?@N JA OC@ >JPKG@? NOMP>OPM@PD? >JIODIPPH " 2C@ >JH
KPO<ODJI<G JPOKPO DN < Q@>OJM =" 7 JA &%# JA NOMP>OPM<G Q@GJ>DOT
<I? PD? KM@NNPM@ 2C@ >JPKG@? GDI@<M NTNO@H > NODI@NN H<OMD>@N JA NOMP>OPM@ <I? PD?
<I? DN OC@ >JPKGDIB H<OMDS 5@ C<Q@ <NNPH@? AJM NDHKGD>DOT OC<O IJ
NJPM>@N JA NJPI? <M@ KM@N@IO DI OC@ PD? M@BDJI 2C@ >JPKGDIB H<OMDS >JI
O<DIN GDI@<M @LP<ODJIN RCD>C GDIF IJ?<G Q<GP@N DI OC@ PD? <I? NOMP>OPM<G
BMD? KJDION JI OC@ R@O NPMA<>@ %
2C@ N@>JI? MJR JA OC@ H<OMDS @LP<ODJIN > M@NKJIN@ JA OC@ PD? ><QDOT OJ
OC@ NOMP>OPM<G Q@GJ>DOD@N )ON NJGPODJI
7

="
?@I@N < OM<INA@M API>ODJI =@OR@@I IJ?<G Q<GP@N JA NOMP>OPM<G Q@GJ>DOD@N DI
<GG IJ?@N JI OC@ R@O NPMA<>@ <I? KM@NNPM@ DI <GG DIO@MI<G PD? BMD? KJDION
2C@ @G@H@ION JA OC@ OM<INA@M H<OMDS >OJM 7 OC@ 4OC MJR JA OC@ OM<INA@M H<OMDS >JIO<DIN
OC@ IJ?<G >JIOMD=PODJIN JA <GG >JPKG@? NOMP>OPM<G Q@GJ>DOD@N OJ OC@ KM@NNPM@
M@NKJIN@ ;?

)5-3 )9;1+17);165 )+;69:
!NNPH@ OC<O OC@ R@O NPMA<>@ DN K<MODODJI@? DIOJ IJIDIO@MN@>ODIB NP=?J
H<DIN ><GG@? K<I@GN
"
%

)I OC@ >JIO@SO JA ?DN>M@ODN<ODJI H@OCJ?N OC@ K<I@GN >OPM<G IJ?@N 2CDN K<MODODJI DI?P>@N < M@KM@N@IO<ODJI
JA OC@ >JPKGDIB H<OMDS <N < NPH

RC@M@ >JIO<DIN OC@ @IOMD@N AMJH OC@ IJ?@N JI K<I@G )IN@MODIB OCDN
M@KM@N@IO<ODJI DIOJ @LP<ODJI R@ J=O<DI
7
7
9 ="
JM @LPDQ<G@IOGT

7 7

2C@ >JHKG@SQ<GP@? Q@>OJMN 7

=" <M@ ><GG@? OC@ "
$ $ $"# <>OP<GGT NPHH<I?N RJPG? =@ HJM@ KM@>DN@ /<I@G
K<MOD>DK<ODJI A<>OJMN OCPN M@KM@N@IO R@DBCO@? NPHN JA IJ?<G K<MOD>DK<ODJI
A<>OJMN JQ@M NP=?JH<DIN JA OC@ R@O NPMA<>@ )I KM<>OD>@ OC@ K<I@G K<MOD>
DK<ODJI A<>OJMN <M@ @Q<GP<O@? <O >@MO<DI PD? IJ?@N @B OC@ ?MDQ@M N @<M
KJNDODJIN DI ><M ><=DIN &JM @<>C NP>C IJ?@ OC@ >JHKG@SQ<GP@? <HKGDOP?@
162 F. Ihlenburg
JA OC@ KM@NNPM@ M@NKJIN@ <I? OC@ >JHKG@SQ<GP@? K<I@G K<MOD>DK<ODJI A<>OJMN

<M@ ?@KD>O@? <N <MMJRN DI OC@ >JHKG@S KG<I@ 2C@ KGJO JI OC@ G@AO JA &DB
>JMM@NKJI?N OJ < NDOP<ODJI RC@M@ <GG K<I@GN @LP<GGT >JIOMD=PO@ OJ OC@ JQ@M
<GG M@NKJIN@ ! RC@M@<N OC@ KGJO JI OC@ MDBCO >JMM@NKJI?N OJ < ?JHDI<IO
>JIOMD=PODJI JA K<I@G
1/<9- /<I@G K<MOD>DK<ODJI A<>OJMN
8<1=)3-5; !),1);-, 6>-9 )5, 6+)3 ";15-::

2C@ K<I@G K<MOD>DK<ODJI A<>OJMN >JPKG@? >JHKPO<ODJI JA OC@ NOMP>OPM<G <I? PD? M@NKJIN@ 2C@T <M@
DI A<>O KM@NNPM@ <HKGDOP?@N OC<O >OPM<G
K<MON K<I@GN PNDIB NK@>D> OM<INA@M H<OMD>@N ! ?DM@>O @Q<GP<ODJI JA OC@
NOMP>OPM<G QD=M<ODJI DN BDQ@I =T OC@ NJ><GG@? @LPDQ<G@IO M<?D<ODIB KJR@M JA
< K<I@G
!>>JM?DIB OJ @LP<ODJI OC@ ODH@<Q@M<B@? KJR@M M<?D<O@? AMJH <
QD=M<ODIB K<I@G RDOC < NPMA<>@ <M@< >OPM<G Q@GJ>DOT JI OC@
K<I@G NPMA<>@ 2CDN @SKM@NNDJI ><G>PG<O@? JIGT DA OC@ M@NPGON AMJH OC@
>JPKG@? NJGPODJI AJM NOMP>OPM@ <I? PD? <M@ <Q<DG<=G@
! NDHKGD@? H@<NPM@ DN J=O<DI@? DA OC@ KM@NNPM@ DN M@KG<>@? =T OC@ Q@GJ>
DOT <NNPHDIB OC<O @<>C @G@H@IO JA OC@ K<I@G <>ON <N < MDBD? KDNOJI @HDOODIB
< KG<I@ R<Q@ RCJN@ IJMH<G Q@GJ>DOT JI OC@ R@O NPMA<>@ DN @LP<G OJ OC@ NOMP>
OPM<G Q@GJ>DOT !>>JM?DIB OJ @LP<ODJI OC@ KM@NNPM@ JA < KG<I@ R<Q@ DI
OC@ <>JPNOD> H@?DPH DN ; .A 3NDIB OCDN M@G<ODJI OC@ M<?D<O@? KJR@M
DN <KKMJSDH<O@GT @SKM@NN@? =T OC@ NJ><GG@? !%&$ "$ '"
!

%0/ . A /

2C@ %0/ Q<GP@ DN C@I>@ < R@DBCO@? NPH JA OC@ NLP<M@? IJMH<G Q@GJ>DOD@N JI
< K<I@G )O C<N OC@ KCTND><G ?DH@INDJI JA NJPI? KJR@M )I OC@ CDBCAM@LP@I>T
M<IB@ DO >A #M@H@M <I? (@>FG 4) )I OC@ GJRAM@LP@I>T M<IB@ DO >T?@K@I?@IO DI?D><OJM JA OC@ NK<>@<Q@M<B@?
QD=M<ODJI<G <>ODQDOT JA < K<I@G 2C@M@AJM@ < G<MB@ %0/ DN < I@>@NN<MT =PO
IJO < NP>D@IO >JI?DODJI AJM < NDBID><IO >JIOMD=PODJI JA OC@ K<MOD>PG<M
K<I@G OJ OC@ JQ@M<GG IJDN@ G@Q@G
3IGDF@ OC@ K<I@G K<MOD>DK<ODJI A<>OJMN OC@ %0/ Q<GP@N ><G>PG<O@?
AMJH OC@ PI>JPKG@? NOMP>OPM<G M@NKJIN@ 5CDG@ OC@ K<I@G K<MOD>DK<ODJI A<>
OJMN ?@K@I? NDBID><IOGT JI OC@ KC<N@N JA =JOC OC@ NOMP>OPM<G <I? OC@ PD?
M@NPGON OC@ KC<N@N JA OC@ IJ?<G Q@GJ>DOD@N <M@ I@BG@>O@? DI OC@ %0/ Q<GP@N
2CPN JI OC@ JI@ C<I? OC@ %0/ Q<GP@N >JIO<DI A@R@M DIAJMH<ODJIN =PO JI
OC@ JOC@M C<I? OC@T <M@ HJM@ MJ=PNO OCDK<ODJI Q<GP@N
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Model Based Partitioned Simulation of Coupled
Systems
Carlos A. Felippa and K. C. Park

Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences and Center for Aerospace Structures,
University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0429, USA
email: carlos.felippa@colorado.edu
Abstract. This tutorial paper is extracted from a set of graduate lectures
on the time-domain simulation of structural dynamics and coupled systems.
This material has also served as a basis for a CISM lecture series on FSI. For
the treatment of coupled systems, emphasis is placed on partitioned analysis
procedures. Although the subject emerged in the present form over 20 years
ago, the time-consuming study of competing formulations and implementa-
tions can be streamlined through the use of various tools such as reduction
to model equations, and the help of computer algebra systems.
Keywords: computational structural dynamics, coupled systems, uid-
structure interaction, multiphysics, computer algebra, partitioned analysis,
time integration.
1 Introduction
Whats hot in computational mechanics? The three multis: multiscale, multi-
physics and multiprocessing. Collectively these trends pertain to the formulation
and model-based simulation of coupled systems: systems whose behavior is driven
by the interaction of functionally distinct components. The nature of these com-
ponents broadly denes the multi discipline. Material models that span a range
of physical scales (for example, molecular through crystal) are the framework of
multiscale simulations. Multiphysics addresses the interaction of different physi-
cal behavior, as in structures and uids, at similar physical scales. Multiprocessing
refers to computational methods that use system decomposition to achieve concur-
rency. Summarizing, system breakdown is governed by: (S) physical scales in
multiscale, (P) physical behavior in multiphysics, and (C) computer implementa-
tion considerations in multiprocessing. Plainly a three-level hierarchy: (S)-(P)-(C),
can be discerned, but this level of full generality has not been reached in practice.
The hot areas share a common feature: explosive complexity. Choices
among models, algorithms and implementations grow combinatorially in the num-
ber of components. Consider for example a uid-structure interaction problem.
172 C. A. Felippa and K. C. Park
Whereas a FEM model for the structure may be viewed as natural, the choice of
uid model can vary across a wide spectrum, depending on what physical effects
(ow, turbulence, acoustic shocks, mixing, slosh, cavitation, moving boundaries,
bubbles, etc.) are to be captured. Discretization methods vary accordingly. If
control is added to the picture, for example to simulate maneuvers of a exible
airplane, further choices emerge. So far this applies to components in isolation.
Treating interaction requires additional decisions at interfaces. For example: do
meshes match? can meshes slip past each other? how can reduced or spectral
models be linked to physical models? To make things more difcult, often models
that work correctly with isolated components break down when coupled. But that
is not all. Proceeding to the computer implementation and testing levels may bring
up further options, in particular if parallel processing issues are important.
How to cope with this combinatorial explosion? Analytical treatment can go
so far in weeding out choices. The traditional way to go beyond that frontier is nu-
merical experimentation. This has limitations: the most one can hope to do is take
potshots at the computational application domain. It can only show that a par-
ticular numerical model works or doesnt. A bridging tool between human an-
alytical thought and numerical testing has gained popularity over the past decade:
computer algebra systems (CAS) able to carry out symbolic computations. This
is due to technical improvements in general-purpose CAS such as Mathematica
and Maple, as well as availability on inexpensive personal computers and laptops.
(This migration keeps licensing costs reasonable.) Furthermore, Maple is acces-
sible as a toolbox of the widely used Matlab system. A related factor is wider
exposure in higher education: many universities now have site licenses, which
facilitate access and use of CAS for course assignments and projects.
In computational mechanics, CAS tools can be used for a spectrum of tasks:
formulation, prototyping, implementation, performance evaluation, and automatic
code generation. Although occasionally advertised as doing mathematics by com-
puter the phrase is misleading: as of now only humans can do mathematics. But a
CAS can provide timely help. Here is a rst-hand example: the rst author needed
four months to formulate, implement and test the 6-node nite element triangle in
1965 as part of thesis work [7]. Using a CAS, a similar process can be completed
in less than a week, and demonstrated to students in 20 minutes.
In the present chapter, Mathematica [41] is employed as a CAS lter tool in
the design and analysis of time integration methods for structural dynamics and
coupled systems. The main purpose of the lter is to weed out unsuitable methods
by working on model test systems. This initial pass streamlines subsequent stages
of numerical experimentation and computer implementation.
Model Based Partitioned Simulation of Coupled Systems 173
2 Coupled Systems
This section denes coupled systems and introduces pertinent terminology.
2.1 Systems
The American Heritage Dictionary lists eight meanings for system. By itself
the term is used here in the sense of a functionally related group of components
forming or regarded as a collective entity. This denition uses component as a
generic term that embodies element or part, which connote simplicity, as well
as subsystem, which connotes complexity. In the sequel we restrict attention to
mechanical systems, and especially those of importance in Aerospace, Civil and
Mechanical Engineering.
2.2 System Decomposition

Systems are analyzed by decomposition or breakdown. Complex systems are
amenable to many kinds of decomposition chosen according to specic analysis or
design objectives. This chapter focuses on decompositions called partitions that
are suitable for model-based simulations. Such simulations aim at describing or
predicting the state of the system under specied conditions viewed as external to
the system. A set of states ordered according to some parameter such as time or
load level is called a response.
System designers are not usually interested in detailed response computations
per se, but on project goals such as cost, performance, lifetime, fabricability, in-
spection requirements and satisfaction of mission objectives. The recovery of those
overall quantities from simulations is presently an open problem in computer sys-
tem modeling and one that is not addressed here.
The term partitioning identies the process of spatial separation of a discrete
model into interacting components generically called partitions. The decomposi-
tion may be driven by physical, functional, or computational considerations. For
example, the structure of a complete airplane can be decomposed into substruc-
tures such as wings and fuselage according to function. Substructures can be fur-
ther decomposed into submeshes or subdomains to accommodate parallel comput-
ing requirements. Subdomains are composed of individual elements. Going the
other way, if that exible airplane is part of a ight simulation, a top-level par-
tition driven by physics may couple uid and structure (and perhaps control and
propulsion) models. This kind of multilevel partition hierarchy at common phys-
ical scales: coupled system, structure, substructure, subdomain and element, is
typical of present practice in modeling and computational technology.
(a) Y (b) Y
X X
Figure 1. Interaction between subsystems and : (a) one way, (b) two way.
2.3 Coupled System Terminology

Coupled systems have been studied by many people from various perspectives,
but the eld is still advancing rapidly, and terminology is far from standard. The
following summary is one that has evolved for the computational simulation, and
does reect personal choices of the authors. Most denitions follow usage estab-
lished in a series of articles in the 1980s [10, 12, 2426]. Casual readers may want
to skim the following material and return only for denitions.
A coupled system is one in which physically or computationally heterogeneous
mechanical components interact dynamically.
The interaction is one-way if there is no feedback between subsystems, as pic-
tured in Figure 1(a) for two subsystems identied as and . The interaction is
two-way (or generally: multiway) if there is feedback, as illustrated in Figure 1(b)
In the latter case, which will be that of primary interest here, the response has to
be obtained by solving simultaneously the coupled equations that model the sys-
tem. The heterogeneous qualier is used in the sense that component simulation
benets from custom treatment. It should be noted that one-way and multiway
interaction are called weak and strong, respectively, by some authors.
As noted in Section 2.2, the decomposition of a complex coupled system for
simulation is hierarchical with two to four levels being common. At the rst level
one encounters two types of subsystems, embodied in the generic term eld:
Physical Subsystems. Subsystems are called physical elds when their mathemat-
ical model is described by eld equations. Examples are mechanical and non-
mechanical objects treated by continuum theories: solids, uids, heat and elec-
tromagnetics. Occasionally those components may be intrinsically discrete, as
in actuation control systems or rigid-body mechanisms. In such a case the term
physical eld is used for expediency, with the understanding that no spatial dis-
cretization process is involved.
Articial Subsystems. Sometimes articial subsystems are incorporated for com-

putational convenience. Two examples: (i) dynamic uid meshes to effect volume
mapping of Lagrangian to Eulerian descriptions in interaction of structures with
uid ow, and (ii) ctitious interface elds, often called frames, that facilitate
information transfer between two subsystems.
TIM
Start time tn ESTE
P h
xi
SPACE End time tn+1

3D
TIME
t
Splitting in time Partitioning

(fluid field only) in space
Figure 2. Decomposition of an aeroelastic FSI coupled system: partitioning in

space and splitting in time. 3D space is pictured as at for visualization con-
venience. Spatial discretization (omitted for clarity) may predate or follow parti-
tioning. Splitting (here for uid only) is repeated over each time step and obeys
time discretization constraints.
2.4 Partitions
A coupled system is characterized as two-eld, three-eld, etc., according to
the number of different elds that appear in the rst-level decomposition.
For computational treatment of a dynamical coupled system, elds are dis-
cretized in space and time. A eld partition is a eld-by-eld decomposition in
space. A splitting is a decomposition of the time (or pseudo time) discretization of
a eld within its time step interval. See Figure 2. In the case of static or quasi-static
analysis, real time is replaced by pseudo-time or some kind of control parameter.
Partitioning is the process of spatially decomposing the system into partitions.
This may be algebraic or differential. In algebraic partitioning the complete cou-
pled system is spatially discretized rst, and then decomposed. In differential
partitioning the decomposition is done before discretization, and each eld is then
separately discretized.
Algebraic partitioning was originally developed for matched meshes and sub-
structuring; see Figure 3(a), but later work has aimed at simplifying the treatment
of nonmatched meshes through frames [28, 29]. Differential partitioning often
leads to nonmatched meshes, which are typical of uid-structure interaction as
depicted in Figure 3(b), and handles those naturally.
A property is said to be intereld or intraeld if it pertains collectively to all
partitions, or to individual partitions, respectively. A common use of this qualier
(a)
(b)
Fluid
Structure
Figure 3. Two partitioning types: (a) algebraic versus (b) differential.
concerns parallel computation. Intereld parallelism refers to the implementa-

tion of a parallel computation scheme in which all partitions can be concurrently
processed for time-stepping. Intraeld parallelism refers to the implementation
of parallelism for an individual partition using a second-level decomposition; for
example breaking up a structure into substructures or subdomains.
2.5 Coupled Problem Examples

Experiences discussed in this chapter come from systems where a structure is
one of the elds. Accordingly, all of the following examples list structures as one
of the eld components. The number of interacting elds is given in parenthesis.
Fluid-structure interaction (2)
Thermal-structure interaction (2)
Control-structure interaction (2)
Control-uid-structure interaction (3)
Electro-thermo-mechanical interaction (3)
Fluid-structure-combustion-thermal interaction (4)
When a uid is one of the interacting elds a wider range of computational model-
ing possibilities opens up as compared to, say, structures or thermal elds. For the
latter nite element discretization methods can be viewed as universal in scope.
(a) (b)
Gas
Inlet
Outlet Structure
Liquid
Fluid
Figure 4. Interior versus exterior coupled problem. In (a) the structure (tank) sur-
rounds the non structural elds: liquid and gas. In (b) the structure (submarine) is
immersed in a uid assumed as having innite extent.
On the other hand, the range of uid phenomena is controlled by several major
physical effects such as viscosity, compressibility, mass transport, gravity and cap-
illarity. Incorporation or neglect of these effects gives rise to widely different eld
equations as well as an array of discretization techniques.
For example, the interaction of an acoustic uid with a structure in aeroacous-
tics or underwater shock is computationally unlike that of high-speed gas dynamics
with an aircraft or rocket, a surface ship with ocean waves, or ow through porous
media. Even more variability can be expected if chemistry and combustion effects
are considered. Control systems also exhibit modeling variabilities that tend not to
be so pronounced, however, as in the case of uids. The partitioned treatment of
some of those examples is further discussed in subsequent sections.
2.6 Interior and Exterior Problems

When interacting elds occupy nonoverlapping regions of space, and one of
them is a structure, the following terminology is commonly used.
Interior Problem. The structure surrounds the nonstructural elds. For example,
in the tank problem illustrated in Figure 4(a).
Exterior Problem. The structure is surrounded by nonstructural elds that may be
viewed to be unbounded; e.g., in the submarine problem depicted in Figure 4(b).
2.7 Scenarios
Because of its combinatorial nature as discussed in the Introduction
model based simulation of a coupled system rarely occurs as a predictable long-
term goal. Some more likely scenarios are as follows.
Research Project. Members of a research group develop personal expertise in
modeling and simulation of two or more isolated problems. The group is then
called upon to pool that disciplinary expertise into solving a coupled problem.
Product Development. Design and verication of a product requires concurrent
consideration of interaction effects in service or emergency conditions. The team
does not have access, however, to software that accommodates those requirements.
Software House. A company develops commercial application software targeted to
single elds as isolated entities: a CFD gas-dynamics code, a structure FEM pro-
gram and a thermal analyzer. As the customer base expands, requests are received
to allow interaction effects targeted to more ambitious applications. For example
a CFD user may want to account for moving rigid boundaries, interaction with a
exible structure, and eventually linkage to a control system as in [2, 27].
The following subsection discusses approaches to these scenarios.
2.8 Approaches to Coupled Problem Simulation

To x the ideas we assume that the simulation calls for dynamic analysis that
involves following the time response of the system. [Static or quasistatic analyses
can be encompassed by introducing a pseudo-time history parameter.] Further-
more, the modeling and simulation of isolated components is assumed to be well
understood. Approaches to the simulation of the coupled system include:
Field Elimination Treatment. One or more elds are eliminated by techniques such
as integral transforms or model reduction. The remaining eld(s) are treated by a
simultaneous time stepping scheme.
Monolithic or Simultaneous Treatment. The whole problem is treated as an entity,
and all components advanced simultaneously in time.
Partitioned Treatment. The eld models are computationally treated as isolated
entities that are separately stepped in time. Interaction effects are viewed as forc-
ing effects that are communicated among individual components using prediction,
substitution and synchronization techniques.
Elimination is restricted to special linear problems that permit efcient decoupling.
It often leads to higher order differential systems in time, or temporal convolutions,
which can introduce numerical difculties. On the other hand the monolithic and
partitioned treatments are general in nature. No technical argument can be made
for the overall superiority of either. Their relative merits are not only problem
dependent, but are interwined with human factors as discussed below.
2.9 Monolithic vs. Partitioned

Keywords that favor the partitioned approach are: customization, independent
modeling, software reuse, and modularity.
Customization. This means that each eld can be treated by discretization tech-
niques and solution algorithms that are known to perform well for the isolated
system. The hope is that a partitioned algorithm can maintain that efciency for
the coupled problem if (and that is a big if) the interaction effects can be also
effectively treated.
Independent Modeling. The partitioned approach facilitates the use of non-

matching models. For example in a uid-structure interaction problem the struc-
tural and uid meshes need not coincide at their interface; cf. Figure 3(b). This
translates into project breakdown advantages in analysis of complex systems such
as aircraft or ships: separate models can be prepared by different design teams,
including subcontractors that may be geographically distributed.
Software Reuse. Along with customized discretization and solution algorithms,
custom software (private, public or commercial) may be available. Furthermore,
there could be a gamut of service tools such as mesh generators and visualization
programs. The partitioned approach facilitates taking advantage of existing code.
This is particularly suitable to academic environments, in which software develop-
ment tends to be cyclical and loosely connected from one project to another.
Modularity. New methods and models may be introduced in a modular fashion
according to project needs. For example, it may be necessary to include local
nonlinear effects in an individual eld while keeping everything else the same.
Implementation, testing and validation of incremental changes can be conducted
in a modular fashion.
These advantages are not cost free. The partitioned approach requires careful for-
mulation and implementation to avoid degradation in stability and accuracy. Par-
allel implementations are particularly delicate. Gains in computational efciency
over a monolithic approach are not guaranteed, particularly if interactions occur
throughout a volume as is the case for thermal and electromagnetic elds. Finally,
the software modularity and modeling exibility advantages, while desirable in
academic and research circles, may lead to anarchy in software houses.
In summary, circumstances that favor the partitioned approach for tackling a
new coupled problem are: a research environment with few delivery constraints,
access to existing and reusable software, localized interaction effects (e.g. surface
versus volume), and widespread spatial/temporal component characteristics. The
opposite circumstances: commercial environment, rigid deliverables timetable,
massive software development resources, global interaction effects, and compa-
rable length/time scales, favor a monolithic approach.
The material of Sections 3 through 6 will focus on the partitioned approach.
2.10 Historical Note: Splitting and Fractional Step Methods

Splitting methods for the equations of mathematical physics predate partitioned analysis
by two decades. In the American literature they can be originally traced to the mid-50s
development of alternating direction methods by Peaceman, Douglas and Rachford [4, 31].
Similar developments were independently undertaken in the early 1960s by the Russian
school led by Bagrinovskii, Godunov and Yanenko, and eventually unied in the method
of fractional steps [42]. The main applications of these methods have been the equations of
gas dynamics in steady or transient forms, discretized by nite difference methods. They
are particularly suitable for problems with layers or stratication, for example atmospheric
dynamics or astrophysics, in which different directions are treated by different methods.
The basic idea is elegantly outlined by Richtmyer and Morton [35]. Suppose the gov-
erning equations in divergence form are , where the operator is split into
. Pick a time stepping scheme and replace successively in it by
, , , each for a fraction of the temporal stepsize . Then a multidimensional
problem can be replaced by a succession of simpler 1D problems. Splitting may be addi-
tive, as in the foregoing example, or multiplicative. Since these lectures focus on partitioned
analysis, the discussion of those variants falls beyond its scope.
Comparison of those methods with partitioned analysis makes clear that little overlap
occurs. Splitting is appropriate for the treatment of a eld partition such as a uid, if the
physical structure of such partition display strong directionality, or if the constitutive equa-
tions benet from a split treatment (e.g., near incompressibility). Consequently splitting
methods are seen to pertain to a lower level of a top-down hierarchical decomposition.
3 Partitioned Analysis
This section provides a quick overview of the partitioned analysis procedures ap-
plied to a model problem. Focus will be on the so-called staggered solution proce-
dures, which are important on account of extensive use in applications as well as
simplicity of implementation.
f(t) X x(t)
g(t) Y y(t)
Figure 5. Le rouge et le noir.
3.1 The Basic Idea

Consider the two-way interaction of two scalar elds, and , sketched in
Figure 5. Each eld has only one state variable identied as -* and .*, respec-
tively, which are assumed to be governed by the rst-order differential equations
- - . *
.
. - * (1)
Here * and * denote applied forces. Treat this by Backward Euler time
integration in each component:
- - !- . . !. (2)

(a) (b)
P . Step 2: Ax
1. (P) Predict: yn+= yn + h yn (for example)
1 xn xn+1
2. (Ax) Advance x: x n+ 1 =
1 P
( h fn +1+ 3 xn + h yn+1 ) :P
3 + 4h p 1 Step 3: S
Ste
3. (S) Substitute: x n+1 = x n+ 1 (trivial here)
Step 4: Ay
1 yn yn+1
4. (Ay) Advance y: yn+ 1 = ( h gn+ 1 + yn + 2 h xn+1 )
1 + 6h Time
Figure 6. Basic steps of a red-black staggered solution.
where - -* , . .* , etc. At each time step & we get

! ! - ! -
(3)
!
! . ! .
in which - . are provided by the initial conditions. In the monolithic or
simultaneous solution approach, this equation is solved at each timestep, and that
is the end of the story.
3.2 Staggering
A simple partitioned solution procedure is obtained by treating (3) with the
following staggered partition that does prediction on .:

! - ! - ! .
(4)
!
! . ! .

Here . is a predicted value or simply the predictor. Two common choices

are . . (called the last-solution predictor) and . . !. . The
basic solution steps are displayed in Figure 6(a). A state-time diagram of these
steps, with time along the horizontal axis, is shown in Figure 6(b). The main
achievement is that systems and can be now solved in tandem.
Suppose that elds and are handled by two separate but communicat-
ing programs. If intraeld advancing arrows are omitted, we obtain a zigzagged
picture of intereld data transfers between the X-program and the Y-program, as
sketched in Figure 7. This interpretation motivated the name staggered solution
procedure introduced in [23].
3.3 Concerns: Stability and Accuracy

In linear problems the rst concern with partitioning should be degradation of
time-stepping stability caused by prediction. In the foregoing example this is not
signicant. The spectral analysis presented in Section 5, which embodies this ex-
ample as instance, shows that staggering does not harm stability or even accuracy,
(a) (b)
X program: X program:
P P
S S S I I
P P
P P
Y program: Y program:
Timestep h Time
Timestep h Time
Figure 7. Intereld+intraeld time-stepping diagram of the staggered solution steps

listed in Figure 6. Intereld time stepping diagrams: (a) sequential staggered solu-
tion of example problem, (b) naive modication for parallel processing.
if the integrator and predictor are appropriately chosen. In fact, staggered proce-
dures are very effective for coupled rst-order parabolic systems. But for more
general problems, particularly those modeled by oscillatory second order ODEs,
the reduction of stability can become serious or even catastrophic.
Instead of , prediction might be done on the eld, leading to a zigzagged
diagram with substitution on -. The stability of both choices can be made to
coalesce by adjusting predictors.
Once satisfactory stability is achieved, the next concern is accuracy. This is
usually degraded with respect to that attainable by the monolithic scheme. In prin-
ciple this can be recovered by iterating the state between the elds. Iteration is
done by cycling substitutions at the same time station. However, intereld iter-
ation generally costs more than cutting the timestep to attain the same accuracy
level. If, as often happens, the monolithic solution is more expensive than the
staggered solution for the same timestep, we note the emergence of a tradeoff.
In strongly nonlinear problems, such as gas dynamic ows in the transonic
regime, stability and accuracy tend to be interwined (because numerical stability
is harder to dene) and they are usually considered together in method design. The
expectation is for a method that operates well at a reasonable timestep.
Examination of Figure 7(a) shows than this simple staggered scheme is unsuit-
able for intereld parallelization because programs must execute in strictly serial
fashion: rst X, then Y, etc. This was of little concern when the method was for-
mulated in the mid 1970s as computers were then sequential. (With the exception
of an exotic machine known as the ILLIAC IV.) The variant sketched in Figure 7(b)
permits the programs to advance their internal state concurrently, which allows in-
tereld parallelization. More effective schemes, which do not require prediction
on both elds, have been developed over the past 15 years and are discussed at
length in [5, 6, 32, 33].
timestep h
P C
S I
Prediction Substitution Interfield Full step

Iteration correction
Time
A ScA
MC
A+
A A
Lockstep Midpoint
advancing correction Subcycling Augmentation
Figure 8. Devices of partitioned analysis time stepping.
3.4 Devices of Partitioned Analysis

As the simple example illustrates, partitioned analysis requires the examination
of alternative algorithm and implementation possibilities as well as the study of
tradeoffs. Figure 8 displays, using intereld time stepping diagrams, the main
tools of the trade. Some devices such as prediction, substitution and iteration
have been discussed along with the foregoing example. Others will emerge in the
example application problem discussed in Sections 5 and 6.
4 Preliminary Method Design

As is the norm in complex software projects, the construction of a model-based
multiphysics simulation program goes through several design-build-test (DBT)
stages. Resources available at project start can be more volatile than a typical
build-everything-from-scratch software project. Existing software may be at hand
for some components of the project. These initial conditions may be due to in-
dependent decisions, or be stipulated as part of the project contractual obligations.
In a long-term project several DBT targets can be identied:
(a) Preliminary or proof-of-concept version;
(b) Development version, accessible only to developers;
(c) Alpha and beta versions distributed to selected external testers;
(d) Production version for general release.
The diagram of Figure 9 pertains to the preliminary design stage. This is the
only one discussed here. Stages (b)(d) acquire heftier software engineering con-
text and thus are largely beyond the scope of this chapter.
Preliminary design stage inputs are the models for the components of the cou-
pled problem. If model choices exist, those available in reusable software would
Problem Governing
Semidiscrete To development
modeling Equations phase
Construct Method OK on
Stability cannot METS
METS be fixed: change
governing equations by
augmentation
Model Equation Stability OK,
Test System Characteristic do accuracy Modified
Equation analysis Equation
Fixable Fixable
Select stability Stability
analysis accuracy
problems, problems,
retry retry
Partition
Type Integrator, Making progress
Predictor &
Select Computational Regression
Path
Figure 9. Flowchart for preliminary design of partitioned analysis procedures.
be naturally preferred. If all software is to be developed from scratch, the choice

may be dictated by the familiary of developers with certain models. A complete
freedom of choice, however, is comparatively rare outside of academia.
4.1 The Root Morass

At the top of Figure 9 we have the governing semidiscrete equations. These
come from the space discretization procedure adopted for each component. For a
structure this would be normally be FEM, whereas for a uid a variety of other
methods (FVM, BEM, ...) might be considered. Whatever the choice, full multi-
way interaction is assumed.
At this point the root-morass difculty emerges. To x the ideas suppose that
the target problem is linear structure-structure interaction, and that four substruc-
tures with up to 10 million degrees of freedom (DOF) each are allowed. All cou-
pled semidiscrete systems are of second order in time. A 3-step integration method
is envisioned. Then the characteristic system will have
million eigenvalues. To verify numerical stability, the location of each eigenvalue
on the complex plane would have to be ascertained. This is further complicated by
the fact that in method design one often carries along free parameters.
The presence of this root morass would pose no problem if a monolithic so-
lution scheme, whether implicit or explicit, is used. Under usual assumptions on
modal decoupling, the normal modes of the semidiscrete (time-continuous) system
survive in the time-discrete (difference) system. One can therefore look at a one-
DOF model problem, and infer from its spectral analysis the numerical stability of
the whole difference system, whether it has one or ten million equations.
Normal modes do not generally survive, however, in the time-discrete system
if a partitioned integration scheme is used. This has two implications: (i) the
full coupled system has to be considered in the stability evaluation, and (ii) more
sophisticated mathematical techniques, such as the theory of positive-real polyno-
mials, must be resorted to in order to arrive at useful conclusions.
4.2 The Model Equation Test System (METS)

For preliminary method design a compromise is necessary. A model equation
test system (abbreviation: METS) is still used, but this is no longer a scalar ODE:
it has as many equations as partitions. (Sometimes interfaces are treated as ad-
ditional partitions, in which case the METS includes additional equations [36].)
This makes analysis feasible with a computer-algebra system (CAS) while keep-
ing free parameters, and the morass is avoided or at least alleviated. Procedures
for constructing METS are illustrated in the examples of Sections 5 and 6.
A METS has two types of free parameters: physical and numerical. The former
come from physical properties of the systems being modeled; the latter from the
time integrator and predictor. To make preliminary design effective a key goal is
to reduce the number of free parameters. This can be a delicate balancing act.
If the number of parameters is too small it may leave out important physics, or
weed out useful time integration schemes. If too large, the analysis work grows up
superlinearly; for example going from 4 parameters to 5 might may increase the
design cycle time by orders of magnitude. In general it is better to err on the side
of simplicity. An effective method to cut down on free parameters is to reduce the
METS to dimensionless form, as illustrated in the application examples.
4.3 Additional Design Choices

Once a METS is constructed, the designer (or designer team) picks a parti-
tion type. This embodies several decisions: (i) choosing algebraic or differential
partitioning (cf. Section 2.4), (ii) designating variable(s) to be predicted from a
partition to another, and (iii) deciding whether additional elds, such as Lagrange
multipliers, are to be placed between partitions [25, 28, 29, 36]. The type of in-
tegration scheme to be used in the subsystems: implicit or explicit, may be also
picked at this stage. The foregoing choices are dictated by physical and modeling
attributes. They are usually kept xed unless it becomes necessary to modify the
governing equations and consequently the METS.
Next one selects the time integrator, predictor and computational path, a step
abbreviated to IPCP. The choice of integrator and predictor have been discussed.
Typically these may be left parametrized if a CAS is used. Computational path,
a term originally introduced for structural dynamics [810, 25], identies how cer-
tain auxiliary quantities (e.g., velocities, accelerations, etc.) are computed in each
time step. The reader is referred to the foregoing papers for details.
4.4 METS Stability Analysis

This is the centerpiece of the design process. A partitioned analysis procedure
that fails to satisfy target stability conditions is useless. What are those conditions?
Informally: stability should not be affected by partitioning. More specically, the
best outcome that can be hoped for is
1. If all partitions are treated by A-stable integrators, the partitioned method
should retain A-stability.
2. If one or more partitions are treated by conditionally stable integrators, the
maximum stable stepsize should not be degraded by partitioning.
Since the METS is normally linear, its stability analysis may be done by spec-
tral techniques. Root loci of its characteristic system are investigated for the ap-
propriate free parameter ranges. Three possible outcomes of this analysis are:
Lucky. If stability requirements are met, one proceeds to accuracy analysis. This
is a long but less crucial subject, and so it will not be covered here.
Fixable. If requirements are missed but look achievable by tweaking integrator,
predictor and/or computational path, one may return to the IPCP box, make ad-
justments, and try again. Changing the partition type might also be attempted.
Unxable. If stability targets are missed and can be shown to be unattainable, one
may try changing the governing equations. This is done by a technique called
augmentation, discussed in the example of Section 6.
4.5 From Idealized METS to Reality

Obtaining a preliminary design that meets stability and accuracy targets does
not guarantee ultimate success. It only gives a candidate method that happens
to work on the METS. This system might have incorporated highly simplifying
assumptions to speed up work. Furthermore the METS cannot reect features that
may be crucial to implementation efciency, such as the matrix sparsity structure
of the original semidiscrete equations. In the development stage, implementors
apply reality checks. These may include one or more of the following:
1. Considering physical or computational effects that were ignored or discarded
on constructing the METS. For example, structural damping, mesh truncation
in unbounded domains, and local nonlinearities.
2. Applying the method to the original discrete equations to verify implementa-
tion efciency and (if necessary) compatibility with existing software.
3. Checking that linearizations, if any, are justied.
4. Accounting for applied forcing effects. While these are ignored in spectral
stability analysis, they may inuence computational accuracy, as well as long-
term stability in nonlinear problems.
The next sections present two preliminary design examples. While the rst one
is largely academic, the second highlights aspects of a realistic case study.
5 Coupled Parabolic Equations

The title example is one for which designing an unconditionally stable staggered
solution procedure (SSP) is smooth sailing. Two coupled models governed by
linear parabolic equations (e.g., an unsteady diffusion process) are dened by state
vectors and of order & and & , respectively, for two partitions. Assume that
both partitions have been spatially discretized, and that the two-way coupling is
governed by the semidiscrete differential matrix equations

(5)
Here and are symmetric positive denite while and are sym-
metric nonnegative. The supermatrix that combines , , and is
also nonnegative. [In heat conduction problems matrices and represent ther-
mal capacitance and conductivity, respectively, of the modeled media.] Note that
intereld coupling occurs through the state vectors but not their time derivatives.
This greatly facilitates the construction of stable partitioned solution procedures.
5.1 METS Construction

Consider the two uncoupled generalized symmetric eigenproblems associated
with the left side of (5):
" &
" & (6)
in which " denotes the mode index, and in which eigenvectors are normalized as
with = Kronecker delta. (7)
By virtue of the stipulated matrix properties, the eigenvalues and are nonneg-
ative real [30]. In accordance with (6) we introduce the transformations
,
, in which matrices
and are formed with the eigenvectors and ,
respectively, as columns, and where and collect associated mode amplitudes
as generalized coordinates. Dropping the force terms in (5) and congruentially
transforming to modalT coordinates yields
(8)
in which and denote the identity matrices of orders & and & , respectively,

diag , diag and
.
Although the left side of (8) is uncoupled, each mode pair, say " #, will be gen-
erally coupled through the right hand side terms . and - . Assuming

for simplicity that and , we can write , in which
the dimensionless is called the modal coupling coefcient. On supressing the
indices " # for brevity, the following METS emerges:

- -
(9)
. .

Introducing , , , we may rewrite the METS in a form
more convenient for combining with the stepsize ! introduced below:

- -
(10)
. .
Now everything is dimensionless but for , which has the dimension (1/time). In

compact form: , with - . . The determinant of is

. Since by the nonnegativity stipulation, it follows that
. The case is called full mode coupling. This occurs if two
" # modes resonate or antiresonate in the sense that and .
Note that if or the off-diagonal term must also be zero since otherwise
; consequently may be set to zero in that case without loss of generality.
For time integration we consider the general one-step linear LMS scheme

- - ! - - . . ! . . (11)
where ! is the stepsize and is a free parameter. Note that no gains can
be expected in this problem should different s be used for - and ..
5.2 Stability of Monolithic Integration

Even if partitioned time integration is the end goal, it may be instructive to
verify the stability of a monolithic scheme applied to the METS. This may provide
a valuable check since often the expected result is known and the required program
changes minor. In the present example only one line of code had to be modied.
All computations reported in this and the following subsection were carried out
with the Mathematica stability analysis modules presented in Appendices A and B.
Evaluating (10) at * * and * * ! gives

- - - -

. . . .
(12)
Eliminating time derivatives from (11)(12) yields the state amplication relation

- -
or (13)
.
.
in which ,

, and

. The amplication polynomial is
/ /. Through the mapping / ) ) this is con-
verted to the Hurwitz polynomial ). The coefcients of may be somewhat

simplied by taking , in which . The result provided by
the Mathematica modules is
) ) with

(14)
As is quadratic in ), the A-stability conditions are , and
while , and ! , with as free parameter. By
inspection this happens if or , which is a well known result. Second
order accuracy is obtained for , which yields the Trapezoidal Rule.
5.3 Stability of Staggered Integration

A staggered solution procedure (SSP) is obtained by replacing . in the rst
equation of (12) with a predicted value:

- - .
. . ! . (15)
. .
in which is a free predictor parameter. (The previous-step equation in (12) is
assumed to be satised exactly; this has implications with respect to computational
path selection [810, 25], but the topic is too elaborate to be discussed here.)
Eliminating time derivatives yields a state amplication relation with the same
form as (13), but now ,

, ,

and

. From this one obtains the amplication polynomial /
/ and the Hurwitz polynomial ) upon mapping / ) ) .
Coefcients of may be again simplied by taking . The result
provided by the Mathematica modules is
) ) ) with

(16)
Since ) is quadratic in ), the A-stability conditions can be simply expressed
as , and for , and ! , but now

Y
2nd order
accurate SSP

Linear extrapolation
predictor Y=1
A-STABLE
Last-solution

C-STABLE or predictor Y=0
UNSTABLE
Trapezoidal Backward
Rule Q=1/2 Euler Q=1

Q
Figure 10. A-stable region for staggered solution of coupled parabolic equations.
there are two free parameters: as before, and the predictor coefcient
. An analysis of these inequalities show that they are satised if
(17)
This A-stable region is plotted on the plane in Figure 10. (The region
continues beyond but is truncated at since in practice .] An
accuracy analysis using the method of modied equations [13, Appendix B] shows
that second order accuracy is obtained if and .
In summary, for this particular case the SSP is competitive with the monolitihic
treatment in terms of stability and accuracy, but of course the SSP is signicantly
cheaper per time step. This optimistic picture changes when considering coupling
with a second order system, as evidenced by the next application example.
6 Fluid Structure Interaction for Underwater Shock

This application problem ts the FSI theme of the lectures. It is actually that which
motivated the invention of staggered methods, which later evolved into the more
general partitioned solution procedures. It illustrates difculties often encountered
in method design. The exposition largely follows the original 1977 paper [23].
6.1 Background
In the late 1960s the US Navy became concerned about the vulnerability of the
strategic submarine eet to underwater shock (UWS) attacks. Particularly worri-
some were new torpedo devices capable of producing directional shockwaves able
to propagate over long distances with small decay under waveguide conditions.
Until then submarine shock hardness was estimated with a potpourri of empiri-
cal and simple analytical recipes based on gross approximations extrapolated from
World War 2 warfare experiences. Those became obsolete as vulnerability predic-

tors for the new scenarios.
The time was nonetheless ripe for taking advantage of ongoing developments in
model-based simulation. By 1970, the Finite Element Method (FEM) was solidly
established in structural and solid mechanics. Time-domain dynamic response
methods were advancing rapidly. The rst government-funded, large-scale FEM
code: NASTRAN, had been released and DoD contractors were evaluating it as
backup for in-house programs. Thus, on the structure side things were in promis-
ing shape for a direct simulation approach.
The major obstacle to direct simulation was the uid-structure coupling. Mod-
eling the uid region from the detonation site through full envelopment and be-
yond (to account for reections and scattering) would entail a uid volume mesh
with millions of freedoms. Even treating the water as a linear acoustic medium,
a huge computational effort would be required to propagate the shockwave and
trace its interactions after envelopment. Thus, modeling and computational re-
sponses would be largely wasted on the portion of the problem less relevant to the
main objective: predicting structural and internal equipment damage.
6.2 Initial Modeling and Validation

T. L. Geers, then at the Applied Mechanics Laboratory (AML) of Lockheed
Palo Alto Research Laboratory (LPARL) advocated a new coupling approach:
model the acoustic uid by a Boundary Element Method (BEM) called the Dou-
bly Asymptotic Approximation or DAA [1417]. This model was asymptotically
exact in the low and high frequency limits while effecting a smooth transition in
between. The volume uid mesh can thereby be reduced to just a membrane
surrounding the structure. This drastically simplies modeling while allowing the
major share of computational resources to be allocated to the focus of interest,
namely the structure. Before 1972 the DAA had been used, however, only on a
limited set of FSI benchmark problems that possessed exact solutions, such as in-
nite cylindrical shells described by in-vacuo vibration modes. It had not been
coupled to a FEM structural model nor been experimentally validated.
A project for validating the coupled DAA-FEM model was awarded by the
Ofce of Naval Research (ONR) to AML-LPARL in 1973. The benchmark was
an axisymmetric, stiffened steel cylindrical shell with heavy end caps and inter-
nal rings, designed to be a very rough scaled representation of a submarine hull.
(This came to be known as the ONR shell in the underwater shock commu-
nity.) The test article was instrumented with velocity meters and nondestructively
tested by Navy personnel as a submerged structure in Chesapeake Bay with ta-
pered DSX-1 explosive charges, including both side-on and end-on attacks. In-
dependently the LPARL team did numerical simulations using what later became
known as a monolithic method to do FSI. Discrete shell equations generated by

the BOSOR 4 axisymmetric shell code of D. Bushnell [1] were coupled to the
DAA-BEM equations, and solved simultaneously with direct time integration over
a timespan of about 20 milliseconds. Unvarnished comparisons showed that the
coupled DAA-BOSOR model delivered satisfactory velocity predictions for most
of the attack cases.
6.3 Staggered Solution Procedure

Encouraged by the experimental validation, ONR awarded AML-LPARL a
production contract in 1975 to support the development of a general-purpose,
three-dimensional, UWS code. But a logistic problem soon emerged. Submarine-
builder contractors insisted that the UWS code had to be compatible with NAS-
TRAN, which by then was in heavy use to model ship and submarine structures.
But since its initial release NASTRAN had become a proprietary program. This
snuffed the idea of tightly tting a DAA uid solver because the source code was
off limits. The use of a monolithic solution method was ruled out.
The second author, also a member of AML and participant in the second
project, proposed what was then an innovative concept: to solve the uid and struc-
ture in tandem with two different codes. These would separately advance in time
while exchanging interaction data. The technique was baptized staggered solution
procedure or SSP. Predictors were essential part of the method. The SSP not only
circumvented the software accessibility problem, but allowed the structure and the
uid to be treated by different integration schemes. Initial studies, summarized in
Section 6.9, showed that any such combination would have an unacceptably small
stable timestep, of the same order as that of an explicit scheme. That would have
rendered a promising idea unusable since for a steel shell (such as a submarine
hull) that stable timestep is on the order of nanoseconds.
Construction of an unconditionally stable SSP turned out to be a mathematical
tour de force. No theory was readily available because governing equations do not
modally decouple. Artifacts from control theory were morphed to suggest promis-
ing study paths. Much of the difculty is of combinatorial nature, as discussed
in the Introduction. Finally, one technique, called augmentation, was successful
beyond expectations in that it produced a set of unconditionally stable time inte-
grators without need for expensive iterations at each timestep. Once a satisfactory
SSP was found, a DAA-BEM uid analyzer called USA was plugged to an array
of structure analyzers over the next 20 years: NASTRAN, GENTRAN, ADINA,
LSDYNA, etc. Analysis capabilities were enhanced to include cavitation [11], as
well as free surface effects for surface ship attack simulations [39].
By 1980, SSPs had been recognized as a special case of a more general frame-
work: partitioned analysis procedures for coupled systems in which interacting
"DAA-1 membrane'' Linear or

(a) nonlinear structure
(b)
cross section
shock model
wave
(c)
BEM control FE model (internal
points structure omitted)
Acoustic fluid structural
DAA-1 BEM mesh nodes
(shown offset from
wet surface for clarity)
Figure 11. Submerged structure hit by shock wave: (a) coupled problem physics,
(b) acoustic uid modeled as DAA membrane (c) typical cross-section of cou-
pled FEM-BEM discretization on wet surface with interior structure omitted. In
(bc) the BEM uid model is shown offset from the wet surface for clarity.
subsystems can be structures, owing uids, control systems, electromagnetic

waves, thermal elds, etc. Applications to a range of coupled problems have been
developed as driven by target applications. As noted in Section 1, partitioned
analysis is enjoying renewed attention given increased interest in multiphysics,
nonmatching meshes, model reduction and parallel processing.
6.4 The Source Problem

The coupled problem is depicted in Figure 11(a). A 3D structure, externally
fabricated as a stiffened shell, is submerged in an unbounded compressible liq-
uid. A pressure shock wave due to an underwater explosion propagates through
the uid and impinges on the structure. Because of the fast nature of the transient
response, which spans only milliseconds, the uid can be modeled as an acoustic
medium since no signicant ow develops. The structure is discretized by conven-
tional nite element methods. For the uid, a boundary-element method (BEM)
discretization is appropriate since only a wet surface mesh has to be created. As
discussed in Section 6.2, those decisions were dictated by the fact that the structure
response especially as regards vulnerability is of primary concern whereas
what happens in the uid is of little interest. Accordingly, the uid was modeled
by the rst-order Doubly Asymptotic Approximation (DAA ) of Geers [1417].
Figure 11(c) reinforces the message that FEM and BEM meshes on the wet
surface do not generally coincide: one uid element generally overlaps several
structural elements. This happens because stress computation requirements de-
mand a ner structural discretization, whereas the main function of the uid ele-
ments is to transmit hull pressure forces and receive feedback normal velocities.
6.5 Governing Equations

The semidiscrete equations of motion coupled through the wet surface
may be written in matrix form as

(18)
The rst set of matrix equations expresses dynamic equilibrium in terms of the
structural displacements, whereas the second set expresses the surface interaction
approximation being used. (The number of structural equations is usually much
greater than the number of uid equations, because the latter come from a BEM
discretization.) In (18) , and are the structural mass, damping and linear
(or linearized) stiffness matrices, respectively; , and are structure response
displacements, dry-structure applied force, and nonlinear residual (pseudo-force)
vectors, respectively; is the uid-induced force vector appropriate to the struc-
tural mesh on , is the scattered pressure vector and the incident
pressure vector, respectively, appropriate to the uid mesh on ; is the
corresponding pressure-integral vector; is a uid-forcing term that is a function
of time derivatives of the structural motion normal to the wet surface and of the
incident uid particle velocity ; and , , are matrices determined by
the specic DAA being used. Finally, superscripts dot ( ) and asterisk ( ) denote
temporal differentiation and integration, respectively.
For the particular case in which the DAA of Geers [1417] is used as surface
interaction approximation, (18) specializes to

(19)
In this case is a diagonal matrix embodying elemental areas of the uid mesh on
,
is the uid added mass matrix as determined from an analysis of incom-
pressible uid motion appropriate to a distribution of elementary sources on ,
is a generally rectangular transformation matrix that relates structural displace-
ments to the control points of the BEM uid mesh on , and are uid density
and speed of sound, respectively, and superscript denotes matrix transposition.
The treatment of the coupled system (19) is diagramed in Figure 6.5.
6.6 The Model Equation Test System

For stability analysis only the homogeneous linear portion of (19) is retained:

(20)

STRUCTURE PARTITION FLUID PARTITION
Pressure
Acoustic
Structure
Normal interface Fluid
velocity
.
p=q
DAA-1 Fluid Model
Structural FEM Model . 1
.. Af q + Rc A f Mf Af q
Ms u + Ks u fs Tf A(p I +p) .
Rc Af (TT u vI)
.
(structural damping ignored) u
Figure 12. Partitioned analysis treatment of UWS coupled problem.
The standard approach to stability analysis of direct time integration for a ODE
system such as (20) involves three steps: (a) transform the homogeneous form
to normal coordinates, (b) apply the time integration procedure to the resulting
uncoupled equations, and (c) examine the time-boundedness of the computed so-
lution. In the following study, the structural damping term is dropped since
its effect on the coupled response is in most cases negligible when compared to
the uid radiation damping term . An appropriate two-DOF model problem
associated with (20), upon setting , is
% ,
$ , %
%
,
(21)
in which % , $ , %
and are generalized quantities resulting from the projection
of , ,
and , respectively, on normal coordinates , and that simultane-
ously diagonalize the symmetric pencils and
, respectively. The
derivation of (21) is presented in [23, Appendix A]. The rst of (21) represents
a pressure excited undamped mechanical oscillator in the normal displacement ,.
The second one represents a velocity-excited generalized pressure-decay equation
in the normal pressure-integral variable .
The number of physical parameters in (21) can be cut down from six to three
by reducing it to the non-dimensional form
- .
- . . -
(22)
which in matrix form is

- - - .
(23)
. . . -
This is done by introducing the dimensionless variables
- , . % $ %
% %
%

*

(24)
Table 1. Range of Nondimensional Parameters , , and !
Illustrative cases / Parameters !

Cavity limit
Dry structure mode limit
indet.
Early time response (shock-excited) 0.0010.1
Late time response (shock-excited) 1100
In (24), denotes a characteristic length of the problem, for instance the radius of a
submerged cylinder or sphere; is a buoyancy ratio (structural mass divided by
displaced uid mass); is a reduced vibration frequency, and is a generalized-
pressure decay exponent. Note that the dot superscript has been redened to denote
differentiation with respect to the reduced or dimensionless time
rather than
actual time *. Because
is the time needed by a uid sound wave of speed
to travel the characteristic length , that unit of time may also be called the
envelopment time in UWS problems.
6.7 Parameter Range

The model system (23) contains three dimensionless physical parameters: ,
and . Time discretization as discussed in Sec 6.8 will introduce a dimensionless
stepsize !
. For the analysis of staggered procedures it is of interest to
exhibit the range that those parameters can cover in envisioned applications.
Concerning the physical parameters, two limit cases: no structure and no uid,
are of interest in designing a robust time integration method. The cavity condition
is the limit of modal motions heavily dominated by the uid inertia, as if the struc-
ture would reduce to a weightless bubble. For those modes the analysis of [23]
shows that , and . The dry mode condition is realized by
structural modes that do not interact with the uid; for example torsional modes of
a submerged cylinder or vibrations of quite submarine engines. For these modes
can be an arbitrarily large nonnegative number,
and is indeterminate.
As regards the dimensionless stepsize !
*, two regimes are of
interest. The early-time response spans the period during which the shock wave
envelops the structure:
* . It is characterized by high frequency struc-
tural motions, high radiation damping and relatively small hydrodynamic forces.
Here ! is typically to . The late-time response is the period well past en-
velopment, say
, characterized by low frequency structural motions, domi-
nant hydrodynamic inertia and low radiation damping. Here ! may typically rise
to 1100. The intermediate time response, say
, is transitional in
nature. Because the practical range of ! spans several orders of magnitude, for
computational robustness we are interested in attaining A-stability.
Table 1 subsumes the foregoing discussion on parameter ranges.
6.8 Time Discretization

The METS dened by (22)(24) is reduced to rst order by introducing the
-
structure velocity + - as auxiliary vector. Combining this with -

+ - . and . . - yields the matrix system

- - .

+

+
(25)
. . -
As usual subscripts & and & will denote values at the last computed solution
and the next time step, respectively, so - -* , etc. System (25) is time-
discretized by the one-step LMS method

- - ! - -

+ - ! + +

. . ! . . (26)
in which , and are coefcients in the range . The idea behind (26) is
to allow different integrators to be used for each state variable. The restriction to
the simplest schemes is typical of the preliminary design stage: if no satisfactory
stability is achievable with those, it is unlikely that more rened ones will work.
The predictor will be performed on the structural velocity - that appears in the
last equation. As predictor formula we pick
-
-
! -
- ! + (27)
in which is a numerical coefcient. Typically . If one obtains

the so-called last solution predictor -
-
. Taking corresponds to
using forward extrapolation in the prediction.
6.9 Velocity-Predicted Staggered Procedure

The staggered solution procedure (SSP) dened by equations (25)(27) will be

called the velocity predicted SSP. Introduce the state vectors - + .

and - + . . Eliminating all time derivatives from (25)
(27) yields the state advancing equations . The amplication
matrix produced by Mathematica is complicated and not shown here. Expand-
ing / / gives the amplication polynomial with generally complex
roots / . For A-stability we require / for any combination of nonnegative
! and for .
This condition was investigated numerically in [23], with the nal conclusion
being that A-stability was unattainable. It is instructive to take the cavity condition
1 1
Y Y
Trapezoidal Rule: Backward Euler:
Q
v Q
v
0.5 0.5
STABLE
STABLE
bestY
0 0
bestY
UNSTABLE UNSTABLE
0.5 0.5
1 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Ch/X Ch/X
Figure 13. Stability regions of velocity-predicted SSP with
, which can be shown to be the worst case for . The stability

limit is then controlled by ! so we take ! as parameter. The resulting
state amplication system reduces to

- -

+

+ or (28)
. .
This yields the amplication polynomial
/ / / / (29)
Transforming to a Hurwitz polynomial via / ) ) and removing

denominators yields
) ) (30)
Since ) is linear in ) (although / is cubic in /, the two / roots drop
in the mapping, as discussed in Section A.3) the stability conditions are
(31)
Stable and unstable regions are shown on the ) plane in Fig. 6.8 for
and , which correspond to the Trapezoidal Rule (TR) and Backward Euler
(BE), respectively, for the second one-step integrator in (26). In either case the
largest stable timestep is ! , which is obtained by selecting for
the TR and for BE. Consequently there is no harm in choosing
, that is, the TR for all equations. A deeper investigation varying
10
8 MXW
Ch/X MXW
MXW
6 MXW
2
STABLE FOR ALL XMW
1 0.5 0 Y 0.5 1

Figure 14. Stability region in the
versus plane for

,
and various values of .
and shows that the stable time step is not affected for if , as
pictured in Fig. 14. Taking a nonzero does not change the conclusions.
In summary, the stable region is limited to the grey area marked (for the TR)
in Fig. 14. The largest possible stable stepsize is ! , which is obtained for
. This turns out to be of the same order as that of an explicit scheme, and thus
unacceptable for calculation of practical submerged structures. (The presence of
shell elements in the structural model would result on an extremely small explicit
stable timestep.) A study of the spectral radius of the iteration matrix for a frozen-
time iterative correction procedure shows that this is not guaranteed to converge if
! . Again this is of the order of the explicit stability limit.
An analysis that abstracted the effect of the time integrator and relied heavily on
methods of control theory showed [23], that conditional stability for any consistent
time integrator was unavoidable. This was done by modeling the predictor as a
dead time or delay device. The destabilizing effect was traced to the delayed
velocity feedback, which periodically feeds ctitious energy from one partition to
the other. Since there is no physical mechanism to absorb this feedback energy,
Nyquists theorem showed that instability was triggered once ! exceeded a modest
multiple of . Although disappointing, the diagnostic suggested how to stabilize
the SSP by augmentation.
6.10 Stabilization by Augmentation

As just noted, A-stabilization of a SSP for this system requires addition of
damping terms in the left-hand side to absorb the ctitious energy periodically
fed by the predictor. Since addition of articial damping is ruled out on accuracy
grounds, the governing equations must be tailored in such a way that damping
terms appear in the structural equations, the uid equations or both. This technique
was baptized augmentation in [23]. Here it is worked out at the METS level.
To augment the structure, insert the uid equation into the structural equation:
- . - .. Transfer the damping term - to the left-hand side to
-
get the structure-augmented model system
- - .
- . . -
(32)
or
- - -
(33)
. . .
The prediction is to be done on the . variable, which physically represents a uid
pressure integral. Accordingly this technique was called the Pressure Integral
Extrapolation, or PIE, in [23].
To augment the uid, insert the structural equation into the time-differentiated
uid equation: . . - . -. Transferring the damping term . to
the left we get the uid-augmented model system
- .
- . . - (34)
or

- - -
(35)
. . .
The prediction is to be done on the - variable, which physically represents a struc-

tural displacement. Accordingly this technique is called the Displacement Extrap-
olation, or DE, in [23]. Additional augmented forms can be constructed by mod-
ifying both structure and uid equations. Such forms were not found to possess
any particular advantage over the previous two and are not described here.
The spectral analysis of the PIE and DE forms showed that both may be ren-
dered A-stable through appropriate choices of time integrators (these being differ-
ent for the uid and structure) and predictor. The accuracy analysis showed that
the PIE was somewhat preferable on grounds of accuracy, but software implemen-
tation constraints discussed in Section 6.13 ruled it out.
6.11 Stability Of Structure-Augmented METS

To analyze the stability of the structure-augmented METS (33), introduce again
+ -,
reduce to rst order system and pass the coupling terms to the right to get

- - .

+

+
(36)
. . -

As predictor take . . ! . . Time discretization is effected by

(26). As before introduce the station state vectors - + .

- + . and the amplication matrix linking .
This matrix is quite complicated to show here, so as in the previous section we
study the cavity condition limit by setting and dening !. The
amplication matrix reduces to

(37)

The cubic amplication polynomial is
/ / / / / (38)
/ has two / roots that drop out on passing to the Hurwitz polynomial
), as discussed in Section A.3, and ) is linear in ). The only A-stability
condition is

for any ! (39)

This is satied if and any , so A-stability for the limit cavity condition
is achieved. A more complete analysis indicates that this is also the case for any
nonnegative and if is in the range .
6.12 Stability Of Fluid-Augmented METS

For the uid-augmented METS (35), introduce + - and , ., reduce to a
rst order system and pass the coupling terms to the right-hand side to get

- - .
+ +

(40)
. . -
, ,
As predictor take - - ! - . Time discretization

is effected by the one-

step integrators (26), to which we append , , ! , , .

As before introduce the station state vectors - + . , ,

- + . , and the amplication matrix that connects
. This matrix is quite complicated to display, so as before we study
the cavity condition limit by setting and dening !. The
amplication matrix reduces to

(41)

in which . The quartic amplication polynomial is
/ / / / (42)
/ has three / roots that drop out on passing to the Hurwitz polynomial
), as discussed in Section A.3, and ) is linear in ). The only A-stability
condition is
!
for any (43)

These are satied if so A-stability for the limit cavity condition is again
achieved. A more complete analysis indicates that this is also the case for any
nonnegative and if is in the range .
6.13 Implementation Constraints

As emphasized in Section 4.5, having constructed an A-stable and accurate
partitioned solution procedure for the METS is only the rst step on the way to a
production implementation. Two aspects that must be considered include
Look at the semidiscrete matrix forms and study implementation feasibility.
Decide how the uid and structure programs will be developed (using existing
commercial software, available open source, brand new code, etc) and pick
the conguration that best ts implementation constraints.
In this case study the PIE form, although slightly more desirable than the DE
form in terms of accuracy, was ruled out because development of a new structural
program was precluded. Submarine building contractors were already committed
to existing FEM codes such as NASTRAN and GENSAM. (Over the next two
decades, ADINA, STAGS and DYNA3D were added to the list.) Implementing the
PIE form with a commercial code such as NASTRAN would have run into serious
logistic problems. First, access to the source code is difcult if not impossible.
Second, even if the vendor could be persuaded to create a custom version to be
used in Navy work, upgrading a distribution-restricted custom version to keep up
with changes in the mainstream product can become a contractual nightmare.
The DE version of the staggered solution approach circumvented this problem.
A 3D BEM uid analysis program called USA (for Underwater Shock Analysis)
was written and data coupled to several existing structural analysis codes over
PHYSICAL DOMAIN
Silent COMPUTATIONAL
DAA DOMAIN
boundary
shock
wave
Structure
Cavitation
region
Acoustic fluid Acoustic fluid
(far field) (near field)
STRUCTURE PARTITION FLUID PARTITION
Bilinear
fluid
volume
Structure
Silent
DAA
Boundary
Figure 15. Three-eld partitioned treatment of UWS with cavitation.
the years. For example, the marriage of USA and NASTRAN is called USA-
NASTRAN. This plug-in toolbox modularity embodies operational advantages:
It simplies upgrade and maintenance of the more complex software compo-
nent, which in this problem is the structural analyzer.
Allows the structural analyzer to be plug replaced to either t existing struc-
tural models or to address other physical effects. For example, should the
structure or internal equipment experience strong nonlinear behavior, the well
tested material library, contact algorithms, and highly efcient explicit time
integration capabilities of DYNA3D may be exploited.
A similar capability expansion can also be modularly addressed on the uid
side. For example, the occurrence of uid cavitation (hull cavitation in sub-
marines or bulk cavitation in surface ships) was addressed with the devel-
opment of a nonlinear uid-volume-based program called CFA. This code
operates as a third partition that can be plugged-in as a pressure transducer
between the structure and a DAA boundary sufciently removed away from
the wet surface to enclose any cavitating region [11]. See Figure 15.
7 Conclusions
The computer analysis of coupled system is in its infancy. Progress has been
slowed down because of the combinatorial nature of the subject, and the atten-
dant complexity explosion of methods and implementations. A major goal of
this exposition is to call attention to the widespread availability of computer al-
gebra systems. These can provide time-saving help in facilitating the synthesis of
partitioned analysis procedures to handle complex coupled problems. Analytical

calculations that were prohibitively difcult by hand when those methods were
created in the mid-1970s, can be now done in reasonable time. Another point
emphasized throughout is the development of useful model test systems. These
should be neither too simple (thus leaving out important physics) nor too complex
(thus obscuring primary behavior in a forest of details). The examples presented
in Sections 56 aim to illustrate how this method synthesis stage can be addressed.
This Chapter covers two of four lectures given at the CISM short course. Ma-
terial presented in the other two lectures: non-matching meshes and Localized La-
grange Multipliers (LLM) has been omitted for space reasons. A recent paper [36]
addresses those topics and provides references to related prior work.
A Stability Analysis Tools

This Appendix presents computer algebra tools to help the spectral stability analy-
sis of multilevel systems of linear difference equations with free parameters. This
is done by testing stability polynomials for root cluster location. Such polynomials
come in two avors: amplication and Hurwitz.
A.1 A Multistep Difference Scheme

To motivate the ensuing analysis as well as establishing notation, suppose that
discretization of a linear, time-invariant, real-valued test equation with $ state vari-
ables collected in leads to a system of matrix difference equations such as
(44)
The symbols in (44) have the following meaning.

, , The state $-vector at time stations * * , * and * , re-
spectively. Here * * is the current time station, which is the
last computed solution, whereas * * ! is the next time
station with ! as the stepsize. Previous solutions, such as ,
are called historical data. Historical terms such as ap-
pear if one uses a multistep integration scheme that spans two or
more timesteps, or a multistep predictor.
, , A set of $ $ matrices whose real entries depend on parame-
ters of the test equation and on the time integration procedure. If
does not enter in the time discretization (44), . Ad-
ditional historical terms, such as may
appear if the time integrator uses more previous solutions.
The discretized forcing function at * * . In linear systems
this term does not depend on the state .
A.2 Amplication Polynomial

To convert (44) to an amplication polynomial, set / / .
Here / is a (generally complex) variable that plays the role of amplication fac-
tor. (This substitution is connected to the discrete / transform of Jury [21].)
Factoring out gives

/ / (45)
For stability analysis the applied force term is set to zero. To avoid negative
powers it is convenient to multiply through / to get

/ / (46)
This equation has a nontrivial solution if and only if the determinant of the matrix
vanishes. Expanding it as a polynomial in / yields

/ / / / / (47)
where all are real. This receives the name amplication polynomial. It
has order & . Denote the & (generally complex) roots of / by / ,
" & . The polynomial is called stable if (I) all roots lie on or inside
the unit circle in the complex / plane:
/ / / (48)
and (II) any root of exact modulus 1 is simple. Condition (II) is of minor practical
importance and will be only occasionally mentioned. On the other hand (I) is
crucial. It can be expressed compactly by introducing the spectral radius:

/ stable if and (II) (49)
Requirement (49) can be tested in terms of polynomial coefcients with the Schur-
Cohn criterion [3, 38], which is covered in [22, 34]. We use this criterion infre-
quently because computations with free parameters tend to get messy. More often
we shall transform / to a Hurwitz polynomial to apply well-known, fraction-
free stability tests more suitable to the presence of free parameters.
A stable time-marching difference system such as (44) will be called strictly
stable [18] if the only root / on the unit circle is , and all others are inside. If
there are several roots on the unit circle the system is weakly stable.
Example A.1. The general one-step LMS method applied to the scalar, homogeneous,
exponential-decay model equation , with , is
, in which the real scalar . The resultant difference equation is

(50)

Setting yields . The only root of
is

(51)

whence . Obviously for any if and only if .
Example A.2. Consider the unforced, undamped linear oscillator model equation
, in which real is the circular frequency. Treat this by the Newmark method

(52)
Here and are two real parameters that determine stability and accuracy characteristics.
The state vector is . Evaluate at and , and
eliminate accelerations from the equation of motion to get the difference equation

(53)

in which is dimensionless. Taking the determinant of yields

(54)

The two roots and of , as well as the spectral radius , are complicated
functions of , and . It is convenient to use the Hurwitz polynomial form, as done later.
A.3 Hurwitz Polynomial

A Hurwitz polynomial ) of order & in the complex variable ) will be
called stable if all roots ) of ) lie in the negative complex ) plane:
) " & (55)
and if all roots with ) are simple. To go / ) or vice-versa

one may use subject to the caveats below the bilinear transformations, also
called Mobius transformations:
) /
/ ) (56)
) /
These conformally map the open unit disk / onto the open left-hand plane
) ; see Figure 16. The unit circle / , excluding / , maps to the
imaginary axis ) . To go / ) replace / ) ) ,
multiply through by ) and simplify. To go ) / replace
) / / , multiply through by / and simplify as appropriate.

s-plane z-plane

Figure 16. The involutory bilinear mapping

,

.

The / ) ) transformation has a glitch: roots / of /

vanish from ) since they map to innity, as illustrated in Example A.3, and
are not recovered in the inverse map. If it is important to preserve roots, the
scaled variant of (56) given in (59) may be useful, as illustrated in that example.
Alternatively reverse Hurwitz polynomials, covered in Section A.4, may be used.
Example A.3. Consider . This has roots
and so and is stable as per (49). Mapping to the plane via
gives

(57)

This has the only root so it is also stable as per (55). Root maps to
(unsigned), which disappears on multiplying through by . To go back to an
amplication polynomial, denoted here by , replace :

(58)

Note that the root is recovered, but the other is not. In the extreme case
, with a positive integer, the restored is just the constant . For some
questions, notably investigation of strict stability, it may be desirable that be mapped
to a nite negative value. This can be done with a scaled variant of (56), which maps the
open disk to the open left-hand plane :

(59)

Here one may take, say, with a tiny . For example if
is used on one gets, in exact arithmetic,

(60)
The roots of are and , and those of are exactly
recovered. Either the standard bilinear mapping (56) or the variant (59) should not be used
in inexact (oating point) arithmetic, as both are highly sensitive to cancellations.
This example suggest a way to detect single or multiple roots using the Math-
ematica modules presented in Sections A.5 and A.6, by testing polynomial degree drops.
Another method is described in Example A.4.
A.4 Reversed Hurwitz Polynomial

Given a ) of order & , its reversed polynomial ) is obtained by
replacing ) ) and multiplying through by ) . The coefcient list is reversed
and each root is replaced by its reciprocal. For example, ) )
) ) with roots becomes )
) ) )
with roots . [That is the image of /
/ /
/ .] Stability is not affected by reversal because the left-hand plane
) maps onto itself: ) . An amplication root / maps to
) whereas a root / maps to )
. This device provides another save
plus-ones tool should roots be deemed worthier of preservation than roots.
To directly go from / to
) and vice-versa one may use the mappings
( ) /(
/ ) (61)
) /(
which for ( become / ) ) and ) / / .

Example A.4. For the stable polynomial of Example A.3, the
transformation (59) with arbitrary gives

with roots and . If , collapses to
. The reversed polynomial is

.

Setting gives , which has nite roots and . This

may be directly obtained by mapping with .
A.5 Amplication-to-Hurwitz Mapping

Module HurwitzPolynomialList, listed in Figure 17, performs the /
) mapping. It is especially suitable for polynomials with symbolic coef-
cients that appear in method design. The module is invoked as
b=HurwitzPolynomialList[a,r,norm] (62)
The arguments are:

a Coefcients of the amplication polynomial.
r Usually 1. A non-unit or symbolic value performs the mapping (59).
norm Normalization ag. Set to True to request that the coefcient of the
highest power in ) of the Hurwitz polynomial be scaled to one.
HurwitzPolynomialList[a_,r_,norm_]:=Module[{PA,PH,b,k,rep,
n=Length[a],s,z,i,j,modname="HurwitzPolynomialList"},
If [n<=0, Return[{}]]; rep=z->r*(s+1)/(s-1);
If [IsInexact[a]||IsInexact[r], Print[modname,
" error: float input"]; Return[Null]];
k=FindLastNonzero[a]; If [k==0, Return[{0}]];
PA=a[[1]]+Sum[a[[i+1]]*z^i,{i,1,k-1}];
PH=Simplify[Expand[(s-1)^(k-1)*(PA/.rep)]];
b=CoefficientList[PH,s];
If [norm, j=FindLastNonzero[b]; If [j>0,b=b/b[[j]] ]];
Return[b]];
AmplificationPolynomialList[b_,r_,norm_]:=Module[{PA,PH,a,k,rep,
n=Length[b],s,z,i,j,modname="AmplificationPolynomialList"},
If [n<=0, Return[{}]]; rep=s->(z+r)/(z-r);
If [IsInexact[b]||IsInexact[r], Print[modname,
" error: float input"]; Return[Null]];
k=FindLastNonzero[b]; If [k==0, Return[{0}]];
PH=b[[1]]+Sum[b[[i+1]]*s^i,{i,1,k-1}];
PA=Simplify[Expand[(z-r)^(k-1)*(PH/.rep)]];
a=CoefficientList[PA,z];
If [norm, j=FindLastNonzero[a]; If [j>0, a=a/a[[j]] ]];
Return[a]];
FindLastNonzero[a_]:=Module[{i,n=Length[a]},
For [i=n,i>0,i--, If [a[[i]]==0,Continue[],Return[i],
Return[i]]]; Return[0]];
IsInexact[expr_]:=Precision[expr]=!=Infinity;
IsExact[expr_] :=Precision[expr]===Infinity;
Figure 17. Modules to produce from and vice-versa.
The module returns

b A list of the coefcients of the Hurwitz polynomial. If
/ has $ roots that map to
, & & $.
Both a and r must be exact expressions. If a oating-point value is detected in
either argument, the module aborts with an error message to that effect.
A.6 Hurwitz-to-Amplication Mapping

Module AmplificationPolynomialList, listed in Figure 17, performs the
) / transformation. The module is invoked as
a=AmplificationPolynomialList[b,r,norm] (63)
The arguments are

b Coefcients of the Hurwitz polynomial.
r Usually 1. A non-unit or symbolic value performs the mapping (59).
norm Normalization ag. Set to True to request that the coefcient of the
highest power in ) of the Hurwitz polynomial be scaled to one.
The module returns
a Coefcients of the amplication polynomial.
Both b and r must be exact expressions. If a oating-point value is detected in

either argument, the module aborts with an error message to that effect.
Example A.5. For the quartic

the call b=HurwitzPolynomialList[ 1,1,-3,-1,2
,r,False]
with arbitrary returns ,
, ,

,
in b. A subsequent call to the
module: a=AmplificationPolynomialList[b,r,False] returns , ,

, ,
in a, so we get back but for a factor .
If the last two coefcients: and , vanish reducing to
.
The degree drops by 2 because has two plus-one roots. To get the reverse Hurwitz
polynomial with , say b=Reverse[b]/.r->1. This yields the cubic

; its degree is 3 since the root maps to and drops out.
B The Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

In this Appendix we consider the stability conditions for the generic Hurwitz poly-
nomial
) of degree & (& is used below instead of & for brevity):
) ) ) with real (64)
Note that is assumed. If the whole polynomial should be scaled by

, which does not change the zeros of ).
The name Routh-Hurwitz stability used in the sequel acknowledges the fact that Rouths
table-based criterion [37], presented 18 years before that of Hurwitz [20], is equivalent
when written in fraction-free form, although the coalescence was not proven until 1911.
B.1 The Hurwitz Determinants

To assess stability as per (55), introduce the Hurwitz determinant sequences

(65)

in which index " ranges from 1 through &. Coefcient indices along each row
change by two, whereas indices along each column change by one. The term is
set to zero if # or # &. Note that and .
Both determinant forms displayed in (65) appear in the literature. Are they
connected? If we associate with ) then is the form associated with the
reversed polynomial ), and vice-versa. Since ) and

) share the same
stability properties as regards roots in the open left-hand )-plane, sequences
and deliver the same information. Their values, however, differ for & .
Some authors write down transposes of the foregoing matrices, which of course
does not change the determinant. To further compound the confusion, ) is
sometimes written as ) ) instead of (64). The end result of
these combinatorial gyrations is that the reader may nd 8 ways of stating the
Hurwitz determinantal criterion in the literature.
B.2 The Hurwitz Stability Criterion

The stability criterion was stated by Hurwitz [20] as: A necessary and sufcient
condition that the polynomial (64) have only roots with negative real parts is that
(66)
be all positive. Readable proofs may be found in Henrici [19], Jury [22] or Us-
penky [40]. Hurwitz made the following observations. First, on expanding
by the last column it is easily shown that . The requirement that
and is equivalent to and . Thus the theorem
remains valid if is replaced by . Second, , , etc., vanish identi-
cally since all last column entries vanish. The theorem can therefore be restated
as: all non-identically vanishing terms of the innite sequence must be
positive. These remarks are obviouly applicable to by appropriately reverting
indices.
A necessary condition for (64) to be stable is that all coefcients through
be positive. The proof is quite simple: if the real part of all roots is negative, every
linear factor of ) is of the form ) ' with ' , and every quadratic factor is
of the form / ' /' with ' and ' . Since the product of polynomials
with positive coefcients likewise has positive coefcients, it follows that a stable
(64) can have only positive coefcients. Thus nding a negative coefcient in
) or ) is sufcient to ag that polynomial as unstable. The positivity
condition is not sufcient if & , however, as the examples below make clear.
For the more general case of a ) with complex coefcients, see Jury [22].
Example B.1. For the quadratic polynomial , with , the
conditions given by (66), with replaced by , are
(67)
These are satised if the three coefcients: are positive.
For the real-coefcient cubic polynomial , with ,
and replaced by , the conditions are

(68)

RouthHurwitzStability[b_]:=Module[{n=Length[b]-1,i,c},
n=FindLastNonzero[b]-1; If [n<3, Return[b]];
c=Table[0,{n+1}]; c[[1]]=b[[n+1]];
For [i=2,i<=n+1,i++, c[[i]]=HurwitzDeterminant[b,i-1]];
Return[Simplify[c]]];
HurwitzDeterminant[b_,k_]:=Module[{n=Length[b]-1,i,j,m,A},
If [k<1||k>n||n<=0, Return[0]]; If [k==n,Return[b[[1]]]];
If [k==1, Return[b[[n]]]]; A=Table[0,{k},{k}];
For [i=1,i<=k,i++,
For [j=1,j<=k,j++, m=i-2*j+n+1;
If [m>0&&m<=n+1, A[[i,j]]=b[[m]] ];
]];
Return[Simplify[Det[A]]]];
Figure 18. Modules that return Routh-Hurwitz stability conditions.
These are satised if the coefcients: are positive, and . The condi-
tions delivered by the
sequence are , , and .
For the real-coefcient quartic polynomial ,
with , and replaced by , the conditions are

(69)
The conditions delivered by the

sequence are , , ,

and .
B.3 Routh-Hurwitz Stability Modules

Figure 18 lists two Mathematica modules that facilitate the production of the
Hurwitz determinant sequence (66). The modules are HurwitzDeterminant and
RouthHurwitzStability, with the latter calling the former.
The determinant module is invoked as
=HurwitzDeterminant[b,k]

=HurwitzDeterminant[Reverse[b],k] (70)
The arguments are:

b Coefcients of the Hurwitz polynomial.
k Determinant index: $ &.
The module returns either or as function value. Which one is dictated by
(70). If $ or $ &, the module returns or as appropriate. If $ is outside
the range 1 through &, it returns zero.
Module RouthHurwitzStability, listed in Figure 18, uses the foregoing

replaced
module to return the determinant sequence (66) as a list, with or
by or as appropriate. It is invoked as

=RouthHurwitzStability[b]

=RouthHurwitzStability[Reverse[b]] (71)
The only argument is

b Coefcients of the Hurwitz polynomial. Care must be
given to insuring the positivity condition for either or , as appropri-
ate. In symbolic work this may require careful a priori checking.
The module returns a list of & Hurwitz determinants or , as per (71).
Example B.2. Determine the stability of the polynomial used in [19, p. 557] as example:
(72)
The call b= , ,,,,,

, c=RouthHurwitzStability[b] returns
c= , ,,,,
,
whence is stable. Calling with reversed coefcients:
c=RouthHurwitzStability[Reverse[b]] gives c= ,,
,,
,
,
,
which conrms the result.
Example B.3. Take the last coefcient of the foregoing polynomial as variable:
(73)
For which values of is the polynomial stable? Now b=

,
c=RouthHurwitzStability[Reverse[b]] returns
c= , ,,, ,
,
. A study of the sign of the last
three entries shows that the polynomial is only stable for

, which includes the value used in the previous example. Calling
c=RouthHurwitzStability[b] returns ,, , ,

,
,
, which is more complicated than the previous one.
So often it pays to try both determinantal forms.
Example B.4. Another example from [19, p. 558]. Given the polynomial

(74)
For which values of is stable? The call b= ,

, ,
,
,
c=RouthHurwitzStability[b] returns ,
,
, ,
in
c. By inspection, is stable if . Since remains invariant under reversal,
the same list is returned for Reverse[b].
Example B.5. Complete Example A.2 by investigating the A-stability of the Newmark
. The amplication
integration scheme (52) for the model oscillator equation
polynomial (54) is quadratic in . Place its three coefcients into the list a. The call
b=HurwitzPolynomialList[a,1,True] returns b=

,
,1
, whence

. [The coefcient of returns
as one by setting the third argument to True.] Since is quadratic, for A-stability it
is necessary and sufcient that its three coefcients be nonnegative for any .
By inspection this happens if and .
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On Topological Design Optimization of Structures
Against Vibration and Noise Emission
Niels Olhoff 1 and Jianbin Du2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aalborg University, DK-9220, Aalborg East,
Denmark
2
School of Aerospace, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
Abstract This paper presents a brief introduction to topological design

optimization, and gives an overview of the application of this novel
method to problems of design of linearly elastic continuum-type structures
(without damping) against vibration and noise subject to given external
excitation. The design objective of such problems is often to drive the
structural eigenfrequencies of vibration as far away as possible from an
external excitation frequency, or a band of excitation frequencies, in order
to avoid resonance phenomena with high vibration and noise levels. This
objective may be achieved in different ways, e.g., by (i) maximizing the
fundamental or a higher order eigenfrequency of the structure, (ii)
maximizing the distance (gap) between two consecutive eigenfrequencies,
(iii) maximizing the dynamic stiffness of the structure subject to forced
vibration, or by (iv) minimizing the sound power radiated from the
structural surface into an acoustic medium. The mathematical
formulations of these topology optimization problems and several
illustrative numerical results are presented.
1 Introduction
The method of topology optimization of continuum structures first appeared in
the literature in 1988, and was originally developed for determining the
distribution of an elastic material within an admissible design domain that yields
the stiffest possible structure for a prescribed weight, see Bendse and Kikuchi
(1988) and Bendse (1989). Since usual sizing and shape optimization methods
generally cannot change the structural topology, the development of the method
218 N. Olhoff and J. Du
of topology optimization was a remarkable break-through in the field of

optimum design, as the choice of the best topology generally has the most decisive
impact on the gain that can be achieved by optimization. Topology optimization is
therefore an important preprocessing tool for sizing and shape optimization, see
Olhoff et al. (1991). During the last decade, the method has been extended to handle
several other design objectives and constraints. Topology optimization has therefore
become a standard tool for synthesis of parts or whole structures in the automotive
and aerospace industries, and it is rapidly spreading into other mechanical design
disciplines. The reader is referred to the exhaustive textbook by Bendse and
Sigmund (2003), the IUTAM Symposium proceedings edited by Bendse et al.
(2006), and the review article by Eschenauer and Olhoff (2001) for recent
developments and publications.
Passive design against vibrations and noise was first undertaken by Olhoff (1976,
1977) in the form of shape optimization with respect to eigenfrequencies of freely,
transversely vibrating beams. By maximizing the fundamental eigenfrequency for
given beam volume, optimum cost designs against vibration resonance were
obtained subject to all external excitation frequencies within the large range from
zero and up to the fundamental eigenfrequency. Optimization with respect to a
higher order eigenfrequency was found to produce a large gap between the subject
eigenfrequency and the adjacent lower eigenfrequency, and offered even more
competitive designs for avoidance of resonance in problems where external
exitation frequencies are confined within a large interval with finite lower and upper
limits. In subsequent papers by Olhoff and Parbery (1984) and Bendse and Olhoff
(1985), the design objective was directly formulated as maximization of the
separation (gap) between two consecutive eigenfrequencies of the beam.
Topology optimization with respect to eigenfrequencies of structural vibration
was first considered by Dias and Kikuchi (1992), who dealt with single frequency
design of plane disks. Subsequently, Ma et al. (1994), Dias et al. (1994), and Kosaka
and Swan (1999) presented different formulations for simultaneous maximization of
several frequencies of free vibration of disk and plate structures, defining the
objective function as a scalar weighted function of the eigenfrequencies. In contrast
to this, Krog and Olhoff (1999) and Jensen and Pedersen (2005) applied a variable
bound formulation (see Bendse et al., 1983) which facilitates proper treatment of
multiple eigenfrequencies that very often result from the optimization. The former
of these papers treats optimization of fundamental and higher order
eigenfrequencies of disk and plate structures, while the latter deals with
maximization of the separation of adjacent eigenfrequencies for bi-material plates.
The paper (Pedersen, 2000) deals with maximum fundamental eigenfrequency
design of plates, and includes a technique to avoid spurious localized modes.
Topology optimization with the objective of maximizing the dynamic stiffness
(minimizing the dynamic compliance) of structures subjected to time-harmonic
external loading of given frequency and amplitude are, e.g., studied by Ma et al.
On Topological Design Optimization of Structures 219
(1995), Min et al. (1999), and Jog (2002).

It should be noted that the separation of adjacent eigenfrequencies as considered
by Jensen and Pedersen (2005) and in the present paper, is closely related to the
existence of so-called phononic (or acoustic) band gaps, i.e., gaps in the wave band
structure for periodic materials implying that elastic waves cannot propagate in
certain frequency ranges. Sigmund (2001) applied topology optimization to
maximize phononic band gaps in periodic materials (see also Diaz et al., 2005, and
Halkjr et al., 2006). Moreover, Sigmund and Jensen (2003), Jensen (2003), and
Jensen and Sigmund (2005) performed minimization of the response of band gap
structures (wave damping).
The present paper lends itself on the authors recent work (Du and Olhoff
2007a,b, and Olhoff and Du 2005, 2006, 2008), and gives an overview
illustrated by numerical examples of problems of optimum topology design of
single- or bi-material beam and plate-type continuum structures against vibration
and noise subject to given external excitation.
The paper is organized as follows. Chapter 2 gives a brief account of basic
concepts of topology optimization of continuum structures and the SIMP (Solid
Isotropic Microstructure with Penalty) material models used in this paper. In
Chapter 3, structural topology optimization subject to prescribed volume of
material is first considered for problems of maximizing the fundamental or a
higher order eigenfrequency, and then problems of maximizing the distance (gap)
between two consecutive eigenfrequencies are studied. Chapter 3 also discusses
the difficulty that eigenfrequencies subject to optimization often become
multiple eigenvalues, which are not differentiable in the usual sense. Section 4
presents several solutions to the types of problems considered in Chapter 3.
Chapters 5-8 deal with problems of topology optimization of structures subjected
to time-harmonic external dynamic loading of given frequency and amplitude.
Thus, the problem of maximizing the dynamic stiffness of a structure subjected
to forced vibration in vacuum is discussed in Chapter 5, and several solutions are
presented in Chapter 6. Subsequently, the problem of minimizing the sound
power radiated into an acoustic medium from the surface of a vibrating structure,
is studied in Chapter 7 and numerical examples are presented in Chapter 8.
Finally, Chapter 9 concludes the paper.
2 Topology Optimization and Material Interpolations
Contrary to shape optimization, problems of topology optimization are defined

on a fixed domain of space called the admissible design domain (see, e.g.,
Bendse and Sigmund, 2003, and Eschenauer and Olhoff, 2001). The topology
problem is basically one of discrete optimization, but this difficulty is avoided by
introducing relationships between stiffness components and the volumetric

density of material U over the admissible design domain.
Fig. 1 illustrates some basic concepts for a topology optimization problem for
a continuum structure to be made of a single material. Given are the admissible
design domain (indicated by grey in Fig. 1a), the boundary conditions, loading,
and the volume of solid, elastic material for the structure. As indicated in Fig. 1,
usually a fixed finite
Initial Design element mesh is em-
bedded in the entire
admissible design do-
Evenly main. Typically, the
distributed mesh is a uniform,
material rectangular partition of
space, and the material
density U is assumed to
be constant within each
(a) finite element. For the
initial design, the given
Optimum Design amount of material
normally is distributed
uniformly over the ad-
Void
missible design domain
as indicated in Fig. 1a.
Solid To determine the op-
material timum structural topo-
logy, the densities Ue of
(b) material in each of the
finite elements are used
Figure 1. Illustration of a topology design process
as design variables de-
from the initial (a) to the optimum design (b).
fined between limits 0
(corresponding to void
as shown by white in Fig. 1b) and 1 (corresponding to solid elastic material
shown in black). The aim of the optimization process is to find out, for each of
the finite elements in the admissible design domain, whether it should contain
solid material or not. In this process (of successive iterations), each of the design
variables tend to attain one of their limiting values as explained below, thereby
forming a design with aggregations of finite elements with solid material and
void, respectively, see Fig. 1b. The result is a rough description of outer as well
as inner boundaries of the design that represents the overall optimum topology.
This topological design may subsequently be used as a basis for refined shape
optimization, see Olhoff et al. (1991).
2.1 SIMP Model for Topology Optimization of Single-material

Structures
As mentioned above, it is the aim of the optimization process to determine the
optimum zero(void)-one(solid) distribution of a prescribed amount of the given
material over the admissible design domain. To achieve this goal, many different
material models have been developed (see, e.g., Bendse and Sigmund, 2003,
and Eschenauer and Olhoff, 2001), among which the SIMP (Solid Isotropic
Microstructure with Penalty) model proposed by Bendse (1989), Rozvany and
Zhou (1991) and Rozvany et al. (1992) is a simple and effective one which is
widely used in optimum topology design. The SIMP model is normally applied
together with a filtering technique, see Sigmund (1997), as this prevents
checkerboard formation and dependency of optimum topology solutions on finite
element mesh-refinement. According to the SIMP model, the finite element
elasticity matrix Ee is expressed in terms of the element volumetric material
density Ue, 0 d Ue d 1, in a power p, p 1, as
E e ( U e ) U ep E *e (1)
where E*e is the elasticity matrix of a corresponding element with the fully solid
elastic material the structure is to be made of. The power p in (1), which is
termed the penalization power, is introduced with a view to yield distinctive 0-
1 designs, and is normally assigned values increasing from 1 to 3 during the
optimization process. Such values of p have the desired effect of penalizing
intermediate densities 0 < Ue < 1 since the element material volume is
proportional to Ue while the interpolation (1) implies that the element stiffness is
less than proportional. Note also that the interpolation (1) satisfies Ee (0) = 0 and
Ee (1) = E*e , implying that if a final design has density 0 and 1 in all elements,
this is a design for which the structural response has been evaluated with a
correct physical model.
By analogy with (1), for a vibrating structure the finite element mass matrix
may be expressed as
M e ( U e ) U eq M *e (2)
where M *e represents the element mass matrix corresponding to fully solid
material, and the power q 1. Apart from exceptions briefly discussed in the
following section, normally q = 1 is chosen.
The global stiffness matrix K and mass matrix M for the finite element based
structural response analyses behind the optimization, can now be calculated by
NE NE
K U ep K *e , M
e 1
U
e 1
q
e M *e (3)
Here, K *e is the stiffness matrix of a finite element with the fully solid material
for the structure, and NE denotes the total number of finite elements in the
admissible design domain.
In the problem formulations in Chapters 3, 5 and 7, Ve, e = 1,,NE, denotes
the volumes of the finite elements, V0 is the total volume of the admissible
design domain, and for single material design, V* denotes the total volume
NE
U V
e 1
e e of solid elastic material which is available for the structure.
2.2 Localized Eigenmodes

With values assigned to p and q as stated above, application of the SIMP model
for problems of topology optimization with respect to eigenfrequencies may lead
to the occurrence of spurious, localized eigenmodes associated with very low
values of corresponding eigenfrequencies. The localized eigenmodes may occur
in sub-regions of the design domain with low values of the material density (e.g.
Ue d 0.1), where the ratio between the stiffness (with, say, p = 3 in the
interpolation formula) and the mass (with q = 1) is very small. To eliminate these
spurious eigenmodes, we may use the method of Pedersen (2000) of linearizing
the element stiffness or the approach of Tcherniak (2002) of setting the element
mass to zero in sub-regions with low material density. Thus, following Tcherniak
(2002) with a slight modification to avoid numerical singularity, the interpolation
formula (2) for the finite element mass matrix was modified as
U M * , U e ! 0.1
M e ( U e ) er e* . (4)
U e M e , U e d 0.1
Here, the mass is set very low via a high value of the penalization power r in
sub-regions with low material density. Thus, r is chosen to be about r = 6, i.e.,
much larger than the penalization power p for the stiffness, which is kept
unchanged at a value about p = 3.
It is noted that Eq. (4) is discontinuous at the low value Ue = 0.1 of the
material density. Numerically this is not a serious problem since the
discontinuity only occurs at a single point. However, we can always improve (4)
by generating a continuous interpolation model for the mass with respect to any
value of the material density between 0 and 1. For example, to achieve continuity
of the interpolation model, we may introduce the following revised form of Eq.
(4),
U M* , U e ! 0.1
M e (Ue ) e 6 e * . (4a)
c0 U e M e , U e d 0.1
where the coefficient c0 105 enforces the C0 continuity at the value Ue = 0.1 of
the material density. In several of the examples presented later in this paper, for
comparison, we have applied each of the interpolation models (4) and (4a) in the
numerical solution scheme and only found negligible differences in the final
results. The reason is that in both models, the region with lower density has a
very small contribution to the first several eigenfrequencies of the structure.
Furthermore, all intermediate values of the material density will approach zero or
one during the design process, which implies that the change of the interpolation
model in regions with lower density as shown in (4a) must have very limited
influence on the final zero-one design.
2.3 SIMP Model for Topology Optimization of Bi-material Structures

The SIMP model for topology optimization of structures made of two different
solid elastic materials can be easily obtained by an extension of the SIMP model
for single-material design. Following Bendse and Sigmund (1999), the finite
element elasticity matrix for the bi-material problem can be expressed as
E ( U ) U p E*1 (1 U p )E*2
e e e e e e
(5)
where E*e1 and E*e2 denote the element elasticity matrices corresponding to the
two given solid, elastic materials *1 and *2. Here, material *1 is assumed to be
the stiffer one. The penalization power p in (5) was assigned the value 3 in this
paper which resulted in distinctive optimum topology designs in the examples of
bi-material design considered. It follows from (5) that for a given element, Ue = 1
implies that the element fully consists of the solid material *1, while Ue = 0
means that the element fully consists of the solid material *2.
The element mass matrix of the bi-material model may be stated as the
simple linear interpolation
M ( U ) U M *1 (1 U )M*2
e e e e e e
(6)
where M *e1 and M *e2 are the element mass matrices corresponding to the two
different, given solid elastic materials *1 and *2.
The SIMP model formulated by (1) and (2) (or (5) and (6)) may be regarded
as an interpolation scheme for the structural stiffness and mass with respect to
material volume density. Recently, a generalized material model based on a
polynomial interpolation was proposed by Jensen and Pedersen (2005), and it
was shown how proper polynomials corresponding to different design objectives
can be easily obtained.
When bi-material design is treated via the problem formulations in Chapters
NE
3, 5 and 7, then V* denotes the total volume U V
e 1
e e of the stiffer material *1
available for the structure, while the total volume of material *2 is given by V0 -
V*, where V0 is the volume of the admissible design domain. In figures in
Chapters 4, 6 and 8 presenting optimum topologies of bi-material structures,
material *1 is shown in black and material *2 in grey.
3 Eigenfrequency Optimization Problems

A frequent goal of the design of vibrating structures is to avoid resonance of the
structure in a given interval for external excitation frequencies. This can be
achieved by, e.g., maximizing the fundamental eigenfrequency, an
eigenfrequency of higher order, or the gap between two consecutive
eigenfrequencies of given order, subject to a given amount of structural material
and prescribed boundary conditions. The mathematical formulations of these
topology optimization problems are developed for linearly elastic structures
without damping in this chapter, and several illustrative results are presented in
Chapter 4, see also the recent paper by Du and Olhoff (2007b).
Methods for optimization of simple (unimodal) eigenvalues/eigenfrequencies
in shape and sizing design problems are well established and can be implemented
directly in topology optimization. The formulation for topology optimization
with respect to a simple, fundamental eigenfrequency is presented in Section 3.1
of this chapter, and the sensitivity analysis of a simple eigenfrequency subject to
change of a design variable Ue is outlined in Section 3.2. However, particularly in
topology optimization it is often found that, although an eigenfrequency is
simple during the initial stage of the iterative design procedure, later it may
become multiple due to coincidence with one or more of its adjacent
eigenfrequencies. In order to capture this behaviour, it is necessary to apply a
more general solution procedure that allows for multiplicity of the
eigenfrequency because a multiple eigenfrequency does not possess usual
differentiability properties.
In Section 3.3 of this chapter, the abovementioned eigenfrequency
optimization problems are conveniently formulated by a so-called bound
formulation (Bendse, Olhoff and Taylor 1983; Taylor and Bendse 1984;
Olhoff 1989). Section 3.4 then presents design sensitivity results for multiple
eigenvalues derived by Seyranian, Lund and Olhoff (1994), and by usage of
these results, the problems can be solved efficiently by mathematical
programming (see, e.g., Overton, 1988, and Olhoff, 1989) or by the MMA
method (Svanberg, 1987). Moreover, the procedure of treating the multiple
eigenvalues can be greatly simplified by using the increments of the design
variables as unknowns (see Krog and Olhoff, 1999, and Du and Olhoff 2007b).
3.1 Maximization of the Fundamental Eigenfrequency

Problems of topology design for maximization of fundamental eigenfrequencies
of vibrating elastic structures have, e.g., been considered in the papers (Diaz and
Kikuchi, 1992, Ma et al. 1994, 1995, Diaz et al., 1994, Kosaka and Swan, 1999,
Krog and Olhoff, 1999, Pedersen, 2000). Assuming that damping can be
neglected, such a design problem can be formulated as a max-min problem as
follows,
max { min {Z 2j }}
U1,, UN E j 1,J (7a)
Subject to :
K j 2j M j , j 1, , J , (7b)
Tj M k G jk , j t k, k , j 1, , J , (7c)
NE
U V
e 1
e e V * d 0 , V * DV0 , (7d)
0 U d Ue d 1 , e 1, , N E . (7e)
Here Zj is the jth eigenfrequency and Mj the corresponding eigenvector, and

K and M are the symmetric and positive definite stiffness and mass matrices of
the finite element based, generalized structural eigenvalue problem in the
constraint (7b). The J candidate eigenfrequencies considered will all be real and
can be numbered such that
0 Z1 d Z 2 d d Z J , (8)
and it will be assumed that the corresponding eigenvectors are M-

orthonormalized, cf. (7c) where Gjk is Kroneckers delta. In problem (7a-e), the
symbol NE denotes the total number of finite elements in the admissible design
domain. The design variables Ue, e = 1,,NE, represent the volumetric material
densities of the finite elements, and (7e) specify lower and upper limits U and 1
for Ue. To avoid singularity of the stiffness matrix, U is not zero, but taken to be
a small positive value like U = 10-3. In (7d), the symbol D defines the volume
fraction V * /V0 , where V0 is the volume of the admissible design domain, and V *
the given available volume of solid material and of solid material *1,
respectively, for a single-material and a bi-material design problem, cf. Sections
2.1 and 2.3.
3.2 Sensitivity Analysis of a Simple Eigenfrequency

If the jth eigenfrequency Zj is simple (also called unimodal or distinct), i.e.,
Z j 1 Z j Z j 1 , then the corresponding eigenvector j will be unique (up to a
sign) and differentiable with respect to the design variables Ue, e = 1,,NE. To
determine the sensitivity (derivative) (O j )cUe of the eigenvalue O j Z 2j with
respect to a particular design variable Ue, we differentiate the vibration equation
(7b) with respect to Ue, and get
(K O j M) ( j )cU (K cU O j McU (O j )cU M) j 0 , e 1,, N E
e e e e
(9)
where ( )cUe w ( ) wU e . Pre-multiplying (9) by Tj and using the vibration

equation (7b) and the normalization of j included in (7c) then gives (see also
Wittrick, 1962, Lancaster, 1964, or Haftka, 1990),
(O j )cUe Tj (K cUe O j M cUe ) j , e 1,, N E (10)
The derivatives of the matrices K and M can be calculated explicitly from the
material models in Section 2. Considering, e.g., the single-material model in (3),
the sensitivity of the eigenvalue O j Z 2j with respect to the design variable U e
becomes
(O j )cUe Tj ( pU e( p 1) K *e O j qU e( q 1) M *e ) j , e 1, , N E (11)
The optimality condition for the maximization of a unimodal eigenvalue

O j Z 2j of given order j, j = 1, 2, , now follows from (10) (or (11)) and usage
of the Lagrange multiplier method, and takes the form
(O j )cU J 0Ve 0 , e 1, , N E
e
(12)
where J0 (t 0) is the Lagrange multiplier corresponding to the material volume

constraint, and the side constraints for Ue have been ignored. With this sensitivity
result and optimality condition, the design problem (7a-e) may be solved for a
unimodal optimum eigenfrequency by using an OC (Optimality Criterion) based
method, e.g., the fixed point method (see Cheng and Olhoff, 1982), or a
mathematical programming method, e.g., MMA (Svanberg, 1987).
We may also wish to apply a gradient based method of solution. It is then
essential that the jth eigenvalue O j Z 2j is simple and differentiable, and hereby
admits linearization with respect to the design variables Ue, e = 1, , NE. Hence,
if all the design variables are changed simultaneously, the linear increment 'O j
of O j Z 2j is given by the scalar product
'O j OTj (13)
where ^'U ,, 'U `

1 NE
T
is the vector of changes of the design variables, and
O j ^ (Kc
T
j U1 O j M cU1 ) j ,, Tj (K cU N O j M cU N ) j
E E
`
T
(14)
is the vector of sensitivities (or gradients) of the eigenvalue O j with respect to

the design variables Ue, e = 1, , NE.
3.3 Bound Formulations for Maximization of the nth Eigenfrequency or

the Distance Between two Consecutive Eigenfrequencies
In this section, we first consider the more general problem of maximizing the nth
eigenfrequency Zn of given order of a vibrating structure, i.e., the fundamental
eigenfrequency (n = 1) or a higher order eigenfrequency (n > 1). Employing a
bound formulation (Bendse et al., 1983, Taylor and Bendse, 1984, and Olhoff,
1989) involving a scalar variable E which plays both the role of an objective
function to be maximized and at the same time a variable lower bound for the nth
and higher order eigenfrequencies (counted with possible multiplicity), the above
problem can be formulated as
max {E } (15a)
E , U1 ,, U N E
Subject to :
E Z 2j d 0 , j n, n 1,, J , (15b)
(15c)
Constraints: 7(b-e)
Here, as well as in Eqs. (16) below, J is assumed to be larger than the highest
order of an eigenfrequency to be considered a candidate to exchange its order
with the nth eigenfrequency or to coalesce with this eigenfrequency during the
design process.
The problem of maximizing the distance (gap) between two consecutive
eigenfrequencies of given orders n and n 1 (where n > 1) may be written in the
following extended bound formulation, where two bound parameters are used
(see also Bendse and Olhoff, 1985, and Jensen and Pedersen, 2005):
max {E 2 E1} (16a )

E 1, E 2, U1,, U N E
Subject to :
E 2 Z 2j d 0 , j n, n 1, , J , (16b)
Z 2j E1 d 0 , j 1, , n 1, (16c)
Constraints: 7(b-e). (16d)
Note that if in (16) we remove the bound variable E1 and the corresponding set of
constraints (16c) from the formulation, then the eigenfrequency gap
maximization problem (16) reduces to the nth eigenfrequency maximization
problem (15), and in particular, for n = 1, to the problem of maximizing the
fundamental eigenfrequency in (7).
In problem (15) the eigenfrequency Zn , and in problem (16) both the
eigenfrequencies Zn and Z n1 of the optimum solution may very well be
multiple, and the bound formulations in (15) and (16) are tailored to facilitate
handling of such difficulties.
It is also worth noting that the introduction of the scalar bound variables E
in (15) and E1 and E 2 in (16) implies that even if multiple eigenfrequencies are
present, the optimization problems (15) and (16) are both differentiable if they
are considered as problems in all variables, i.e. the bound parameter(s) E (or
E1 , E 2 ), design variables U e , e 1,, N E , as well as the eigenfrequencies Z j
and eigenvectors j , j 1,, J , (implying that all these variables should have
been included under the max signs in (15a) and (16a)). This type of problem is
referred to as one of Simultaneous analysis and design (SAND), and is a very
large problem in the present context. Therefore, we refrain from solving the
current topology optimization problems in this form in our paper.
In the form written above, where only the design variables U e , e 1,, N E ,
and the bound parameters E and E1 , E 2 are included under the max signs in
(15a) and (16a), the topology optimization problems (15) and (16) are non-
differentiable because the eigenfrequencies Z j , j 1,, J , are considered as
functions of the design variables U e , e 1,, N E . This is a nested formulation
which provides the basis for numerical solution by a scheme of successive
iterations where, in each iteration, the eigenfrequencies Z j and eigenvectors j ,
j 1,, J , are established for known design, U e , e 1,, N E , by solution of the
generalized eigenvalue problem (7b) and implementation of the orthonormality
conditions (7c).
To accommodate for occurrence of multiple eigenfrequencies, we in the

subsequent Section 3.4 consider some important sensitivity results for such
eigenfrequencies. In Section 3.5, we make use of these results in the
development of incremental forms of problems (15) and (16) which provide the
basis for construction of a highly efficient scheme for numerical solution of the
topology optimization problems under study.
3.4 Sensitivity Analysis of Multiple Eigenfrequencies

Multiple eigenfrequencies may manifest themselves in different ways in
structural optimization problems. One possibility is that an eigenfrequency
subject to optimization is multiple from the beginning of the design process, e.g.,
due to structural symmetry, but an originally unimodal eigenfrequency may also
become multiple during the optimization process due to coalescence with one or
more of its adjacent eigenfrequencies. In this case, sensitivities of the multiple
eigenfrequency cannot be calculated straightforwardly from (10) (or (11)) due to
lack of usual differentiability properties of the sub-space spanned by the
eigenvectors associated with the multiple eigenfrequency. Investigations of
sensitivity analysis of multiple eigenvalues (like eigenfrequencies or buckling
loads) are available in many papers (see, e.g., Bratus and Seyranian, 1983, Masur,
1984, 1985, Haug et al., 1986, Seyranian, 1987, Overton, 1988, Seyranian et al.,
1994, and papers cited therein).
Following Seyranian et al. (1994), let us assume that the solution of the
generalized eigenvalue problem (7b) included in problems (15) or (16) yields a
~
N-fold multiple eigenvalue O ,
~ (17)
O O Z 2 , j n, , n N 1
j j
associated with the N (N > 1) lowest eigenfrequencies Z j appearing in the bound

constraints (15b) and (16b) *1. Here we shall assume n N 1 J , i.e., that the
total number J of eigenfrequencies (counted with multiplicity), that is considered
in problems (15) and (16) is chosen such that the Jth eigenfrequency ZJ is larger
~
than the multiple eigenfrequency corresponding to O in (17). The multiplicity of
~
the eigenvalue O in (17) implies that any linear combination of the eigenvectors
*1
Similarly, the eigenvalue problem (7b) contained in problem (16) may yield
another R-fold eigenvalue O O Z 2 , j n R,, n 1 , which corresponds to
j j
the R largest eigenfrequencies Z j in (16c). This case (for which we assume that
1 d n R ), is completely analogous to (17).
~
j, j n,, n N 1 , corresponding to O will satisfy the generalized
eigenvalue problem (7b) in (15) and (16), which implies that the eigenvectors are
not unique.
In Seyranian et al. (1994) the sensitivity analysis is based on a mathematical
perturbation analysis of the multiple eigenvalue and the corresponding
eigenvectors. This analysis involves directional derivatives in the design space
and leads to the result that the increments 'O j of a multiple eigenvalue
~
O O j Z 2j , j n,, n N 1 , as in (17) are eigenvalues of a N-dimensional
algebraic sub-eigenvalue problem of the form
>
det f skT G sk O @ 0 , s, k = n, , n+N-1, (18)
where Gsk is Kroneckers delta, and fsk denote generalized gradient vectors of the
form
^ ~ ~
E E
T
`
f sk Ts (K cU1 O McU1 ) k , , Ts (K cU N O McU N ) k , s, k = n, , n+N-1. (19)
According to the definition in (19), each fsk is a NE-dimensional vector, which

means that f skT in (18) is a scalar product. The label generalized gradient
vector for fsk becomes apparent when comparing (19) with the expression for the
gradient vector O j of a simple eigenvalue O j in (14). Note also that fsk = fks
due to the symmetry of the matrices K and M, and that the two subscripts s and k
refer to the orthonormalized eigenmodes from which fsk is calculated.
~
Assuming that we know the multiple eigenvalue O , the associated sub-set of
orthonormalized eigenmodes, and have computed the derivatives of the matrices
K and M, we can construct the generalized gradient vectors fsk, s, k = n, , n+N-
1, from (19). Solving the algebraic sub-eigenvalue problem in (18) for 'O then
yields the increments 'O 'O j , j n,, n N 1 , of the multiple eigenvalue
~
^ `
O subject to a given vector 'U1 , , 'U N E of increments of the design
variables.
The N increments 'O j , j n,, n N 1, constitute the eigenvalues of the
sub-eigenvalue problem (18), and represent the directional derivatives of the
~
multiple eigenvalue O O j Z 2j , j n,, n N 1 , with respect to change
'U e of the design variables U e , e 1, , N E . Attention should be drawn to the
fact that the increments 'O j , j n,, n N 1 of the multiple eigenvalue are
generally non-linear functions of the direction of the design increment vector .
Thus, unlike simple eigenvalues, multiple eigenvalues do not admit a usual
linearization in terms of the design variables.

Finally, two important special cases should be observed.
Case of simple eigenfrequency. As is to be expected, for N = 1, i.e., j = s = k =

n, (17) and (18) reduce to the case of a simple eigenvalue On Z n2 . Eq. (18)
reduces to the simple equation
f nnT On 0 (20)

where, according to (13), (19) and (14), we have
f nn On (21)
i.e., f nn is simply the vector of sensitivities of the unimodal eigenvalue On with

respect to the design variables Ue, e = 1, , NE, cf. (10) and (14).
Case of vanishing off-diagonal terms. For the case of multiple eigenvalues, cf.
(17) with N > 1, a very important observation can be made. If in (18) all off-
diagonal scalar products are zero, i.e. if
f skT 0 , s z k , s, k n, , n N 1, (22)
then the increment 'O j of an eigenvalue O j Z 2j becomes determined as

'O j f jjT ' , j n,, n N 1, (23)
where according to (17) and (19)
f jj ^ (Kc
T
j U1 E E
`
T
O j McU1 ) j , , Tj (K cU N O j McU N ) j , j n,, n N 1. (24)
Hence, if the design increment vector fulfils (22), then f jj has precisely the
same form as the gradient vector O j in (14) for a simple eigenvalue, and the
eigenvalue increments 'O j in (23) are uniquely determined on the basis of the
eigenmodes j , j n,, n N 1 . The formulas for design sensitivity analysis
of multiple eigenvalues then become precisely the same as those for simple
eigenvalues.
3.5 Computational Procedure

The topology optimization problems (15) and (16) can be efficiently solved by
an iterative procedure indicated in Fig. 2, which can be used for solution of
problems with multiple as well as simple eigenfrequencies.
0. Problem initialization.
Define value of n and
initialize design variables U e
1. Solution of the generalized eigenvalue problem (7b,c)

for eigenfrequencies and -modes by FE-analysis.
Detect possible multiplicity N of Zn (and R of Z n1 )
2. Computation of generalized gradients fsk, if N>1 (and

R>1) or usual gradients if N=1 (and R=1)
3. Iterative solution of optimization sub-problem (25)

(or (26)) for increments 'U e of the design variables
Main
Inner loop loop
Increments No
'U e converged ?
Yes
4. Update values of the design variables

Ue : U e 'U e .
U e converged ? No
i.e., ' H ?
Yes
Stop
Figure 2. Flow chart of iterative solution procedure.

The procedure is based on the results of the sensitivity analysis in the

preceding section, and is seen to consist of a main (outer) loop and an inner loop.
While steps 1, 2 and 4 of the main loop are pretty straight-forward, the third step
(the inner loop) needs to be briefly discussed. (The interested reader is referred to
Du and Olhoff (2007b) for more details about the iterative procedure.)
The purpose of the third step (the inner loop) in Fig. 2 is to determine
optimum values of the increments 'U e , e 1, , N E , of the design variables,
subject to known values of iterates that have been determined in steps 1 and 2
and are fixed in the third step. To enable this, we rewrite the bound formulations
(15) and (16) in terms of the vector of increments 'U e , e 1, , N E , of the
design variables and corresponding increments of the squared eigenfrequencies
'O j ' (Z 2j ), j n,, n N 1 , (and j n R,, n 1 , for problem (16)).
Hereby, we obtain the following sets of sub-problems to be solved for optimum
increments in the third step of the main loop of the computational procedure for
(a) Maximization of the nth eigenfrequency:
max {E } (25a)
E , 'U1, , 'U N E
Subject to :
> @
E Z 2j f Tjj d 0 , for j J n N,
(25b)
E >Z '(Z )@ d 0 ,
2
j
2
j j n, ..., n N 1, (25c)
det >f G (Z )@

T
sk sk
2
0, s, k n, ..., n N 1, (25d)
NE (25e)
(U
e 1
e 'U e )Ve V * d 0, V * D V0 ,
(25f)
0 U d U e 'U e d 1, e 1, , N E ,
(b) Maximization of the gap (distance) between the nth and (n-1)st
eigenfrequencies:
max {E 2 E1} (26a)

E 1, E 2, 'U1,, 'U N E
Subject to :
>
E 2 Z 2j f Tjj d 0 , @ for j J n N,
(26b)
E2 >Z 2
j '(Z 2j ) d 0 , @ j n, ..., n N 1, (26c)
>Z 2
j @
'(Z 2j ) E1 d 0 , j n R, ..., n 1, ( R d n 1) (26d)
>Z 2
j @
f Tjj E1 d 0 , for j n R 1, (if R d n 2) (26e)
>
det f skT G sk (Z 2 ) @ 0, s, k n, ..., n N 1, (26f)
det >f sk G sk (Z
T 2
)@ 0, s, k n R, ..., n 1, (26g)
NE
(U
e 1
e 'U e )Ve V * d 0, V * D V0 , (26h)
0 U d U e 'U e d 1, e 1, , N E . (26i)
Note that in the sub-optimization problems (25) and (26), the only unknowns
are the bound variables E and E1 , E 2 and the increments of the design
variables 'U e , e 1, , N E , which play the role as independent variables. The
dependent variables are the increments '(Z 2j ), j n,, n N 1 , of the N-fold
eigenfrequency Z n2 Z n2 N 1 (in problems (25) and (26)), together with the
increments '(Z 2j ), j n R, , n 1 , of the R-fold eigenfrequency
Z 2
n R Z (in problem (26)). All other iterates in (25) and (26), i.e. the
2
n 1
material valume densities U e , the eigenfrequencies Z j , the generalized gradient

vectors f sk and the multiplicities N and R have been determined in step 1 and 2
of the main iteration loop, and are kept fixed in the current step 3 of this loop.
Problems (25) and (26) can be solved using the MMA method (Svanberg
1987) or a linear programming algorithm.
Finally, it is interesting to note that if we introduce the additional constraints
f sk 0 , for s z k , s, k = n, , n+N-1, i.e. force the off-diagonal terms in (18)
T
to vanish, then the increments 'O j are determined in a linearized form with
respect to the increments 'U e of the material volume densities for both simple
and multiple eigenvalues, and as a result, the sub-optimization problems (25) and
(26) both reduce to linear programming problems (see Krog and Olhoff, 1999).
4 Numerical Examples of Eigenfrequency Optimization
4.1 Maximization of the Fundamental Eigenfrequency of Beam-like 2D

Structures
a
b Admissible design domain
(a)
Admissible design domain
(b)
Admissible design domain
(c)
Figure 3(a-c). Admissible design domains (a = 8, b = 1) of beam-like 2D structures with
three different sets of boundary conditions. (a) Simply supported ends. (b) One end
clamped, the other simply supported. (c) Clamped ends. The fundamental
eigenfrequencies of the 3 initial designs (uniform distribution of material with density U =
0.5) are all unimodal with values Z10a 68.7 , Z10b 104.1 and Z10c 146.1 .
As a first example, we consider the topology optimization of a single-material

beam-like structure modeled by 2D plane stress elements. The admissible design
domain is specified, and three different cases (a), (b) and (c) of boundary
conditions as shown in Fig. 3 and defined in the caption, are considered. The
design objective is to maximize the fundamental eigenfrequency for a prescribed
material volume fraction D = 50%, and in the initial design the available material
is uniformly distributed over the admissible design domain. The material is
isotropic with Youngs modulus E = 107, Poissons ratio X = 0.3 and mass
density Um = 1 (SI units are used throughout).
The fundamental eigenfrequencies of the initial designs with the three cases
(a), (b) and (c) of boundary conditions are given in the caption of Fig. 3. The
optimized topologies are shown in Figs. 4(a-c), and the corresponding optimum
fundamental eigenfrequencies are all found to be bimodal with values given in
the caption of the figure. Fig 5 shows the iteration history for the first 3
eigenfrequencies of the optimum bimodal design with simply supported ends in
Fig. 4(a). The iteration histories for the optimum designs with the two other
cases of boundary conditions in Figs. 4(b,c) are qualitatively similar. Figs. 6(a-c)
depict the first 3 eigenmodes of the optimized beam-like structure with simply
supported ends in Fig. 4(a), and the results show that the first 2 eigenmodes
(corresponding to the bimodal fundamental eigenfrequency) of the structure are
typical simply supported beam-type vibration modes, while the 3rd one is a more
general 2D vibration mode.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4(a-c). Optimized single-material topologies (50% volume fraction) for the three
different sets of boundary conditions defined in Figs. 3(a-c). The optimum fundamental
eigenfrequencies are all found to be bimodal and have the values (a) Z1opt
a 174.7 , (b)
Z opt
1b 288.7 , and (c) Zopt
1c 456.4 , implying that they are increased by (a) 154%, (b)
177% and (c) 212% relative to the initial designs.
600
500
Eigenfrequencies
400
Z3
300
200 Z2
(Maximized) Z1
100
0
0 20 40 60 80
Iteration number
Figure 5. Iteration history of the first 3 eigenfrequencies associated with the design
process leading to the optimum simply supported beam-like structure in Fig. 4(a). It is
seen that the fundamental eigenfrequency is simple for the initial design, but soon
coalesces with the second eigenfrequency, and the maximum fundamental eigenfrequency
is bimodal.
(a) Z1opt
a 174.7
(b) Z2 a Z1opt
a 174.7
(c) Z3a 284.9

Figure 6(a-c). The three first eigenmodes of the simply supported beam-like structure in
Fig. 4(a) with a bimodal optimum fundamental eigenfrequency. (a) and (b) depict the two
modes associated with the optimum fundamental eigenfrequency, and (c) shows the
subsequent mode.
4.2 Maximization of the Second Eigenfrequency of Beam-like 2D

Structures
We now present an example of topology optimization of single material beam-
like structures for maximum value of the second eigenfrequency. The initial data
and the three sets of boundary conditions in this example are the same as for the
first example in Section 4.1. The resulting topologies are shown in Figs. 7(a-c).
(a)
(b)
(c)
different sets of boundary conditions in Figs. 3(a-c). The optimum second
eigenfrequencies are found to be (a) Z 2opt
a 598.3 , (b) Z2opt
b 732.8 , and (c)
Z2optc 849.0 , and are all bimodal.
4.3 Maximization of the Distance (Gap) Between Two Consequtive

Eigenfrequencies of Beam-like 2D Structure
In this example, we consider the design objective of maximizing the distance
(gap) between two consecutive eigenfrequencies (the 2nd and the 3rd
eigenfrequencies) of the clamped beam-like structure in Fig. 8(a). A concentrated
mass mc is attached at the mid-point of the lower edge of the beam-like structure
as shown in Fig. 8(a), which has the value mc = 1/2mb (Here mb is the total mass
of the initial design). We use the same admissible design domain, materials and
volume fractions as in the previous example (see Fig. 3(c)). The optimum
topology and the corresponding iteration histories of the eigenfrequencies are
given in Figs. 8(b) and 8(c). It can be seen that the 2nd eigenfrequency is
decreased and the 3rd eigenfrequency is increased. As a result, the design ends
up with a maximized gap between the 2nd and the 3rd eigenfrequencies that is
equal to 810, which is 548 % higher than the difference between the
corresponding eigenfrequencies of the initial design. Note that in Fig. 8(d) the
3rd, 4th and 5th eigenfrequencies form a tri-modal eigenfrequency of the final
optimum design.
(a)
(b)
1200
Z5
1000
Z4
Eigenfrequencies
Z3
800
600
(Maximized) gap: ZZ

3 2
400
Z2
200
Z1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Iteration number
(c)
Figure 8 (a). A clamped beam-like 2D structure with a concentrated mass attached at the
mid-point of the lower edge. (b) Optimized topology of the beam-like structure. The gap
between the 2nd and the 3rd eigenfrequencies is maximized. (c) Iteration history for the
first five eigenfrequencies associated with the process leading to the optimized topology
(b). Notice that the 3rd, 4th and 5th eigenvalues have coalesced to a tri-modal eigenvalue
for the optimized topology.
4.4 Maximization of the Fundamental Eigenfrequency of Single-material

Plate Structures
In this example, we consider the topology optimization of a single-material plate-

like structure modeled by 8-node 3D brick elements with Wilson incompatible
displacement models to improve precision. The admissible design domain is
specified, and three different cases (a), (b) and (c) of boundary conditions and
attached concentrated, nonstructural masses as shown in Fig. 9 and defined in the
caption, are considered. The design objective is to maximize the fundamental
eigenfrequency for a prescribed material volume fraction D = 50%, and in the
initial design the available material is uniformly distributed over the admissible
design domain. The material is isotropic with Youngs modulus E = 1011,
Poissons ratio X = 0.3 and mass density Um = 7800 (SI units are used throughout).
The fundamental eigenfrequencies of the initial designs with the three cases (a),
(b) and (c) of boundary/mass conditions are given in the caption of Fig. 9. The
optimized plate topologies are shown in Figs. 10(a-c), and the corresponding
optimum fundamental eigenfrequencies are all unimodal with values given in the
caption of Fig. 10.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9. Plate-like 3D structure (a=20, b= 20 and t=1) with three different cases of
boundary conditions and attachment of a concentrated nonstructural mass. (a) Simple
supports at four corners and concentrated mass mc at the center of the structure
( mc m0 / 3 , m0 the total structural mass of the plate). (b) Four edges clamped and
concentrated mass mc at the center ( mc m0 / 10 ). (c) One edge clamped, other edges
free, and concentrated mass mc attached at the mid-point of the edge opposite to the
clamped one ( mc m0 / 10 ). The first eigenfrequencies for the 3 initial designs (uniform
distribution of material with density U = 0.5) are Z1a 8.13 , Z10b 31.07 , Z10c
0
3.46 .
(a) (b) (c)

different cases of boundary conditions and mass attachment in Figs. 9(a-c). The optimum
fundamental eigenfrequencies are found to be (a) Z1opt
a 16.38 , (b) Z1opt
b 65.42 , and
(c) Z opt
1c 9.66 , implying that they are increased by (a) 101%, (b) 111% and (c) 179%
relative to the initial designs.
As a second example, single-material topology optimization of an initially

quadratic plate-like structure with simple supports at its four corners and center
is considered (Fig. 11(a)). The admissible design domain and the material are the
same as in the foregoing example. Due to the structural symmetry, the
fundamental eigenfrequency of the initial design is bimodal with modes shown
in Figs. 11(b-c).
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11. Plate-like 3D structure (a=20, b= 20 and t=1) with simple supports at its four
corners and center. (a) Admissible design domain. (b-c) The eigenmodes of the initial
design associated with the bimodal fundamental eigenfrequency Z1 Z 20
0
24.56 .
The optimized topology is shown in Fig. 12(a) (50% volume fraction), and
the corresponding optimum fundamental eigenfrequency is also bimodal.
90
Z3
80
Eigenfrequency
70
Z2
60
Z1
50 (Maximized)
40
30 Multiple eigenfrequency
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Iteration number
(a) (b)
Figure 12. (a) Optimized topology (50% volume fraction, single-material design)
associated with the maximum fundmental eigenfrequency Z1
opt
60.32 , which is
bimodal. (b) Iteration history for the first three eigenfrequencies.
4.5 Maximization of Higher Order Eigenfrequencies of Single- and Bi-

material Plate Structures
Here we first present an example of topology optimization of single-material
plate-like structures with respect to the second eigenfrequency. The initial data
for the example are the same as for the first example in Section 4.4. Thus, we
choose the same volume and type of available material, the same admissible
design domain, and again consider the three different cases (a), (b) and (c) of
boundary conditions and attached concentrated masses as shown in Fig. 9, but
we now maximize the second eigenfrequencies. The resulting optimum
topologies and the frequency iteration histories for the three cases of boundary
conditions and mass attachment in Fig. 9 are given in Figs. 13 and 14.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13 (a-c). Optimized single-material topologies (50% volume fraction)
corresponding to the three different cases of boundary conditions and mass attachment in
Figs. 9(a-c). The values and multiplicities of the optimum second eigenfrequencies are:
(a) Z 2opt
a 46.03 (trimodal), (b) Z 2opt
b 155.43 (bimodal), (c) Z 2opt
c 39.77 (bimodal).
60 250 120
Z5 Z4 Z5
50 Z4 100
200 Z4
Eigenfrequencies
Eigenfrequencies
Eigenfrequencies
Z3
40 (Maximized) Z2 Z3 80
150 Z2
30 (Maximized) 60
100 Z3
20 40
Z1 Z2
Z1 (Maximized)
50
10 20
Z1
0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Iteration number Iteration number Iteration number
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14. Iteration histories of eigenfrequencies associated with the design process
leading to the results in Figs. 13(a-c). For case (c) it is seen that the second
eigenfrequency is simple for the initial design, but soon coalesces with the third
eigenfrequency.
In the next example, we consider topology optimization of bi-material

structures with respect to higher order eigenfrequencies. Both of the two
materials are isotropic. The stiffer material *1 with elasticity and mass matrices
E*e1 , M *e1 , see Section 2.3, is indicated by black in Fig. 15, and is the same as that
used for optimization with a single-material in the preceding examples. The
weaker material *2 is indicated by grey in Fig. 15, and has the properties
E*e2 0.1E*e1 and M *e2 0.1M *e1 . We take the volume fraction of material *1 to
be 50%, and present results of optimizing the topologies of a bi-material
quadratic plate with the same boundary conditions and attachment of a
concentrated mass as shown in Fig. 9(b). Figs. 15(a-c) present the optimized
plate topologies associated with maximum values of the 4th, 5th and 6th
eigenfrequencies.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15. Optimized topologies of bi-material plate with all edges clamped and a
concentrated mass attached to the center, cf. Fig. 9(b). The topologies correspond to
maximum values of the (a) 4th, (b) 5th and (c) 6th eigenfrequency. The stiffer and the
weaker material are indicated by black and grey, respectively, and the volume fraction of
the stiffer material *1 is 50%.
4.6 Maximization of the Distance (Gap) Between Two Consequtive

Eigenfrequencies of Bi-material Plate Structures
This example also concerns topology optimization of bi-material plate structures,

and we use the same materials and volume fractions as in the previous example.
The design objective considered is to maximize the distance (gap) between the
2nd and 3rd eigenfrequencies of the structure. We use the same admissible
design domain as in Fig. 9 for the plate structure, and choose the cases (a) and (c)
of boundary conditions and concentrated mass attachment as shown in Fig. 9.
The results are given in Fig. 16.
80
Z5
70
Z4
Z3
Eigenfrequencies
60
50
(Maximized) Gap: ZZ
3 2
40
30 Z2
20
Z1
10
0 10 20 30 40 50
Iteration number
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 16. Optimized topology of the plate-like structure with simple supports at four
corners and a concentrated mass at the center, cf. Fig. 9(a). The gap between the 2nd and
the 3rd eigenfrequencies is maximized. (b) Iteration histories for the first five
eigenfrequencies associated with the process leading to the design (a). It shows that the
second and the third eigenfrequencies form a double eigenfrequency for the initial design,
but that they split as the design process proceeds, and the 3rd and the 4th eigenfrequencies
end up being a double eigenfrequency of the final design. (c) Optimized topology of the
plate-like structure with the upper horizontal edge clamped, other edges free, and a
concentrated mass attached at the mid-point of the lower horizontal edge, cf. Fig. 9(c).
The gap between the 2nd and the 3rd eigenfrequencies is maximized.
5 Minimization of the Dynamic Compliance of Structures Subjected to

Forced Vibration
This and the subsequent Chapter 6 deal with the problem of topological design
optimization of elastic, continuum structures without damping that are subjected
to time-harmonic, dynamic loading with prescribed frequency and amplitude,
and is based on a recent paper by Olhoff and Du (2008). An important objective
of such a design problem is often to drive the eigenfrequencies of the structure as
far away as possible from the prescribed loading frequency in order to avoid
resonance and reduce the vibration level of the structure. This objective is
implemented by minimizing the dynamic compliance of the structure subject to
the given loading frequency, using the volumetric densities of material in the
finite elements in the admissible design domain as design variables. The total
structural volume, the boundary conditions, and the material are given.
Topology optimization for minimum dynamic compliance is equivalent to
maximizing the dynamic stiffness of structures subjected to time-harmonic
external loading of given frequency and amplitude, and have, e.g., been studied
by Ma et al. (1995), Jog (2002), and Olhoff and Du (2008). Topology design
subject to transient external loading was studied by Min et al. (1999), where the
dynamic compliance is defined relative to a specified time interval. Another
related problem discussed by Calvel and Mongeau (2005) concerns topology
optimization of continuum structures subject to dynamic constraints (e.g. the
amplitude of displacement response) where a range of forcing frequencies is
considered.
A problem that may arise in structural topology optimization under time-
harmonic dynamic loading is that the static compliance (corresponding to the
same loading amplitude, but zero frequency) may increase to a very high level
(see e.g. Tcherniak, 2002) during the process where the dynamic compliance of
the structure is optimized. In extreme cases the static compliance actually tends
to infinity, see Olhoff and Du (2008), which reflects that a disintegration of the
structure is being created during the design process. However, it was
demonstrated by Olhoff and Du (2008) that the design objective of the dynamic
problem can be implemented along different optimization paths, and that it is
possible to avoid the problem mentioned above by selection of the proper path.
Thus, in the present chapter, an approach is presented in which the static
compliance of the structure is constrained or decreased during the process of
optimizing the dynamic properties. An algorithm developed for this handles the
optimum design problem by a continuation technique where the loading
frequency is sequentially increased (or decreased) from a sufficiently low (or
high) initial value up to (or down to) its prescribed value. This approach can be
applied to both low and high frequency loading cases. Numerical examples are
presented in Chapter 6 to demonstrate the validity of the approach.
5.1 Formulation of the Problem of Minimizing the Dynamic Compliance
The problem of optimizing the topology of a continuum structure (without

damping) for minimum value of the integral dynamic structural compliance can
be formulated in a discrete form as follows:
min {F Cd2 }
Ue , e 1 , , N E
Subject to :
Cd | PTU | ,
(27)
(K Z 2p M )U P,
NE
* (V *
U eVe V d 0 , DV0 ) ,
e 1
0 U d Ue d 1 , (e 1 , , N E ) .
In (27), the symbol Cd stands for the dynamic compliance defined as
C d | P T U | . Here, P denotes the vector of amplitudes of a given external time-
iZ t
harmonic mechanical surface loading vector p(t ) Pe p with the prescribed
excitation frequency Z p , and U represents the vector of magnitudes of the
iZ t
corresponding structural displacement response vector a (t ) U e p . Thus, U
and P satisfy the dynamic equilibrium equation included in (27) for the steady-
state vibration at the prescribed frequency Z p , with K and M representing the N
dimensional global structural stiffness and mass matrices, where N is the number
of DOFs. We note that the above expression for the dynamic compliance Cd
represents the numerical mean value of the magnitudes of the surface
displacements weighted by the values of the amplitudes of the corresponding
time-harmonic surface loading. For the case of static loading ( Z p = 0), the
expression directly reduces to the traditional definition of static compliance, i.e.,
the work done by the external forces against corresponding displacements at
equilibrium.
In (27), NE denotes the total number of finite elements in the admissible
design domain for the topology optimization problem. The symbols Ue, e =
1,,NE, play the role of design variables of the problem and represent the
volumetric material densities of the finite elements, with lower and upper limits
U and 1 specified for Ue. To avoid singularity of the stiffness matrix, U is not
zero, but taken to be a small positive value like U = 10-3. In the second but last
constraint in (27), the symbol D defines the volume fraction V * /V0 , where V0 is
the volume of the admissible design domain, and V * is the given available
volume, respectively, of the solid material for a single-material design problem
and of the solid material *1 for a bi-material design problem, cf. Sections 2.1 and
2.3.
It is noted from (27) that the global dynamic stiffness matrix K d defined as
Kd K Z p2 M may be negative definite when the prescribed external excitation
frequency Z p has a high value, e.g. higher than the fundamental eigenfrequency
of the structure. In this case, the scalar product of the transpose of the vector of
amplitudes of the external surface loading and the vector of amplitudes of the
structural displacement response may become negative, and in order to include
this possibility in our problem formulation, we apply the absolute value of this
scalar product as the dynamic compliance Cd, see (27). Moreover, to render the
problem differentiable, we choose the objective function F as the square of the
dynamic compliance. The dynamic equilibrium equation in (27) is solved in a
direct way by Gauss elimination in this paper.
5.2 Sensitivity Analysis

The sensitivity of the objective function F in problem (27) with respect to the
design variables Ue is given by
F c (Cd2 )c 2(P T U) (PcT U PT Uc ) , (28)
where prime denotes partial derivative with respect to Ue. The sensitivity Pc of
the load vector will be zero if it is design-independent, otherwise it can be
handled using the method described by Hammer and Olhoff (1999, 2000), and
also by Du and Olhoff (2004a,b). The sensitivity Uc of the displacement vector
is given by
(K Z 2p M ) U c f { P c (K c Z 2p M c) U , (29)
where the sensitivities of the stiffness and mass matrices can be directly obtained
from the SIMP material model, i.e. Eqs. (4). The vector f is known as the pseudo
load and is defined by the term on the right-hand side of Eq. (29). Instead of solving
Eq. (29), the adjoint method (see e.g. Tortorelli and Michaleris 1994) may be used
to calculate the sensitivity of the objective function in a more efficient manner,
which gives the following result
> @
F c 2(P T U) 2U T Pc U T (K c Z 2p Mc) U .
(30)
Accordingly, the optimality condition for problem (27) can be expressed in the
following form by means of the method of Lagrange multipliers,
> @
2(P T U) 2U T Pc U T (K c Z 2p Mc) U /Ve 0 ,
(31)
where / is the Lagrange multiplier corresponding to the material volume constraint,

and the side constraints for Ue have been ignored. The optimization problem (27)
can be solved by using the well-known MMA method (Svanberg 1987) or an
optimality criterion method, e.g. the fixed point method, as devised by Cheng and
Olhoff (1982).
5.3 An Approach for Minimum Dynamic Compliance Design

The dynamic compliance defined in the first constraint of problem (27) may
alternatively be written as follows by using the modal superposition technique
(without damping)
1
Z
2
P T i
I 2 I
Cd | P U | 1 p
T

Z
M c , (32)

Zi i i
i 1 i i 1
where Zi represents the ith eigenfrequency and Mi the corresponding eigenmode

of the structure, and
1
P Ti
2
Z
2
ci and M i 1 p
(33)

Zi Zi
can be interpreted as the contribution of the ith eigenmode of the structure to the
dynamic compliance and the corresponding magnification factor (as defined for a
single degree of freedom system). It is noted that the lower eigenfrequency
normally gives more contribution (implying a larger value of ci) to the dynamic
compliance of the structure if the corresponding eigenmode is not orthogonal to
the external loading mode. On the other hand, when the loading frequency is
close to an eigenfrequency of the structure, the absolute value of the
magnification factor corresponding to this eigenfrequency will increase very
quickly, which indicates the occurrence of a resonance.
Not surprisingly, minimization of the integral dynamic compliance normally
yields a structure whose eigenfrequencies are far from the prescribed excitation
frequency Zp of the dynamic load; this structural behaviour implies efficient
avoidance of resonance phenomena with large displacement amplitudes and low
dynamic stiffness. In the present topology optimization problem, the initial
design (cf. D1 in Fig. 17(a)), which is normally chosen to have a uniform
distribution of material with intermediate density over the admissible design
domain, may have a fundamental eigenfrequency (resonance frequency) : = :1
that is smaller than the given loading frequency Zp. In this case, a decrease of the
dynamic compliance corresponding to Zp normally implies an increase of the
static compliance (that corresponds to the same loading amplitude but zero
frequency Z = 0), due to a decrease of the fundamental eigenfrequency :
(thereby avoiding resonance), see Fig. 17(a). As a result of this, in particular in
single-material problems, the structure may become very weak at the (local)
optimum of the dynamic compliance that is obtained. In order to prevent this,
one may introduce an upper bound constraint on the static compliance. However,
this will delimit the gain of the optimization of the dynamic compliance.
In fact, much lower values of the dynamic compliance can be obtained if we
can start out the optimization procedure using a value Z of the loading frequency
that is lower than the value of the fundamental eigenfrequency (resonance
frequency) :1 for the initial design, and then sequentially increase Z up to its
originally prescribed value Zp , see Fig. 17(b). This procedure has the desirable
effect of generating a series of topologies with increasing values of both the
fundamental frequency : and the static and dynamic stiffnesses for the sequence
of structures produced (we may call this technique a continuation technique).
Finally, the procedure delivers the optimum dynamic compliance topology
solution subject to the originally prescribed loading frequency, Zp. The
procedure automatically avoids resonance, and works very well as long as the
prescribed loading frequency Zp is lower than the maximum obtainable value
:opt of the fundamental eigenfrequency, i.e. Z p : opt . Moreover, since the
fundamental eigenfrequency of the structure maintains a value higher than the
loading frequency, the dynamic stiffness matrix K d K Z p2 M , see problem
(27), remains positive definite during the design process. This implies a very
good feature embedded in the dynamics design, i.e., the global structural
response approaches zero when the dynamic compliance of the structure
approaches zero.
Cd Initial design D1
Path 2
Cs2 D2 D1
Cd1
Cs1
Cd2
Z=0 :2 :1 Zp Z
(a)
Cd Initial design D1
Path 1
D1 D3
Cd1
Cs1 Cd3
Cs3
Z=0 Zp :1 :3 Z
(b)
Figure 17. Principle sketch of the dependence of the dynamic compliance Cd on the
loading frequency Z for the case where the prescribed loading frequency Zp is close to the
fundamental eigenfrequency :1 of the initial design D1. Symbols :2 and :3 represent the
fundamental eigenfrequencies of the designs D2 and D3. (a) If the fundamental
eigenfrequency :1 of the initial design D1 is less than the prescribed loading frequency
Zp, i.e. :1 Z p , then the design will proceed along path 2 (see (a)) to decrease the
dynamic compliance, and as a result, the dynamic compliance corresponding to Zp
becomes smaller, i.e. C d 2 C d 1 , but the static compliance Cs (corresponding to Z =0) for
the same design increases, C s 2 ! C s1 . (b) If :1 ! Z p , then the design will proceed along
path 1 (see (b)), and as a result, both the dynamic compliance (corresponding to Zp) and
the static compliance (corresponding to Z =0) for the same design decrease, i.e.
C d 3 C d 1 and C s 3 C s1 .
Now, if the prescribed value of Zp is such that Z p ! : opt (but sufficiently

smaller than the second resonance frequency of the design associated with the
maximum eigenfrequency :opt ), the minimization of the dynamic compliance
will drive the fundamental eigenfrequency : of the design towards zero (for
single material design). At the same time, the static displacements of the
structure become very large, which means that the static stiffness tends to zero.
The physical reason for this behaviour is that, in the limit, a disintegration is
created in the structure. In this limit, the zero value of the fundamental
eigenfrequency is associated with a rigid body vibration mode of the structure,

and the static displacements of the disintegrated part of the structure become
infinite, as the structure cannot sustain the static load.
A straight-forward way of avoiding this unwanted structural behaviour is to
include an upper bound constraint on the static compliance in the mathematical
formulation of the problem of minimizing the dynamic compliance. We have
found that such a constraint is extremely effective and well-chosen when
minimizing the dynamic compliance for a value of Zp that is somewhat larger
than :opt .
It should be mentioned at this point that in Chapters 5 and 6, the given
excitation frequency Zp is tacitly assumed to be lower than the anti-resonance
frequency located between the first and second resonance frequencies of the
structures considered. The reader is referred to Olhoff and Du (2008) for a
general, systematic approach (based on continuation techniques) for determining
topology designs of minimum dynamic compliance subject to excitation
frequencies that may be far above the lowest resonance frequencies of the
structure.
6 Numerical Examples of Dynamic Compliance Minimization
6.1 Minimum Dynamic Compliance Design of a Plate-like Structure

This example concerns optimum topology design of a single-material 3D plate-
like structure with support conditions as shown in Fig. 18(a). A time-harmonic,
concentrated transverse external load p(t) = PcosZ t is applied to the center of the
plate. The design objective is to minimize the dynamic compliance of the plate
for a prescribed loading frequency Z = Zp = 80 and a volume fraction of 50% for
the given solid material, which has the Youngs modulus E = 1011, Poissons
ratio X = 0.3 and the specific mass Jm = 7800. The first eigenfrequency of the
plate in the initial design (see Fig. 18(a)) is :1 = 61.6, i.e. less than the given
loading frequency. Minimization of the dynamic compliance drives the design
away from the resonance point which implies a continual decrease of :1 as
shown in Fig. 18(b). As a result, the static compliance of the structure increases
very quickly (Fig. 18(c)). Fig. 18(d) shows that at iteration step 30, the plate has
become very weak at the two fixed supports. This indicates creation of a rigid
body vibration mode in association with the first eigenfrequency, and that the
structure cannot effectively sustain the static load associated with Z = 0.
100
Prescribed loading frequency Zp

80
Frequencies
60 First eigenfrequency :1
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Iteration number
(a) (b)
-6
x 10
2
Dynamic and static compliance
1.5 Static compliance Cs Z
Dynamic compliance Cd for

Z Z
p
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Iteration number
(c) (d)
Figure 18. (a) Admissible design domain (a = 3, b = 2 and c = 0.1) with loading and
support conditions. (b) Iteration history for the first eigenfrequency of the plate (:1 < Zp =
80). (c) Iteration histories for the dynamic and static structural compliance (the latter
corresponds to the same loading amplitude but frequency Z = 0). (d) Material distribution
at iteration step 30.
In order to avoid such a statically weak design, a more expedient approach is

adopted for solution of the above problem. Thus, we use a continuation approach
and start out the design problem with a value Z = Z0 of the loading frequency
that is lower than the first eigenfrequency :1 of the initial design, and we then
sequentially increase Z up to its originally prescribed value Z = Zp = 80 (Fig.
19(a)). In the converged result, a structure with minimized dynamic compliance
and improved static stiffness is now obtained (see Fig. 19(b,c)).
-7
130 x 10
5
120
First eigenfrequency :1 Dynamic compliance Cd for
Structural compliance
110
4 loading frequency Z Z
p
Frequencies
100
3
90
Prescribed loading frequency 2 Static compliance Cs Z
80
Z Zp
70
1
60
Initial loading frequency Z 0
50 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Iteration number Iteration number
(a) (b)
(c) Zp = 80 (d) Zp =150 ( C S d C S )
Figure 19. (a), (b) Iteration histories for the first eigenfrequency of the plate, the loading
frequency, and the dynamic and static compliances. (c), (d) Optimum topologies(50%
volume fraction, single-material design) for Zp=80 and Zp=150 (with an upper bound on
the static compliance, i.e. C S d C S ).
Finally let us consider a case with a prescribed, higher value of the loading
frequency, Zp=150. We have computed the optimum value of the first
eigenfrequency of the plate to be :opt = 127.6, i.e., lower than the given loading
frequency in this case. Then, to ensure a reasonable static stiffness of the design,
we introduce an upper bound C S d C S 5 u 10 8 for the static compliance C S in
the formulation of the problem. The optimum topology result for this problem is
shown in Fig. 19(d).
Fig. 20(a) shows the iteration histories of the dynamic compliance of the
plate subject to the higher loading frequency (Z = Zp = 150) and four different
upper bound constraints on the static compliance Cs (associated with the same
loading amplitude but zero frequency). The graphs show that the optimum
dynamic compliance decreases as the upper bound constraint on Cs is increased.
In Fig. 20(b), iteration histories are shown for minimum compliance topology
design of the plate subject to a given upper bound constraint on the static
compliance ( C s d C s 0.5 u 10 7 ) for four different higher loading frequencies.
These graphs show that for the higher loading frequency designs, the dynamic
compliance of the structure decreases as the prescribed loading frequency is
increased. This feature is opposite to that obtained by minimum compliance
topology design subject to prescribed lower or medium loading frequencies. As a
conclusion, variations of the minimum dynamic compliance with respect to
different loading frequencies are depicted in Fig. 21(a), and Fig. 21(b) presents
the static compliances associated with the minimum dynamic compliance
designs subject to different prescribed loading frequencies.
-7 -7
x 10 x 10
Dynamic compliance of structure
4
Dynamic compliance of structure
6
Dynamic compliances Cd for
3.5
Dynamic compliances Cd for 5
Z Z
p
3 Z Z
p
Z Z
p
Z Z
p
and different upper bounds on Cs 4
2.5 Z Z
p
Cs = 0.5x10-7 with constraint
2 3
Cs = 1x10-7 Cs <= Cs = 0.5x10 -7
1.5 Cs = 3x10-7
2
Cs = 4x10-7
1
1
0.5
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Iteration number Iteration number
(a) (b)
Figure 20. (a) Iteration histories of the dynamic compliances of the plate subject to a high
loading frequency (Z = Zp = 150 > :opt = 127.6) and four different upper bound
constraints on the static compliance Cs, i.e. Cs d Cs . (b) Iteration histories of the dynamic
compliances of the plate subject to a given upper bound constraint on Cs
( C s d C s 0.5 u 10 7 ), for four different loading frequencies Zp = 130, Zp = 150, Zp = 180
and Zp = 200, all of which are higher than the optimum value of the fundamental
eigenfrequency :opt .
-7 -7
x 10 x 10
1.5 1.5
Minimum dynamic compliance Cd
Dynamic
minimum dynamic compliance designs

Design with Dynamic design without
constraint constraint on Cs Dynamic
design with
Cs <= Cs
1 -7
1 constraint
Cs = 0.5x10
Cs <= Cs
Static compliance Cs of
-7
Cs = 0.5x10
0.5 0.5
Dynamic design without
constraint on Cs
0
:opt 0
:opt
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Loading frequency Zp Loading frequency Zp
(a) (b)
Figure 21. (a) Minimum dynamic compliances Cd vs. different loading frequencies. (b)
Static compliances Cs (correspond to the same loading amplitude but zero frequency)
associated with the designs in Fig. 21(a) vs. different loading frequencies. Note that if the
prescribed loading frequency is close to or higher than the optimum value :opt = 127.6 of
the fundamental eigenfrequency for the corresponding problem of free vibrations of the
plate, an upper bound constraint C s d C s is prescribed for the static compliance in order to
avoid obtaining a statically too weak structure from the dynamic design.
6.2 Topology Design of a 2D Inlet Subjected to Hydrodynamic Pressure

Loading
As an extension relative to traditional topology optimization with design-
independent loading, we now consider an example where the dynamic loading is
design-dependent, i.e., both the locations and directions of the loading change as
the structural topology changes. A method developed by Du and Olhoff (2004a,
2004b) (see also Hammer and Olhoff, 1999, 2000) is employed to handle the
design problems associated with this type of loading.
The example deals with optimum topology design of a single-material inlet
for fluid flow. The fluid flow in the channel of the initial inlet is as shown in Fig.
22(a), and is assumed to exert a uniform hydrodynamic pressure loading of given
frequency and amplitude on the inner surface of the inlet. Note that the loading
from the hydrodynamic pressure is design-dependent, as it changes with changes
of the inner surface of the inlet. The material of the inlet is isotropic with
Youngs modulus E = 107, Poissons ratio X = 0.3 and the specific mass Jm = 1.
The design objective is to minimize the dynamic compliance of the inlet. Fig.
22(a) shows the admissible design domain and the initial loading boundary. Figs.
22(b-d) show optimized topologies and the associated loading boundaries for
three given loading frequencies Z p 0 (static loading), Zp 800 and
Zp 1000 . These loading frequencies are all lower than the maximum
fundamental eigenfrequency of free vibrations of the inlet, which was found to
be :opt = 1328. The corresponding optimum topology of the inlet (with the same
material volume fraction as before) is shown in Fig. 23.
Figure 22. Optimized single-material topologies (40% volume fraction) of 2D inlet for
three different loading frequencies. (a) Admissible design domain. (b) Zp = 0. (c)
Z p 800 . (d) Z p 1000 .
Figure 23. Optimum topology of the 2D inlet (for 40% volume fraction) obtained by
maximizing the fundamental eigenfrequency of free vibrations of the inlet. The maximum
fundamental eigenfrequency is :opt = 1328.
By comparing the optimum topologies in Figs. 22 and 23 we find some

interesting features. Thus, when the loading frequency is much lower than the
optimum fundamental eigenfrequency of the structure, the resulting topology
(see Fig. 22(c)) obtained by the dynamic design of the present paper is similar to
the static design that sustains the amplitude of the loading at zero frequency, see
Fig. 22(b), which implies that the dynamic design is dominated by the spatial
distribution of the amplitude of the external loading vector. However, if the
loading frequency is closer to the value of the optimum fundamental
eigenfrequency of the structure, the design is dominated by the dynamic
requirement, and drives the fundamental eigenfrequency of the structure as far
away as possible from the prescribed loading frequency. For an intermediate
value of the loading frequency, the optimum topology of the inlet is a kind of
compromise between the loading amplitude dominated design and the
eigenfrequency dominated design (cf. Figs. 22(b-d) and Fig. 23).
7 Minimization of Sound Radiation from Vibrating Structures
The present and the following chapter lend themselves to Olhoff and Du (2006)
and Du and Olhoff (2007a), and are devoted to topological design optimization
of vibrating bi-material elastic structures of given volume, domain and boundary
conditions, with the objective of directly minimizing the sound power radiated
from the structural surfaces into a surrounding acoustic medium. As in the
preceding two chapters, the structural vibrations are excited by a time-harmonic
mechanical loading with prescribed forcing frequency and amplitude, and
structural damping is not considered. It is assumed that air is the acoustic
medium and that a feedback coupling between the acoustic medium and the
structure can be neglected. Certain conditions are assumed, where the sound
power radiated from the structural surface can be estimated by using a simplified
approach instead of solving the Helmholz integral equation. This implies that the
computational cost of the structural-acoustical analysis can be considerably
reduced.
A bi-material model (cf. Section 2.3) is employed in the topology
optimization. This implies that the boundary shape of the structure is not
changed during the design, and leads to a great simplification of the sensitivity
analysis, since the calculation associated with the shape gradients of the acoustic
pressure loading is avoided. Numerical results are presented in Chapter 8 for bi-
material plate and pipe structures with different sets of boundary conditions and
excitation frequencies.
7.1 Formulation for Minimization of Sound Radiation

In this section, we consider topological design optimization of a vibrating bi-
material elastic structure with the objective of minimizing the total sound power
(energy flux) radiated from the structural surface S into a surrounding acoustic
medium. The structural vibrations are assumed to be excited by a time-harmonic
iZ t
mechanical surface loading vector p(t ) Pe p with prescribed forcing
frequency Zp and amplitude vector P on S or part thereof. Assuming that
damping can be neglected, the corresponding structural displacement response
iZ t
vector can be stated as Ue p , and the problem of minimizing the sound power
can be formulated as follows,
1
min 3 I n dS Re( p f vn* )dS
Ue S S
2
subject to :
(K Z p2 M )U P LP f , (34)
CD P f GU HP f ,
NE
U V
e 1
e e V *1 d 0 , (V *1 DV0 ) ,
0 d Ue d 1 , (e 1,, N E ) .
Here, the symbols pf and vn* in the expression for represent the acoustic
pressure and the complex conjugate of the normal velocity of the structural
surface, and Pf denotes the corresponding vector of amplitudes of the acoustic
pressure on the structural surface S. The symbol L represents the fluid-structural
coupling matrix and the symbols K and M denote the N dimensional structural
stiffness and mass matrices, where N is the number of DOFs. The expression
K Z p2 M in (34) represents the dynamic stiffness matrix which we may denote
by KD. The matrices G, H and CD can be generated by the discretized Helmholtz
integral and calculation of the spatial angle along the structural surface (see, e.g.,
Christensen et al., 1998). We consider a bi-material design problem (see Section
2.3) where NE is the total number of finite elements and the symbol Ue denotes
the volumetric density of the stiffer material in element e and plays the role of
the design variable in the problem. The symbol D denotes the fraction of the
given volume V *1 of the stiffer material (material *1) and is given by V *1 / V0 ,
where V0 is the volume of the admissible design domain. The remaining part of
the total volume V0 is occupied by a softer material (material *2) as explained in
Section 2.3.
7.2 Calculation of Sound Power Flow from the Surface of a Vibrating

Structure
The first two constraint equations in (34) denote the structural-acoustic coupling
equations (without incoming acoustic waves) and imply quite complicated
computations since these equations must be solved in each iterative step of the
solution procedure. For simplification, one may consider a special case where the
vibration frequency of the structure has a sufficiently high value. In this case, the
radiation impedance at the boundary of the structure is approximately the same
as the characteristic impedance of the acoustic medium (see Herrin et al., 2003,
and Lax and Feshbach, 1947), which implies that the acoustic pressure pf and
normal velocity vn of the structural surface approximately satisfy the following
linear relationship
p f J f cvn (35)
where c is the sound speed and J f is the specific mass (mass density) of the
acoustic medium. Tests performed by Sorokin (2005) for simple beam and
sphere examples show that the accuracy of (35) depends on not only the
frequency level but also on the size of the structure and the shape of the vibration
mode of the structure. Generally speaking, the accuracy of the approximation
increases with increasing values of the frequency, but may decrease with a
change of the vibration mode. Nevertheless, the tests also show that even for
lower frequencies, (35) may still yield a good approximation of the distribution
(up to a multiplying factor) of the sound pressure along the structural surface.
This is actually useful for our problem of optimizing the global sound radiation,
because even a scaled distribution of the sound pressure along the structural
surface can yield a topology design which is close to the optimum one.
If we further assume weak coupling, i.e., ignore the acoustic pressure in the
structural equation, the first constraint in (34) will be simplified to the equation
of a vibrating structure subjected only to the external mechanical loading P (see
the third equation in (27) and the paper Olhoff and Du, 2008),
(Z 2p M K )U P (36)
With the above simplification, the first two constraint equations in problem
(34) may be replaced by Eqs. (35) and (36), and the sound power flow from the
structural surface can now be calculated in a very efficient way, which is
illustrated briefly as follows.
iZ p t
Substituting pf by (35) and noting that vn n u(iZ p e ) , where n is the
unit normal and u is the amplitude of the displacement, the sound power flow in
(34) may be restated as
1
3 S 2 J f cZ p (n u)(n u) dS
2 (37)
Using the finite element interpolation u NU e , where N is the shape

function and Ue is the nodal displacement vector of element e, Eq. (37) may be
rewritten in matrix form as
1 (38)
3 J f cZ p2 U T S n U
2
NE NE
where S n S nn T N dS may be termed the surface normal matrix,
N T
ne

e 1

e 1 Se

and U is the global nodal displacement vector of the structure as in (34).
7.3 Sensitivity Analysis

The sensitivity of the objective function (i.e. the sound power flow) in problem
(34) with respect to the design variables Ue is given by
3 c J f cZ 2p U T S n Uc (39)
where prime denotes partial derivative with respect to Ue. Using Eq. (36) and
applying the adjoint method, see Tortorelli and Michaleris (1994), the sensitivity
(39) of the sound power flow may be calculated in a more efficient manner,
which gives the following result
>
3 c J f cZ p2 U Ts Pc U Ts (K c Z p2 M c) U @ (40)
Here Us is the solution to the equation (K Z p2 M ) U s S n U { f s , where fs may be

regarded as a pseudo surface load vector. Specifically, we only consider the case
of design-independent mechanical load in the present paper, so the sensitivity
Pc of the mechanical load in (40) will be zero. The sensitivities of the stiffness
and mass matrices, i.e. K c and M c , can be derived by introducing the material
models (see Section 2.1 and 2.3).
Based on the above sensitivity results, the optimization problem (34) may be
solved by using the well-known MMA method (see Svanberg, 1987) or an
optimality criterion method, e.g. the fixed point method (see Cheng and Olhoff,
1982).
8 Numerical Examples of Minimization of Sound Power Radiation
8.1 Minimization of Sound Power Radiation from a Clamped Bi-material

Plate Excited by Uniform Harmonic Pressure Loading
(a) (b)
Figure 24. Plate-like structure (a=20, b=20, t=1) subjected to uniformly distributed
harmonic pressure loading on its upper surface. All edges of the plate are clamped.
The first example concerns optimum topology design of a bi-material plate-like

structure with clamped edges (see Fig. 24). A time-harmonic, uniformly
distributed, transverse external load p(t) = PcosZt (with P equal to unity) is
applied to the upper surface of the plate. The design objective is to minimize the
total sound power radiated from the surface of the plate to its surrounding
acoustic medium, i.e. air, for a prescribed loading frequency Z = Zp and a
volume fraction of up to 50% for the given stiffer material *1, which has the
Youngs modulus E *1 1011 , Poissons ratio X = 0.3 and the specific mass J m*1 =
7800 (SI units are used throughout). The soft material *2 has the properties
E *2 0.1E *1 and J m*2 = 0.1 J m*1 , and X = 0.3. The specific mass of the fluid (i.e.
air) is J f = 1.2 and the sound speed c = 343.4.
The plate is modeled by 3D 8-node isoparametric elements in a 40u40u1
mesh. Nine prescribed different loading frequencies, Zp = 10, 100, 200, 300, 500
and 1000 are considered, which cover the designs from a lower frequency level
to a high frequency level. (The fundamental eigenfrequency of the initial uniform
design in Fig. 24(b) is Z1 = 95.) The finite element mesh used here ensures that
the computational results have sufficient accuracy in the frequency range (10 to
1000) considered.
(a) Zp = 10 (b) Zp = 100 (c) Zp = 200
(d) Zp = 300 (e) Zp = 400 (f) Zp = 500
(g) Zp = 600 (h) Zp = 700 (i) Zp = 1000

Figure 25. Optimum topologies of clamped bi-material plate-like structures obtained by
minimization of the total sound power radiation subject to nine different loading
frequencies. (a) Zp = 10. (b) Zp = 100. (c) Zp = 200. (d) Zp = 300. (e) Zp = 400. (f) Zp =
500. (g) Zp = 600. (h) Zp = 700. (i) Zp = 1000. A uniformly distributed time-harmonic
pressure loading is applied to the upper surface of the plate.
The corresponding optimum topologies of the plate are presented in Figs.

25(a-i), where the stiffer material *1 is represented by black and the soft material
*2 is represented by grey. It can be seen that, as the loading frequency increases,
the optimum topology of the structure shows a more and more complicated
periodicity. In comparison to the initial uniform design, the total sound power
flow into the acoustic medium is reduced from 3.78u10-8 to 3.61u10-9 for Zp =
10, from 3.50u10-4 to 4.01u10-7 for Zp = 100, from 1.31u10-6 to 6.49u10-8 for Zp
= 200, from 2.10u10-6 to 7.43u10-8 for Zp = 300, from 1.06u10-6 to 2.57u10-8 for
Zp = 400, from 3.68u10-7 to 1.84u10-8 for Zp = 500, from 2.47u10-7 to 1.69u10-8
for Zp = 600, from 5.52u10-7 to 1.06u10-8 for Zp = 700, and from 1.03u10-7 to
5.61u10-9 for Zp = 1000. It is noted that the sound power has a remarkable
decrease in the design for the given frequency Zp = 100. The reason is that the
loading frequency Zp = 100 is very close to the first resonance point that
corresponds to the value Z1int 95 of the fundamental eigenfrequency of the
initial design (Fig. 24(b)). For the optimum design (see Fig. 25(b)), we have
found that its first two eigenfrequencies are Z1opt 59 and Z 2opt 131 (see Figs.
26(a)-26(c)), which are far away from the given loading frequency Zp = 100.
This implies that resonance has been avoided effectively by the optimum design
and explains the large decrease of the sound radiation for this design.
(a) Z1opt 59 (b) Z 2opt 131 (c) Z3opt Z 2opt 131

Figure 26. The first three eigenmodes of free vibration of the optimum topology design
subject to the given loading frequency Zp = 100. The second and the third
eigenfrequencies constitute a bi-modal eigenfrequency due to the symmetry of the plate.
8.2 Comparison between Topology Designs of Minimum Sound

Radiation and Designs of Minimum Dynamic Compliance
As is evident from (34), the acoustic design objective of minimum sound
radiation considered in the present Chapter 8 is a global criterion. Now an
interesting question arises, namely, for the same given excitation frequency Z p
and distribution of the external mechanical loading, how much will the design
result change if we instead consider a comparison problem where we apply the
global design objective of minimizing the dynamic compliance, and assume that
the structure is elastic, has no material damping, and is subjected to forced
vibration in vacuum?
Optimum topology solutions to this comparison problem can be directly

obtained by the method developed in Chapter 5 and in the paper by the authors
Olhoff and Du (2008). Thus, for the investigation in the present section, we
define the dynamic compliance as Cd | P T U | for the comparison problem.
Here, P denotes the amplitude vector of the given time-harmonic mechanical
surface loading (cf. the first paragraph of Section 7.1), and U represents the
vector of magnitudes of the corresponding structural displacement response
vector that satisfies the dynamic equilibrium equation (36) for the steady-state
vibration at the frequency Z p . The above expression for the dynamic
compliance of our comparison problem represents the numerical mean value of
the magnitudes of the surface displacements weighted by the values of the
amplitudes of the corresponding time-harmonic surface loading. For the case of
static loading ( Z p = 0), the expression directly reduces to the traditional
definition of static compliance, namely the work done by the external forces
against corresponding displacements at equilibrium.
(a) Zp = 10 (b) Zp = 100 (c) Zp = 200
(d) Zp = 300 (e) Zp = 500 (f) Zp = 1000

Figure 27. Optimum topologies of clamped, quadratic bi-material plate-like structures
obtained by minimizing the dynamic compliance in vacuum for six different given
excitation frequencies. (a) Zp = 10. (b) Zp = 100. (c) Zp = 200. (d) Zp = 300. (e) Zp = 500.
(f) Zp = 1000. A uniformly distributed harmonic pressure loading of constant amplitude is
applied to the upper surface of the plate.
It is worth mentioning at this point that it is customary to define the dynamic
compliance differently, namely as the average input power from the external
time-harmonic loading over a load cycle, if the structure possesses material
damping and is subjected to forced vibration in a light acoustic medium without

feedback (see, e.g., Koopmann and Fahnline, 1997, and Jog, 2002). By the law
of conservation of energy, this input power is equal to the sum of the sound
power radiated from the structure to the light acoustic medium and the power
dissipated due to the material damping in the structure. This means that if the
structure is subjected to forced vibration in vacuum and the material damping is
ignored (as is the case for our comparison problem), then the dynamic
compliance defined as the input power from the external loading, will be equal to
zero and hence inapplicable as an objective function for our comparison
problem.
We now consider the initial structure and the same boundary and loading
conditions as in Fig. 24, but instead of minimizing the total sound power
emitted from the structural surface, we use the method developed in Chapter 5
and (Olhoff and Du, 2008) to minimize the dynamic compliance C d | P T U | of
the plate-like structure in vacuum (and assuming vanishing structural damping).
Optimum topologies for the latter problem corresponding to the six prescribed
loading frequencies Zp = 10, 100, 200, 300, 500 and 1000 are shown in Figs.
27(a-f).
It is seen that for the low excitation frequencies Zp = 10 and Zp = 100, the
optimum topologies shown in Figs. 27(a) and 27(b) are almost indistinguishable
from the corresponding ones in Figs. 25(a) and 25(b). However, as the value of
the excitation frequency is increased, the differences between the topologies
become more pronounced (see Figs. 27 and 25 for Zp = 200, 300, 500 and 1000).
For further comparison we have calculated the values of both the sound
power and the dynamic compliance of the initial structure and the optimum
structures corresponding to the two different design objectives behind Figs. 25
and 27 (assuming the same loading and boundary conditions), and the results are
presented in Table 1.
These results provide numerical evidence that topology optimization with
respect to either of the two design objectives has a strongly improving effect on
the other objective.
Thus, substantial reductions in sound power radiated from a structure
immersed in a light acoustic medium like air can be achieved by using the
method of topology optimization developed in Chapter 5 (and in Olhoff and Du,
2008) to minimize the dynamic compliance defined above for a structure in
vacuum. This approach may sometimes be attractive because it circumvents the
need to solve the acoustical equations, thereby achieving saving in computational
cost. On the other hand, the results in Table 1 show that for the higher values of
the excitation frequency Z p , significant further reductions can be obtained by
directly minimizing the sound power radiation, and the expense in computational
cost for this is indeed very limited, if one adopts the simplified approach applied
in this paper for calculation of the sound power flow from the surface of the
vibrating structure.
Table 1. Comparisons between designs of minimum sound power and designs of minimum
dynamic compliance.
Optimum designs of
Optimum designs of
Designs minimum sound
Initial uniform design minimum dynamic
power flow from the
(see Figure 24) compliance in vacuum
Excit- structural surface
(see Figure 27)
ation (see Figure 25)
Frequency Cd opt Cd Cdopt
Zp = 10 3.78u10 -8
1.39u10 -5
3.61u10-9
4.43u10-6
3.68u10 -9
4.42u10-6
Zp = 100 3.50u10-4 1.29u10-4 4.01u10-7 4.37u10-6 4.02u10-7 4.36u10-6
Zp = 200 1.31u10-6 3.17u10-6 6.49u10-8 3.01u10-7 1.28u10-7 1.47u10-8
Zp = 300 2.10u10-6 4.76u10-7 7.43u10-8 3.08u10-7 3.56u10-7 5.74u10-10
Zp = 500 3.68u10-7 6.84u10-7 1.84u10-8 8.49u10-8 4.46u10-8 7.85u10-9
Zp = 1000 1.03u10-7 2.09u10-7 5.61u10-9 4.18u10-8 7.41u10-8 9.29u10-10
8.3 Minimization of Sound Power Radiation from a Corner-supported

Bi-material Plate Excited by Concentrated Harmonic Loading
In order to investigate the influence of the boundary conditions and load
distribution on the optimum topologies, we consider again the design problem of
the bi-material plate as in Fig. 24, but in combination with another set of
boundary and loading conditions. Thus, the plate is now simply-supported at its
four corners and subjected to a concentrated time-harmonic load at the center of
the upper surface (see Fig. 28). Six prescribed values of the loading frequency,
Zp = 10, 100, 300, 500, 700 and 1000 are considered separately here to generate
the corresponding optimum topologies of the bi-material plate. The optimum
topology results subject to the six different frequencies are presented in Figs.
29(a-f).
Figure 28. Corner-supported plate subjected to a concentrated harmonic load at the center
of its upper surface.
(a) Zp = 10 (b) Zp = 100 (c) Zp = 300
(d) Zp = 500 (e) Zp = 700 (f) Zp = 1000
Figure 29. Optimum topologies of the corner-supported bi-material plate-like structure

(cf. Fig. 28) for six different loading frequencies. (a) Zp = 10. (b) Zp = 100. (c) Zp = 300.
(d) Zp = 500. (e) Zp = 700. (f) Zp = 1000. A concentrated harmonic load is applied at the
center of the upper surface of the plate.
It is seen that the optimum topologies associated with the same loading
frequencies as in Figs. 25 and 29 are quite different, which implies that the
boundary and loading conditions may have large influence on the resulting
topology of the plate-like structure.
It is noteworthy that in the optimum topologies subject to the concentrated
harmonic load (see Fig. 29), the central part of the plate is always filled out with
the stiffer material *1 which also has a higher mass density. This local layout is
very efficient in counteracting the concentrated load which has not only a given
frequency but also a prescribed amplitude. The mass assembly surrounding the
point of action of the force yields a large local inertia, which effectively reduces
the displacement amplitude at the point of action of the force, and thereby
reduces the vibration amplitudes and the density of sound power emission all
over the plate.
Figs. 30 and 31 show comparisons of the power flow distribution between the
initial designs (subject to the two different boundary and loading conditions in
Figs. 24 and 28) and the corresponding optimum designs for the prescribed
excitation frequency Zp = 1000. Similar comparisons for corresponding designs
subject to the prescribed frequency Zp = 500 are given in Figs. 32 and 33. It is
seen that the distribution of the sound power in the optimum designs subject to
the concentrated load show features that are very different from those in the
optimum designs subjected to the uniform load.
(a) (b)
Figure 30. Distribution of the power flow from the structural surface of the initial design.
(a) and (b) correspond to the two different sets of boundary and loading conditions shown
in Figs. 24 and 28, respectively. The loading frequency has the prescribed value Zp =
1000.
(a) (b)
Figure 31. Distribution of the power flow from the structural surface of the optimum
design. (a) and (b) correspond to the two different sets of boundary and loading conditions
shown in Figs. 24 and 28, respectively. The loading frequency has the prescribed value Zp
= 1000.
Thus, we find that for the higher excitation frequencies, the main part of the
sound power emitted from the optimum designs subjected to the concentrated
load (see Figures 31(b) and 33(b)) is limited within a small annular-like area
surrounding the mass assembly in the vicinity of the concentrated load. This
implies that the optimum designs (see Figures 29(d) and 29(f)) create an efficient
isolation of vibration and sound power radiation that to a large extent terminates
the transmission of bending waves to the boundary of the plate-like structures at
the prescribed frequencies. The features discussed here reveal very strong
similarities between the present optimum designs and so-called band gap
structural designs (see, e.g., Halkjr et al., 2006).
(a) (b)
Figure 32. Distribution of the power flow from the structural surface of the initial design.
(a) and (b) correspond to the two different sets of boundary and loading conditions shown
in Figs. 24 and 28, respectively. The loading frequency has the prescribed value Zp = 500.
(a) (b)
Figure 33. Distribution of the power flow from the structural surface of the optimum
design. (a) and (b) correspond to the two different sets of boundary and loading conditions
shown in Figs. 24 and 28, respectively. The loading frequency has the prescribed value Zp
= 500.
9 Conclusions for the Topology Optimization Problems Considered
9.1 Optimization of Eigenfrequencies

Problems of topology optimization with respect to structural eigenfrequencies of
free vibrations were studied and presented in Chapters 3 and 4 of this paper. The
design objectives were maximization of specific eigenfrequencies and distances
between two consecutive eigenfrequencies of the structures.
It was necessary to develop and apply special iterative numerical procedures to
handle topology optimization problems associated with both simple and multiple
eigenfrequencies. Thus, particularly in topology optimization, where the design
space is very large, it is often found that although an eigenfrequency may be
simple during the initial stage of the iterative design procedure, later it may
become multiple due to coincidence with one or more of its adjacent
eigenfrequencies. In order to capture this behaviour, it is necessary to apply an
extended mathematical formulation and solution procedure that allows for
multiplicity of the eigenfrequency because a multiple eigenfrequency in
contrast to a simple eigenfrequency does not possess usual differentiability
properties.
Several numerical examples of topology optimization of single- and bi-material
beam- and plate-like structures were carried out with the abovementioned design
objectives and validated the approaches presented. The results demonstrated that
multiplicity of optimum eigenfrequencies is the rule rather than the exception in
topology optimization of freely vibrating structures and that this needs careful
attention. The results also indicated that the techniques enable us, in a most cost-
efficient manner, to move structural resonance frequencies far away from external
excitation frequencies with a view to avoid high vibration and noise levels.
9.2 Minimization of Dynamic Compliance

Topological design with the objective of minimizing the dynamic compliance
(maximizing the integral dynamic stiffness) of continuum structures subjected to
time-harmonic forced vibration with prescribed frequency and amplitude of the
dynamic loading, was studied in Chapters 5 and 6. The results in Chapter 6 show
that the design objective yields structures whose eigenfrequencies of free
vibration are generally far from the given excitation frequency of the dynamic
loading, which implies efficient avoidance of resonance phenomena and
reduction of the vibration level of the structure.
It was demonstrated that the design objective may be implemented along
different optimization paths according to different levels of the given external
exicitation frequency Zp. For cases where the loading has a lower or medium
value of Zp, the minimum dynamic compliance design process may be driven by
a continuation technique where the loading frequency is sequentially increased
from a sufficiently low initial value up to its prescribed value, Zp. This procedure
delivers the desired result that the optimum structure is associated with minimum
dynamic compliance subject to the prescribed loading frequency, and also
implies an effective improvement (decrease) of the static compliance of the
structure. On the other hand, if the excitation frequency was prescribed to be
somewhat larger than the maximum obtainable value :opt of the fundamental
eigenfrequency of the corresponding free vibration problem, we found that the
increase of the dynamic compliance was accompanied by a drastic decrease of
the static compliance of the structure. Thus, especially when minimizing the
dynamic compliance for single-material structures, we found it to be expedient to
introduce an upper bound constraint on the static compliance in order to maintain
a reasonable static stiffness of the design.
It is worth mentioning that the approaches presented are not limited to values
of the excitation frequency that are below or just above the fundamental
eigenfrequency of free vibrations of the structure. By using the continuation
technique, topology designs of minimum dynamic compliance can be determined
for excitation frequencies that are far above the lowest eigenfrequencies of the
structure, see Olhoff and Du (2008).
9.3 Minimization of Sound Power Radiation

Chapters 7 and 8 dealt with problems of topological design of vibrating bi-
material elastic structures with the objective of minimizing the sound power
radiated from a structural surface into a light acoustic medium. As in Chapters 5
and 6, the structures were subjected to forced vibration of prescribed excitation
frequency and force amplitude distribution.
For sufficiently high excitation frequencies, instead of solving the Helmholz
integral equation, the sound pressure at the structural surface is determined
approximately by the product of the characteristic impedance of the acoustic
medium and the normal velocity of the structural surface. This simplifies the
structural-acoustic analysis and substantially reduces the computational cost.
Actually, even for relatively low frequencies, the above simplification may yield
a good approximation of the distribution of the sound pressure over the structural
surface, which is very useful in the present context. An extended SIMP model
was used for the topology design of the bi-material structures, where the same
penalization was applied for the stiffness and mass of the structural volume
elements. Sensitivities of the design objective were derived by an adjoint
method, and the optimization problem was solved by using the MMA method.
Numerical results are presented for bi-material plate structures with different
loading and boundary conditions, and interesting features of the optimum
structural topologies, power flow distributions and sound pressure waves, are
revealed and discussed. Main conclusions are:
The sound power radiation from structures subjected to forced vibration can
be considerably reduced by topology optimization. Just as was demonstrated in
Chapter 5 and in the paper (Olhoff and Du, 2008) on topological design for
minimum dynamic compliance of structures in vacuum, this is achieved by
creation of an optimum design with a large gap between two adjacent
eigenfrequencies of free vibrations, with the given excitation frequency placed
approximately in the middle of the gap.
Along these lines, topology optimization of structures with respect to either
of the two objectives (i) minimum sound radiation into a surrounding light
acoustic medium and (ii) minimum dynamic compliance in vacuum, has a
strongly improving effect on the other objective. For structures subjected to the
same excitation frequency, spatial distribution of the external mechanical loading,
and the same boundary conditions, the optimum topologies associated with the
design objectives (i) and (ii) are almost indistinguishable at lower excitation
frequencies but become more different at higher frequencies.
Independently of the spatial distribution of the external dynamic loading and
the boundary conditions, the optimum topologies of the bi-material plate
structures exhibit different types of periodicities when the excitation frequency is
increased to values above a number of the lowest resonance frequencies of the
structures.
When subjected to a concentrated harmonic load at such a value of the
excitation frequency, the optimum structural topology shows a local assembly of
the heavier material around the point of action of the load. Due to the given
amplitude of the load, the inertia of this local mass assembly does not only
reduce the displacement amplitude of the point of load action, but also the
general level of vibration and sound power radiation of the structure. Almost all
the (reduced) sound power radiation from the optimum structure is limited to
take place from within a small ring-shaped area of the weaker material around
the aforementioned local mass assembly in the case of plates. This means that
almost all of the power input from the external harmonic load is radiated as
acoustic power from these locations close to the point of action of the load,
whereby only a very small part of the power input is transmitted to the plate
boundary.
Overall, the problem studied in this paper has several features in common
with problems of topological design optimization of band gap structures.
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CISM COURSES AND LECTURES

The Secretary General

The series presents lecture notes, monographs, edited works and

COURSES AND LECTURES - No. 505

This work is subject to copyright.

All contributions have been typeset by the authors.

ISBN 978-3-211-89650-1 SpringerWienNewYork

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