CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

V. Beschkov
Institute of Chemical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia 1113, Bulgaria
Keywords: sulfuric acid, fertilizers, soda, caustics, cement, pharmaceuticals, bulk organic
chemicals, pollution control
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Production of Sulfuric Acid
3. Production of Nitrates-Containing Fertilizers
4. Lime Production
5. Soda Production
6. Production of Sodium Hydroxide and Chlorine by Electrolysis
7. Cement Industry
8. Pharmaceutical Industry
9. Bulk Organic Chemical Industry
Related Chapters
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Summary
In the present chapter a brief review of chemical industries producing basic bulk chemicals
and having strong impact on environment is presented. It is shown that the best way to combat
environmental pollution is to prevent it. The traditional manufacturing processes such as
production of sulfuric acid, nitrate-based fertilizers, soda and caustics, cement, as well as
pharmaceutical and organic chemicals are discussed. It is demonstrated, that new efficient
technologies and processes, which save raw materials and energy, as well as those involving
by-product use and recycling are beneficial for both processes efficiency and environment
protection by reduction of emissions in air, water, and soil.
This approach is known as the environmentally sustainable industrial development (ESID),
leading to reduction of consumption of natural resources and to lessen damage to environment
during raw material extraction. ESID leads also to lower energy demands and consequent
indirect decrease in fuel consumption and environment pollution, to reduction of emissions in
all of the components of environment and therefore to reduction of waste treatment costs.

1. Introduction
Chemical industry is recognized as one of the most powerful sources of environmental
pollution. Since all of the chemical manufacturing processes use raw materials and
consumables from each component of environment, it is clear that damages resulting from the
activities in chemical industry are not due to the very industrial processes only, but because to
exhaustion of natural resources too. In the 20th century oil, coal, minerals, wood, etc. have
been extracted at extremely high rates, thus affecting the ecological balance in the nature and
damaging the landscape. The primary effect of chemical industry on environment and on the
lifestyle as well, is due to the pollution, arising from the industrial activities, resulting in gas
emissions, wastewater polluting the natural ponds and underground water, solid and slurry
waste, polluting the soil and underground water, if not treated. However, even the complete
control of emissions yields additional pollution as waste to be treated or disposed. Moreover,
since any industry requires energy supply for mechanical processes, heating and electricity,
chemical industry indirectly charges the environment with emissions of sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides and particulate due to energy production in heat power stations. Production of
oil and coal used as fuels and raw materials in chemical industry also charge the environment
by destroying fertile land due to mining activities and oil extraction.
The extension of chemical industry in the 20th century throughout the world lead to
dangerous trends: acid rains, greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, global climate changes,
exhaustion of fresh water, damaging fertile lands, etc.
It was clear, therefore, that global solutions have to be found to restrict the adverse impact of
industry on environment and to restore natures conditions as far as it is possible.
A well defined approach is focused on environmentally sustainable industrial development
(ESID), considered in the development programs of the United Nations and being the basic
concept in the document approved at the Earth Summit in Rio-de-Janeiro, 1992.
For chemical industry this approach is associated with pollution prevention as a first step,
saving of raw materials and energy, whenever possible and introduction of clean technologies
to avoid impacts on environment with pollution and treatment facilities. Other options are to
adjust manufacturing in a way to generate less waste or those compatible with the self-
regenerating capabilities of environment.
In what follows we shall consider some of the bulk chemical production processes with the
possibilities for environment protection based on pollution prevention principles and on
environmentally sustainable industrial development.

2. Production of Sulfuric Acid

Sulfuric acid is one of the basic chemicals with extremely large scale of annual production
throughout the world. Its applications cover different areas of human activity, starting with
fertilizers and ending with explosives. It is applied mainly in chemical industry as acid,
dehydrating and sulfonating reagent. Its annual production per capita is an indicator for the
industrialization level of a certain country. For example, its annual production in the
developed countries is between 50 and 200 kg/capita, whereas for the developing countries
these figures are below 5 kg/capita.
During the last decades its world production is large enough to maintain its low prices.
However, its production is associated with a severe pollution of the environment, therefore
deserving special attention.
2.1. Manufacturing
There are two main groups of methods for sulfuric acid manufacturing: the contact and the
chamber one. Both methods are based on the catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur
trioxide.
2SO2 +O2 = 2SO3
Usually a four-stage catalytic converter is used which is an equilibrium and exothermic
process. Formation of nitrogen oxides is possible too. On the other hand, sulfur trioxide is a
strongly hygroscopic substance. To avoid formation of stable mists of sulfur trioxide, the
reacting gases are washed in absorbers by dilute sulfuric acid, thus obtaining more
concentrated product (oleum, respectively).
In the first group of methods the catalysts are solid, being platinum or vanadium oxide - based
ones. Nowadays, platinum catalysts are abandoned, because of their higher prices and their
vulnerability to catalytic poisons, like arsenic and its compounds.
In the second group nitrogen oxides serve as catalysts (homogeneous catalysis).
Sulfur dioxide is produced by combustion either of elemental sulfur or of metal sulfides, e.g.
pyrites.
The main disadvantage of the use of sulfides as a source of sulfur for sulfuric acid production
is the content of arsenic, which cannot be removed successfully from the product with the
associated problems with environment protection (particulate, arsenic, etc.). Therefore,
sulfuric acid is usually a by-product in non-ferrous metallurgy in the process of emissions
control, where sulfide ores are the basic raw materials.
The equilibrium constant of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide oxidation shows, that at lower
temperatures the equilibrium is shifted towards higher yields of sulfur trioxides but at lower
reaction rate and vice versa. Therefore this catalytic reaction is carried out in practice in a
four-stage reactor with intermediate cooling of the reaction mixture. Using this technique a 98
per cent conversion is attained. Afterwards the obtained sulfur trioxide is absorbed in
concentrated sulfuric acid to produce oleum. Later it is diluted according to the needs.
2.2. Emissions in Air
The possible emissions in exhaust gases are due to different reasons.
First, it could be the non-reacted sulfur dioxide. One method for reduction of the content of
sulfur dioxide in the exhaust gases is the optimization of the ratio sulfur dioxide to oxygen in
the gas, entering the catalytic converter. Additionally, the residence time of the reacting gases
could be extended, by increasing the length of the catalytic bed, or by reduction of the gas
superficial velocity. The reduction of sulfur dioxide content in the exhaust gases could be
improved by adding an intermediate cooling and absorption of the obtained sulfur trioxide,
prior to the conversion in the fourth stage. In this case the equilibrium is shifted towards
formation of sulfur trioxide and hence, the remaining sulfur dioxide is converted more
completely.
Next, it is the mist formed by small droplets of sulfuric acid in the gases leaving the
absorbers. The mist may be formed due to the presence of water vapor in the feeding air. This
source of humidity could be neutralized by washing the inlet air with concentrated sulfuric
acid. When the acid is not concentrated enough additional mist formation could take place.
Mist formation is usual also when the sulfuric acid plant is set on run. Reduction of these
emissions could be attained by washing with water or ammonium hydroxide in a scrubber.
The produced ammonium sulfate is a by-product, which could cover partially the costs of the
emission control. However, the most exploited equipment for mist removal is the Brincks
demister, containing fabrics of glass fibers. The demister could be applied not only for mist
removal from exhaust gases, but also at intermediate air drying with sulfuric acid and of the
sulfur-containing gases after the step of intermediate absorption. The efficiency of the
demisters reaches 97-98 per cent, thus reducing the mist concentration in exhaust gases from
850-1275 mg/m3 to 18-21 mg/m3. Washing scrubbers are also frequently used, situated just
after the demisters.
On the other hand, the heating of the metal surfaces in the catalytic reactor may enhance the
formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), thus charging the environment additionally. However,
their concentration is much lower, than it is the case of combustion processes.
Release of particulate from the used catalyst is possible too.
2.3. Solid Waste
The main source of solid waste in sulfuric acid production is the spent catalyst, containing
vanadia. The first layer of catalyst is mostly subjected to destruction and contamination with
dust. The regular cleaning and replacement of the spent catalyst is considered as sufficient for
the maintenance of stable operations. The spent catalyst and its dust are collected and shipped
for extraction of vanadia and recycling. Scrubbing of the non-reacted SO2 is usually
accomplished by water and ammonia solution. The obtained ammonium sulfate as a by-
product could cover partially the costs for the pollution control.

3. Production of Nitrates-Containing Fertilizers

Nitrates-containing fertilizers were the most frequently used ones in the past. Mainly they are
potassium, sodium and ammonium salts of nitric acid. The natural resources of these salts are
large, but not sufficient to meet the demands of agriculture, and therefore, their industrial
manufacturing has become inevitable.
3.1. Ammonia Synthesis
The overall technology for nitrates production is based on the synthesis of ammonia. The
most widely used process is the catalytic synthesis from the very elements, nitrogen and
hydrogen developed from the work of Haber and Bosch:
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3
It is accomplished at high pressure, in order to shift the equilibrium towards the product
formation and at higher temperature, to attain fast enough reaction. Pressures are extremely
high: 100 - 300 bars at 450-5000C (according to Haber&Bosch); 750 bars (Claude&Cassal,
Italy); 900 bars (Claude&Cassal, France). Hence, the equipment for this manufacturing is
quite expensive. Reduction of temperature could be admitted, when appropriate catalyst is
used. Haber has discovered that magnetic ferrous-ferric oxide, promoted by alumina and
potassium oxide is very efficient. Now all of the catalysts used for this manufacturing are
based on iron compounds.
The nitrogen required for the synthesis is produced by distillation of liquid air or by controlled
combustion of fuels for the selective oxygen consumption.
When nitrogen is produced by liquid air distillation, the hydrogen necessary for the synthesis
is usually obtained as a by product of electrolytic production of chlorine and sodium
hydroxide, or petrochemical industry (by-product at cracking-processes or at synthesis of
olefins), coal, natural gas, as well as from water gas.
According the original Haber&Bosch method, hydrogen is taken from water gas, produced by
coke, combusted in air, and then air is replaced by water steam:
10000C
C + H2O = CO + H2
Then the heated gas mixture is fed to the converter, where a catalytic oxidation of carbon
monoxide takes place:
~5000C
CO + H2 = CO2 + H2
catalyst FeO+Cr2O3
The resulting carbon dioxide is removed by absorption.
The necessary nitrogen is taken from one part of the gaseous mixture, containing no oxygen
and obtained at coke combustion. The use of coal and coke relatively is more expensive,
because of the increased capital costs, compared to natural gas. On the other hand, the
environmental problems are significant. When natural gas is available, reforming and
secondary reforming is preferred. These processes consist in the controlled combustion of
natural gas in presence of water steam and shortage of air to produce a mixture of hydrogen,
nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
CH4 + H2O = CO + H2
The produced CO2 could be removed by scrubbing with water, mono-ethanolamine, etc. The
rest could be treated by hydrogen to obtain methane again.
The main problem arises, when gas or oil derivatives are used in desulfurization, because of
the content of sulfur compounds which give rise to catalytic poisoning in the considered case.
Once ammonia is synthesized, it could be easily removed at high pressure by condensation or
by absorption. The non-reacted substrates could be recycled for complete conversion.
However, the main contamination (argon and methane) has to be removed to avoid dilution of
the synthesis-gas or possible explosion.
3.2. New Development in Ammonia Synthesis
Natural gas is considered as the main source of hydrogen in ammonia synthesis. Therefore,
the new developments in ammonia production are associated with the improvement of energy
efficiency and the hydrogen utilization.
Organization of the heat streams in the equipment is the new development, thus saving 18 per
cent of the required energy. Another improvement is the intermediate indirect cooling of the
gases between the separate catalyst layers in the synthesis column. In this case much higher
concentrations of ammonia are attained.
The efficiency in hydrogen utilization was enhanced considerably by diminishing the ratio of
the steam to hydrogen in the reforming step from 4.5 to 3, and by improving the system of
separation of carbon dioxide.
The control of inert components in the synthesis of gaseous mixture reduces the losses of
nitrogen and hydrogen in the feed, as well as the losses of ammonia, when the latter is
combusted as a fuel for the reforming.
3.3. Emission Control at Ammonia Synthesis
3.3.1. Air Emissions
One source of pollution is the sulfur dioxide, resulting from the combustion of coke, oil
products or natural gas, when desulfurization is not sufficient. Since it is catalyst poison,
careful desulfurization is required.
Another source of pollution is nitrogen dioxide, resulting from partial oxidation of
atmospheric nitrogen at combustion of reforming fuel, as it happens at the combustion of any
fuel. Additional part of nitrogen dioxide is obtained from partial oxidation of the produced
ammonia. This problem can be minimized, when the reforming process is optimized, i.e. to
reduce the excess of the air and to improve the process control.
Release of produced ammonia is possible too. Measures for restriction of this process are
taken, consisting in removal of these products from the exhaust gases, better feeding and
compressing of ammonia, as well as an improved control on evaporation in the reservoirs.
Realistic amounts of released ammonia are 1 - 1.5 kg/tons.
3.3.2. Water Emissions
The main water pollutants, resulting from ammonia production are the heated water effluents,
and diluted ammonia-containing waters. Organic compound could also be present. The latter
is a result of condensation.
The solution of these problems is in the secondary use of the heated effluents for heat
utilization. Ammonia could be stripped by steam, or used directly as fertilizer.
3.4. Production of Nitric Acid
Nitric acid has a wide practical application, like a base chemical for fertilizer manufacturing
and for production of explosives. Nowadays catalytic oxidation of ammonia and the
consequent absorption of the nitrogen oxides in water accomplish its production.
The substrate mixture of ammonia and air is passed through a multi-layer catalyst of platinum
net:
4NH3 + 5O2 = 4NO + 6H2O
It the first step NO is formed and then consequently oxidized to NO2. The latter is reversibly
dimerized to N2O4 (two monomer molecules form a dimer; many monomer molecules form a
polymer ;Dimerization - polymerization). The last step is the absorption of NO2 in water, thus
giving nitric acid:
3NO2 + H2O = 2HNO3 + NO
For this purpose liquid ammonia is evaporated by indirect heating and then filtration to
remove the particles that may block the catalyst. The air is compressed to the same pressure as
ammonia (i.e. 8 bars) and then filtered. The gases are mixed and passed through the catalyst
bed at high temperatures. The product is a mixture of NO, water steam and the initial gases
with 95per cent yield.
The hot gases are cooled prior to absorption and steam for regeneration of the catalyst is
produced. The high- pressure oxidation to produce nitric acid is associated with losses of the
catalyst. Then the gas mixture is filtered, rapidly cooled, and subjected to absorption in water
in a column, where nitric dioxide dissolves in water, yielding nitric acid and NO, which
additionally oxidized. The final product is nitric acid with a concentration of 60-62per cent.
The release of the waste gases is used to move a turbine for energy utilization. Hence, about
40 per cent of the energy demand for air compression is covered in this way.
3.5. Emission Control at Nitric Acid Production
3.5.1. Air Emissions
The main source of air pollution is the nitrogen oxides, mainly nitrogen dioxide. Their
removal is absolutely necessary, because of the toxicity of NO2 and the photochemical
processes that might take place in the atmosphere contributing to the ozone depletion. The
release of NO2 is easily detectable visually at the stack by its yellowish-brown color.
The best way to protect the air from this pollutant is by catalytic reduction of the nitrogen
oxides with methane (from the natural gas) or hydrogen:
catalyst
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
CH4 + 4NO2 = 4NO + CO2 + H2O
CH4 + 4NO = 2N2 + CO2 + 2H2O
First methane is oxidized rapidly by the excessive oxygen. Nitrogen dioxide is also reduced
by methane to NO. Thus, the brown color is removed. The complete reduction to nitrogen
takes place in the third step. These processes are exothermic and therefore the expenses could
be partially covered by steam production. However, careful control of this process is required
to attain the strict emission standards. One possibility is to use higher pressures to attain
higher efficiencies of absorption. To optimize the consumption of raw materials (methane or
hydrogen in ammonia production) is required too.
Another possibility to solve the emission problem is to use alkaline solutions (including urea)
for the residual nitrogen oxides absorption. However, water is preferred, because of the
possibility for recycling.
3.6. Production of Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium nitrate is the most widely distributed end product of nitric acid. It is due to its
wide application as component of fertilizers, as a component of explosives and its simple
technology of production and low price.
It was produced by simple neutralization of concentrated ammonium hydroxide with nitric
acid and consequent evaporation of water and crystallization of the product. Due to the big
capital costs, labor and energy consumption this method was replaced by a process, using the
heat of neutralization for water evaporation. Another method is based on mixing of preheated
ammonia (up to 1450C) with 60 per cent HNO3, heated to 1650C. The heat released is
sufficient for water evaporation almost completely.
The steam is removed in a hydrocyclon, whereas the melt of ammonium nitrate (m.p.170 0C)
is cooled in a belt crystallizer to a crystal product. Moreover, crystallization could be
accomplished in an atomizer, where crystals with a desired size could be obtained.
3.7. Production of Urea
Usually urea is produced from ammonia and carbon dioxide at higher pressure (100 - 200
bars). At the first step ammonium carbamate is formed. Then, ammonium carbamate is
decomposed into urea and water. However, it could be hydrolyzed back to ammonia and
carbon dioxide. In a version of the process, these substances are recycled back to the initial
step for minimizing the air emissions.

4. Lime Production
Lime is the one of most widely used chemicals. Besides its application in construction, it is
used as an additive in cement production, in ferrous metallurgy (as a flux), for production of
refractory lining in crucibles and pots for metal melting. Its alkaline properties make it
suitable for absorption of acid gases, resulting from sulfide roasting in non-ferrous metallurgy
and sulfuric acid production. Its high hygroscopic capacity leads to its use as drying of
alcohols.
Lime (calcium oxide) is produced by calcination of limestone (calcium carbonate) from 900
to 10000C with the release of carbon dioxide.
900 -10000C
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 + 177.8 kJ
solid solid gas
Below these temperatures decomposition is incomplete. Nowadays lime production is carried
out in vertical furnaces operating in a continuous way with low consumption of energy.
Another feature of the use of these furnaces is the separate release of carbon dioxide, formed
by the limestone decomposition, and thus enriched gas for other applications. For example,
carbon dioxide is deliberately produced in lime furnaces for the purpose of soda production.
For heating of the charge, oil, gas or coal is used. Technical solutions for maximum heat
recovery and best control of the decomposition process are available, e.g. the use of air
enriched by oxygen to avoid the excessive heating of nitrogen, etc.
4.1. Emissions in the Air
The main concern in the case of control of emissions in the air is with the particulate,
consisting of entertained lime particles. Wet scrubbing is applied and the produced lime is
utilized as chemical or for sale as a construction material.
Particulate control is also carried out with electrostatic precipitators. These two methods are
usually applied consecutively.
In the past the release of carbon dioxide has not been considered as a serious problem. Now,
however, the increased emissions of greenhouse gases prompted the local and world-wide
organizations to take measures to restrict its release. Now carbon dioxide is utilized for soda
production.

5. Soda Production
Sodium carbonate (known a soda ash) is one of the most frequently used chemical in industry.
Almost 50% of soda, produced in USA is consumed in glass production. Another one fourth is
used in different chemical processes. The manufacturing of glass, detergents, pulps, paper and
water purification consumes about 10 per cent of the total.
The classical technology for soda production is the one, developed by Solvey (1863). It is
based on production of ammonium bicarbonate from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The latter
is mixed with sodium chloride, and the resulting sodium bicarbonate is calcinated to sodium
carbonate, i.e. calcinated soda:
NH4OH + CO2 = NH4HCO3
NH4HCO3 + NaCl = Na HCO3 + NH4Cl
Solvay proposed the recovery of ammonia from the obtained ammonium chloride, using
calcium hydroxide, as follows:
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 = 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
In its modern version the Solvay process involves initial saturation with gaseous ammonia of
saturated solution of sodium chloride, and then, with carbon dioxide:
NaCl + NH3 +CO2 + H2O = NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
Sodium bicarbonate, being the least soluble compound in the solution is deposited and
filtered. Then it is dried and calcinated in a rotary kiln to produce sodium carbonate. When
calcination is carried out in closed kilns, recovery and reuse of carbon dioxide is possible.
2NaHCO3 = Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Recovery of ammonia from the obtained ammonium chloride is accomplished using calcium
hydroxide, as mentioned above.
The rest of the required carbon dioxide is obtained in a furnace for production of lime from
limestone. Lime is necessary for ammonia recovery and for capturing carbon dioxide in the
flue gases.
5.1. Emissions
5.1.1. Emissions in Air
Sources of emissions in air in soda production are the lime kilns (release of particulate matter
and carbon dioxide, recovered) and fly soda ash after calcination. The toxicity of these
pollutants is negligible compared with those in the other chemical manufacturing processes.
The problems are readily solved using electrostatic precipitators or baghouse filters, thus
increasing the efficiency of the plant.
5.1.2. Liquid Emissions
The main pollutant from soda production is the liquor of calcium chloride obtained as a by-
product (1 ton CaCl2 per ton produced soda). Calcium chloride is applied in production of
hardening cement, for anti-freezing liquor spread on roads and highways in winter. More
limited application is in liquors used in cooling facilities, or in systems for accumulation of
solar energy. Since these applications do not require large amounts of calcium chloride, the
manufacturers faced serious problems in storage of accumulating amounts of this effluent,
since it cannot be discharged in natural ponds. Sometimes it is deposited in abandoned mines
underground.
There are some options in the Solvey process, using magnesium hydroxide for ammonia
recovery instead of calcium hydroxide. In this case the resulting magnesium chloride could be
recycled after heating with superheated steam.
MgCl2 + H2O = MgO + 2HCl
MgO + H2O = Mg(OH)2
However, this method did not deserve practical application.

6. Production of Sodium Hydroxide and Chlorine by Electrolysis

The modern technology for sodium hydroxide production is based on electrolysis of brines
containing sodium chloride. Together with this product chlorine is produced. Therefore, the
plants for sodium hydroxide production are coupled with other manufacturing, e.g. for
vinylchloride, etc.
Because of the possible explosive reaction between the obtained sodium and chlorine, the
anodic and cathodic compartment of the electrolytic cell must be separated. For this purpose a
porous membrane is inserted into the cell. In other cases mercury is used as cathode to extract
the obtained sodium as amalgam.
The preliminary steps of preparation for electrolysis are similar for both types of cells. The
contamination of calcium sulfate is removed by barium carbonate. If calcium is in a chloride
form, it is removed by sodium carbonate. Magnesium is removed at higher pH values by
sodium hydroxide. The residues are deposited and filtered to obtain brine with Ca2+ and Mg2+
content less than 5 ppm. The required pH 2 is attained by addition of HCl. The quality of the
brine is suitable for membrane cells.
The preparation step of the brine for the purpose of mercury cells is more sophisticated.
Transient metals are inadmissible in the brine, because the can disturb the electrolysis process
by lowering the overpotential of hydrogen on the mercury electrode. This purification is
accomplished by simple adsorption of the interfering ions on sedimenting floculants. In this
process ferric ions are deposited too. This process is repeated until the concentrations of
vanadium, chromium and iron fall below 0.5 ppm. For the increase of overpotential of
hydrogen on the mercury electrode the brine is acidified to pH 2-3 prior to electrolysis.
The very process of electrolysis in membrane cells is carried out with an asbestos membrane,
separating the anodic space from the cathodic space. The membrane is fixed on iron support,
serving as cathode.
When the membrane is exhausted (i.e. clogged with impurities or swelled by the action of the
electric current) it is removed by water jets and the suspension is treated separately. Then it
replaced by a new one, but the spread of asbestos particles poses serious environmental and
health problems. Additionally, the discharge of spent asbestos is not desired.
The mercury electrolytic cells consist of two parts: electrolyzer and destruction chamber. The
first one is bath with a slightly inclined bottom (~1per cent inclination) with steel walls, lined
by ebonite. The smooth bottom is connected with the negative pole of the electric source.
Mercury covers the bottom and serves as a cathode. The anodes are out of graphite blocks.
The saturated brine and the mercury enter the cell in co-current flow. The chlorine released in
the anodic space is collected. The content of sodium in the amalgam is from 0.3 to 3 per cent.
Sodium hydroxide is obtained in the destruction chamber, which is situated below the
electrolytic cell. The sodium containing amalgam is flowing down in the destruction chamber,
where deionized water is fed in counter-current to the amalgam. The sodium-free mercury is
flowing out the chamber from its lower part, and the hot sodium hydroxide leaves the
chamber from its upper part. The produced sodium hydroxide is very pure.
6.1. Emissions
Each of the products of the chlorine-alkali electrolysis is dangerous, when released. The major
problem is with the membranes (of asbestos), or the mercury used in the electrolytic cells. It is
established that under certain conditions mercury might form compounds, more toxic than the
very metal (i.e. di-methyl-mercury). Therefore, emissions of mercury are strictly forbidden.
Release of mercury may take place due to droplet entrainment and due to formation of the
complex ion HgCl42-.
The losses of mercury are calculated to be 15 g/ton of produced chlorine. Therefore mercury
content in secondary brines can be significant. One possibility to cope with this problem is the
addition of some amount of sulfide at the preliminary brine preparation. Then the dissolved
mercury is deposited as mercury sulfide. The sulfide must not be in excess, because of the
formation of soluble poly-sulfides.
Losses of mercury are possible in the hot and humid chlorine, in the form of small droplets.
Passing it through a demister of titanium belt performs its removal from the gas. The removal
could be accomplished by cooling water in a heat exchanger. Losses of mercury are possible
by the sodium hydroxide, because of the intensive interaction of the deionized water and the
amalgam. This contamination is inadmissible if the sodium hydroxide will be used in pulp and
paper production.
More significant are the losses of mercury with the hydrogen stream in the destruction
chamber. It is removed by cooling.
All of these difficulties associated with the use of asbestos and mercury prompted the
producers of chlorine and caustic soda to develop methods to avoid the pollution of
environment and operation medium. For example, porous poly-tetrafluorehylene may replace
asbestos as a membrane material. Poly-tetrafluorehylene membranes are more durable and
completely harmless.

7. Cement Industry
7.1. Production Principles
Cement is a bulk product, an indispensable material for any construction purpose. Although
the toxicity of the emissions accompanying its manufacture is not as harmful as in other
branches of chemical industry, the extremely large size of production imposes serious
environmental problems.
Cement is produced from clays and shale, containing alumina and silica, forming different
silicates. They are ground and mixed with calcium-containing additives, like limestone and
chalk. Then the obtained powdered material is heated in rotary kilns by hot gases in a counter-
current flow. The product obtained is the so-called clinker. It is cooled by ambient air, then it
is blended with additives (i.e., gypsum, etc.) to acquire desired properties, then it is ground,
and the obtained homogeneous cement powder is stored.
There are different types of kilns: involving wet process, dry process, and semi-dry process.
There are also variants involving pre-heaters and pre-calciners, outside the kilns. Wet
processes contribute to the reduction of particulate emissions during preparation steps, but
involve higher energy consumption for humidity evaporation. Dry processes avoid this
excessive energy consumption, but stronger emissions of particulate matter are present.
7.2. Emissions
The main emissions in this case are in the air. They result from many operations, starting with
grinding, blending and storage. They could be captured by hooding and ventilation
equipment, combined with baghouse filters. The main source of pollution however, comes
from the kilns. It comprises sulfur dioxide, coming from the fuel used, nitrogen oxides,
formed in the process of heating and particulate, entrained by the flue gases. These pollutants
are removed by baghouse filters and following wet scrubbing.
The wastewater resulting from scrubbing and dust removal contains dust, sodium and
potassium hydroxides and chlorides. They are settled in ponds and clarifiers and reused for
the same purpose, as well as for cooling.
The separated slurry, containing cement and sodium and potassium hydroxides and chlorides
is recycled as additive to the mixture fed in the rotary kilns.
7.3. Pollution Reduction
The main tool for pollution reduction is to improve and to maintain the operating conditions
of each step, and of the cement kilns, in particular. It is accomplished by reducing the gas
turbulence and thus avoiding the excessive flow velocities and particles entrainment. It is a
practice to use chains at the cool end of the kiln to trap the dust. Another approach is to use
fuel with low ash content. It is a common practice to blend the fuel with some organic
hazardous waste, to solve simultaneously two problems: reduction of particulate emissions
and waste incineration.
The problems that arise with sulfur dioxide emissions could be solved by balancing the alkali
content in the raw material, by increasing the partial pressure of oxygen and by increasing the
dust load of the kiln.
The content of nitrogen oxides could be reduced avoiding excessive sintering temperatures.
The dust generated from the cement kilns and collected in the baghouse filters is recycled to
the hot end of the kiln. Alkali metal compounds have to be avoided, however, if present in the
dust. Ammonia is used to neutralize the formed nitrogen oxides.
Cement kiln dust can be sold to sewage sludge solidification, as adsorbent for desulfurization
as neutralization agents for acidic materials, as soil stabilizers and as an ingredient of various
construction products.

8. Pharmaceutical Industry
Pharmaceutical industry consists in production and processing medicinal chemicals and
pharmaceuticals. Typically, pharmaceutical industry uses batch processes more than other
chemical industries do as a whole. The products in this branch of chemical industry are based
on different types of raw materials from natural and synthetic origin. Generally these are:
medicinal and botanical products by processes of grinding, grading and milling of bulk
botanical drugs and herbs. These could be vitamins, hormones, alkaloids, etc.
Pharmaceutical preparations: to manufacture, fabricate and process raw materials into
preparations for human or veterinary purposes.
Typical for these activities are the small-scale facilities that employ less than 50 employees.
Most of the pharmaceutical products are manufactured in batch processes, in "campaigns" for
periods ranging from few days to several months, depending on the market demand. The same
equipment with potentially different configurations is often used to make different
intermediates and products, using different raw materials, executing different processes and
generating different wastes.
Bulk pharmaceutical substances are organic compounds, manufactured via intermediate steps
and reactions under precise conditions. These steps involve chemical reactions or
fermentation, isolation and recovery from natural sources or combination of these processes.
Isolation and purification of intermediates to proceed with further chemical or biochemical
conversions are usual processes in pharmaceutical technology. Their specificity, the batch
mode of processing, and the use of sophisticated chemicals as solvents frequently lead to
problems related to labor hygiene and environment protection.
When production is changed, cleaning/washing of equipment is required. Water, steam,
solvents, detergents are used to remove non-reacted raw materials, resting intermediates,
degradation products which form waste stream with unique content of pollutants.
8.1. Chemical Syntheses
Most of the compounds used today in pharmaceutical practices are from chemical syntheses,
as cardiovascular drugs, vitamins, antibiotics, etc. Each product involves different methods of
isolation and purification of intermediates. However, some main principles are valid in
common.
The most important step is the chemical reaction (reactions). At this step raw materials, steam,
and cooling liquids are consumed. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are
frequent, during charging and discharging the batch. After completion, cleaning of the
equipment is required. It generates waste streams, loaded by different pollutants, usually
presented as BOD5, COD and total dissolved solids (TDS).
Separation: Separation steps, including extraction, decanting, centrifugation, filtration, etc. are
applied. Separation is accomplished by extraction with organic solvents. It is carried out in
simple mixer/settler systems or in extraction columns with mechanical or static mixers, to
enhance the mass transfer between the phases. Decanting is used to the coarse separation of
liquid/liquid or liquid/solid mixtures. Then the enriched phase (for example, the slurry) is sent
to centrifugation for a full separation. Washing of the cake is desired, but it may generate
additional waste streams.
Filtration is used to remove completely the liquid phase from the slurry. Washing is necessary
again.
During these processes emissions in the air are possible, mainly by solvent vapors. The
wastewater streams are composed mainly of spent solvents and washing liquids, which could
be recovered, but if too contaminated, they have to be sent for disposal. The next step is
usually, crystallization.
Crystallization: It is carried out to isolate the product from the non-reacted substrates and the
by-products of reaction. It involves dissolving in appropriate solvent (when the product is in
the filtration cake) and concentration of the solution in any case. Then cooling takes place to
decrease the solutes solubility in the solvent. The obtained crystals are separated from the
mother liquor by filtration. At this step evaporation of solvents is usual, during concentration,
cooling, and filtration. Mother liquors are potential pollutants. If they are not suitable for
recycling, they must be disposed as (hazardous) waste.
Purification: It consists in re-crystallization of the product, followed by centrifugation,
filtration and washing. Again VOC emissions in air are possible, as well as generation of
waste mother liquors.
Drying: The crystal product is dried usually by hot gases, which entrain evaporated solvents.
Air emissions of these solvents have to be reduced in different ways.
In pharmaceutical industries based on chemical syntheses raw materials are reactants, solvents
and catalysts. Usually reactants are organic substances, and solvents are organic liquids,
mostly soluble in water, i.e. ethanol, methanol, acetone.
8.1.1. Emissions
The use of these materials determines the air emissions - VOC from reaction vents, during
loading and unloading the facilities, during evaporation, concentration, crystallization, etc.

Chemical Water Hazardous Air Chemical Water Hazardous Air

Pollutant Pollutant Pollutant Pollutant

Acetone - - Ethylene glycol X -

Acetonitrile - X Formaldehyde X

n-Amyl acetate - Furfural - -

Amyl Alcohol - - n-Heptane - -

Aniline - X n-Hexane X

Benzene X X Iso-butyraldehyde - -

2-Butanone - X Iso-propanol - -
(MEK)

n-Butyl acetate - - Iso-propyl acetate - -

n-Butyl alcohol - - Iso-propyl ether - -

Chlorobenzene X X Methanol - X

Chloroform X X Methylamine - -
 Chloromethane X X Methyl cellulose - -
Cyanide
X - Methylene X X
chloride

Cyclohexane - - Methyl formate - -

Diethyl Ether - - Phenol X X

Dimethyl - - Toluene X X
sulfoxide

Ethanol - - Triethylamine - X

Ethyl acetate - - Xylenes - X

Table 1: Solvents Used in the Chemical Synthesis Processes in Pharmaceutical Industry

(extracted from Table 8 in Profile of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing, EPA/310-R-97-005,
www.epa.gov/oeca/sector).
Table 1. Solvents Used in the Chemical Synthesis Processes in Pharmaceutical Industry
(extracted from Table 8 in Profile of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing, EPA/310-R-97-005,
www.epa.gov/oeca/sector).
Air emissions often encountered in chemical syntheses are listed in Table 1. Wastewater
contains spent solvents, catalysts, wet scrubber water, cleaning wastewater, leaks. They are
characterized as content of BOD5, COD and total dissolved solids (TDS). Solid waste is the
bottom waste that can possibly exist after the reactions are completed.
In the separation and purification steps solvents are predominantly released. The same applies
for the drying step.
8.2. Extraction of Natural and Biological Products and Emissions
Natural product extraction involves isolation of an active ingredient from natural sources
(plants, roots and animal glands). The aim is recovery of active component (like, hormones,
insulin, morphine, anti-cancer drugs, etc.) with unique properties. Usually no chemical or
biochemical conversions are involved. The desired ingredient is usually presented at very low
concentrations in the raw material. Therefore, the size of equipment used for recovery and
finishing is much smaller than for processing of raw material.
Active ingredients are recovered by solvent extraction, concentration via evaporation (usually
under vacuum to prevent degradation processes), precipitation, pH-adjustment, salt formation.
Solvent extraction is used either to extract the active substance, or to remove contamination,
like fats and oils.
In these processes waste streams are generated from the spent raw material, washing liquids
and contaminated solvents, when impossible to generate. Solvent vapor losses are possible in
air.
8.3. Fermentation
Fermentation is the most appropriate process for production of steroids, antibiotics, amino
acids and some food additives. They are the result of the metabolism of microorganisms
(bacteria, fungi, yeast, and actinomycetes). Fermentation methods have some important
advantages, compared to the traditional organic synthesis. First of all, fermentation, as
apparently one-step operation, is superior to the organic chemical technology, where the
different steps in technology inevitably require isolation and purification of intermediates,
almost always being associated with waste of chemicals, energy and time.
Another very important feature of fermentation is the production of those stereoisomers,
which are biologically active. This goal cannot be attained by chemical methods, where
racemic mixtures are produced. Very important advantage of fermentation is the frequent use
of renewable resources as substrates (starch, cellulose, molasses, etc.).
The main processes involved in fermentation are inoculum and seed preparation, fermentation
and downstream processing. The latter comprises all of the operations for separation and
purification of the desired products.
8.3.1. Emissions
Inoculum and seed preparation steps are processes of smaller scale, with a little contribution
to environment pollution.
In fermentation processes the possible emissions in air are volatile, not well defined
compounds with bad odor, and indirectly, emissions of sulfur dioxide, carbon oxides, nitrogen
oxides and particulate, generated during steam production. Steam is necessary for sterilization
of the equipment and the substrate solutions, as well as for the air injected during the aerobic
fermentation. Besides, steam is required for concentration of products containing solutions.
Once the fermentation is completed, the broth is subjected to a different operation to isolate
and purify the products. The first step is filtration to remove the biomass from the solution.
The resulting waste is the filtration cake or sludge or, when the desired product is in the
sludge, the spent fermentation broth has to be treated before discharging.
Solid waste could be the filter cake, containing biomass and filtration structuring agent, like
sand.
Sometimes, when the product is accumulated within the microbial cells, disintegration of the
latter with a consequent precipitation is involved to isolate the product.
The next step is dissolution of the product (if necessary) and/or its precipitation by solvents or
salts. A possible waste is the mother liquor and the washing fluids, bearing BOD5, COD and
metal ions.
Purification of the product is accomplished after dissolving in appropriate solvent,
evaporation and crystallization. Possible emissions are due to losses of solvents, and wasted
contaminated solvents. When necessary, drying in atomizers using hot air is performed. Air
emissions consist in solvent vapors and particulate from the very product.
The final step in production by means of fermentation is compounding and formulating.
Although these processes are mostly mechanical ones, they are a considerable source of
emissions. Solvents, VOCs as well as tablet dust are frequent at tableting and encapsulation.
Mixing and granulation are accompanied by fugitive emission and vent emissions.
Wastewater streams contain starches, BOD5, COD, total dissolved solids. Washing liquids
contain solvents and detergents.
8.4. Air Emissions Control Systems
Each pharmaceutical plant is unique, but generally the dominant pollutants of concern in air
emissions are the solvents vapors. They could be recovered by different equipment, as
follows.
Condensers: They are used to recover solvents released from evaporation from reactors, at
distillation, reflux and concentration of mother liquors. Condenser could be placed directly
after the reactor or fermentor to capture and to return the vapors to the reacting mixture. For
more precise control condensers with indirect cooling are used to collect the rest of VOC.
Scrubbers: They are used to remove one or more components of a gas stream by contact with
a liquid. Packed columns, plate or tray columns and Venturi-absorber make the usual
equipment for scrubbing.
Combustion and incineration: When condensation or absorption is not feasible, the vapors of
VOC could be blended with other waste gases and burnt to recover their energy capacity and
to reduce the adverse effect on the environment. Catalytic combustion is possible and
applicable too.
Adsorption: Activated carbon is used for this purpose. Regeneration with hot gas is applied
and the vapors could be collected, recovered or combusted.
8.5. Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment in pharmaceutical industry is generated from different sources. Besides
those listed above, they could arise from concentration and condensates, containing solvents,
due to leakage, from cooling water. They could be treated in different ways.
First, it is neutralization (pH adjustment), primary and secondary clarification, filtration,
steam stripping, adsorption on activated carbon, and oxidation. During the last 15 years these
methods are preferred to the aeration lagoons, chlorination, and use of trickling filters.
Advanced biological treatment is the next step. Aerobic processes are mostly used.
8.6. Solid Waste
Sources of solid waste are the filter cakes, the spent raw materials in natural product
extraction, reactor residues, and active sludge from biological waste water treatment.
The possible ways to reduce the effect of solid waste on the environment is to minimize their
amount and rate of generation, to find some secondary use, to incinerate, and when anything
cannot be done, to dispose them.
8.7. Pollution Prevention Options
The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place. The opportunities for
pollution minimization are different: to improve efficiency of processing of raw materials,
thus to minimize the impact on environment; to reduce the raw materials input; re-engineering
of the processes; to re-use by-products; to improve management practices, to substitute, when
possible, toxic chemicals.
In the waste management hierarchy if source reduction is not feasible, next alternative is
waste recycling, then energy recovery and waste treatment as a last alternative. There are
different practices for emission reduction, some of them quite simple.
Source reduction: It follows from process modification and material substitution. However, it
may not be an easy task, because any changes in pharmaceutical technologies is a subject of
formal approval, either because of the product authorship, or because of the requirement of
pharmacopoeia for the very product. Incorporating pollution prevention control at the start of
a new process is easier and much more economical and environmentally sound than at retrofit
of running enterprises.
Material substitution: It could be accomplished, for example, by replacing of chlorinated
chemicals in tablets coating operations, thus to reduce VOC emissions. Cleaning operations
could be based on aqueous solutions, instead of organic solvents.
Process modifications: Without drastic changes in technology, many small improvements may
contribute to substantial reduction of emissions. Spillage of solvents and aqueous solutions
could be reduced as much as possible. Continuous feed and sterilization could contribute to
emissions reduction, usual at batch operations. Continuous operations increase the
productivity together with energy savings. Computer-aided control and automatic feed are
good tools for this purpose.
Recycling, recovery and reuse of solvents: New membrane methods make it possible to
separate solvents in situ, with less losses and energy consumption.
Filter cakes from fermentation and the active sludge from the bio-treatment of wastewater
could be washed to recover by-products, and then used as fertilizer.

9. Bulk Organic Chemical Industry

Organic chemical industry is a quite a broad term, covering petrochemical industry, coal
industry, pharmaceutical productions, plastics production, fine chemicals production, etc. The
majority of these manufacturing processes are closely related to petrochemistry, since their
basic raw materials are recovered from oil processing. Another big group of organic chemical
manufacturing is associated with coal processing namely coal pyrolysis and coal tar
distillation. Both groups are being considered separately. However, a short review of the most
important bulk organic chemicals will presented here.
There are four basic bulk chemicals with significant practical importance and impact on the
environment and human health. These are ethylene, propylene, benzene and vinyl chloride.

Primary Chemicals Intermediates/Secondary Tertiary Chemicals

Chemicals
Ethylene Poly-ethylene
Ethylene dichloride Ethylene
oxide Ethylbenzene Vinyl chloride

Ethylene glycol

Vinyl acetate
 Propylene oxide Poly-propylene
Propylene
Isopropyl alcohol Acrylonitrile

Acetone
Benzene Ethylbenzene Styrene

Cumene Phenol

Cyclohexane Acetone

Adipic acid

Table 2. Bulk Organic Chemicals and their More Popular Further Applications (extracted
from Exhibit 4 in Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry, EPA/310-R-95-012,
www.epa.gov/oeca/sector)
Table 2. Bulk Organic Chemicals and their More Popular Further Applications (extracted
from Exhibit 4 in Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry, EPA/310-R-95-012,
www.epa.gov/oeca/sector)
Their most widespread applications are discussed below, cf. Table 2.
The main application of ethylene is polyethylene production. It is moreover a precursor to
vinyl chloride production, to ethylene oxide and consequently to ethylene glycol; to ethyl
benzene and styrene. Ethylene is not carcinogenic, but some of its derivatives like vinyl-
chloride and ethylene oxide are carcinogens.
Propylene is the monomer for ploy-propylene synthesis; substrate for iso-propanol, propylene
oxide and acrylonitrile. The last two products are carcinogenic.
Benzene is a product of oil processing. It is an important raw material for various organic
syntheses. It is basic substrate for production of ethyl-benzene, cumene, cyclohexane,
nitrobenzene, and benzene chloride. These substances are precursor for different other
products, like aniline, dyestuffs, explosives, pharmaceuticals, etc. Together with benzene, all
of them are toxic and/or carcinogenic.
Vinyl chloride is one of the largest commodity chemicals in the world. Its basic application is
as a monomer for poly-vinylchloride (PVC) production. The latter is one of the most utilized
plastic materials. The equipment, producing vinyl chloride are usually situated close to
facilities, producing chlorine. Therefore, the measures for pollution control are similar to
those applied in chlorine production. Vinyl chloride is carcinogenic.
9.1. Emission Control
Industrial organic chemical manufacturers use and generate both large numbers and quantities
of chemicals. The types of pollutants a single facility will release depend on the raw materials,
processes, equipment in use and maintenance practices. These can vary from hour to hour and
can also vary with the part of the process that is underway. For example, in batch processes,
the chemicals are more likely to be emitted at the beginning and end of a reaction step
(associated with vessel loading and product transfer operations), than during the reaction.
 Media Potential Sources of Emissions
Point source emissions: stack, vent, material loading/unloading
Air operations

Fugitive emissions: pumps, valves, flanges, sample collection,

mechanical seals, tanks

Secondary emissions: waste and wastewater treatment units, cooling

tower, spill/leak areas

Liquid wastes Equipment wash solvent/water, lab samples, surplus chemicals, scrubber
blowdown, cooling water, steam, vacuum pumps, leaks, spills, spent/used
solvents, waste oils/lubricants from maintenance
Spent catalysts, spent filters, sludge, wastewater treatment biological
Solid Wastes sludge,

contaminated soil, reaction by-products,

spent carbon/resins, drying aids

Unlined ditches, pumps/valves/fittings, wastewater treatment ponds,
Ground Water product storage areas, tanks and tank farms, aboveground

and underground piping, loading/unloading areas/racks, manufacturing

maintenance facilities

Table 3: Potential Releases During Organic Chemical Manufacturing (extracted from Exhibit
14 in Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry, EPA/310-R-95-012, www.epa.gov/oeca/sector
)
Table 3. Potential Releases During Organic Chemical Manufacturing (extracted from Exhibit
14 in Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry, EPA/310-R-95-012, www.epa.gov/oeca/sector
)
The potential sources of pollutants are shown in Table 3.
Emissions in air, that occur in production of the listed organic chemicals are due to point
sources, like stacks, vents from hooding, distillation units, reactors, and storage tanks. They
occur at loading and unloading. Fugitive emissions from pumps, valves and mechanical seals
are frequent too.
Typical liquid waste is equipment wash solvents, product washes and purification, scrubber
blowdown, cooling water, waste oils and lubricants from maintenance operations.
Solid waste are from spent catalysts, spent filters, carbon and resins, sludge from different
sources, like active sludge from biological wastewater treatment, contaminated soil, reaction
by-products, etc.
Inappropriate storage and treatment of this liquid and solid waste leads to contamination of
soil and ground water.
The most appropriate method for waste treatment is source reduction. It consists in loss
prevention, introducing continuous and/or automatic feed with reagents and solvents, reliable
sealing and fittings, and introduction of good operational practice. These measures are
compatible with those for good labor hygiene and operating conditions.
Some of the inevitable waste, like polymerized by-products, organic sludge, contaminated
solvents, that cannot be recovered, etc. should be treated as hazardous ones. They could be
burnt in cement kilns.

Related Chapters
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Glossary
Atomizer :drying apparatus operating on the principle of liquid droplet atomization by
jet of hot air
Blowdown :air and stack gases blowing through an equipment capturing contamination
Calcination :heating to high temperatures and roasting
Demister :a control device designated to separate or remove mist or liquid droplets
ESID :environmentally sustainable industrial development
Fertilizer :synthetic additive to soil to improve its fertility
NOx :generalized abbreviation for all of the nitrogen oxides, contained in air
Petrochemistry:the chemistry of oil processing
Pyrolysis :partial destruction at higher temperatures and shortage of oxygen
Vanadia :di-vanadium penta-oxide, used as a catalyst
VOC :volatile organic compounds

Bibliography

1. Bailey J.E., D. Ollis (1986/87), Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
N.Y., , Chapter 11 [this chapter comprises principles in downstream processing in fermentation technology].

2. Hocking M.B. (1984), Modern Chemical Technology and Emission Control, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg-New
York, Chapter 14 [this chapter contains the basic data for some traditional fermentation with emissions control].

3. Hocking M.B. (1984), Modern Chemical Technology and Emission Control, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg-New
York, Chapters 5-7, 9 [these chapters contain the basic data for some traditional inorganic productions with
emissions control].

4. Profile of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing, (1997) EPA/310-R-97-005, pp. 19-38; 40; 44-51; 58-59 [a
review of the modern achievements, recent data for USA, toxic release inventories and new methods for
pollution control and reduction].

5. Profile in the Stone, Clay, Glass and Concrete Production Industry, (1995) EPA/310-R-95-017, pp. 15-32; 32-
33 [a review of the modern achievements, toxic release inventories and methods for pollution control and
reduction].

6. Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry, (1995) EPA/310-R-95-012, pp. 11-27 [a review of the state-of-the
art of organic chemical manufacturing with inventories and analysis of pollution and emission control].

Biographical Sketch

Venko N. Beschkov was born in 1946 in Sofia, Bulgaria. He obtained his M. Sc. degree in inorganic and
physical chemistry in the University of Sofia "St. Clement Ohridski" (1969). He obtained his Ph.D. degree in the
Central Laboratory of Chemical Engineering at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in Sofia Bulgaria (1978),
and his D.Sc. degree in 1996. He was promoted as associate professor in 1984 and as a full professor in 1997. He
is Director of Institute of Chemical Engineering at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (since 1993).
The scope of his scientific activity is on mass transfer operations in chemical and biochemical engineering,
bioprocess engineering and environment protection (fine chemicals production, waste water treatment, gas
pollution removal, etc.). He has over 60 scientific papers and 1 monograph (Boyadjiev Chr., V.Beschkov, Mass
Transfer in Liquid Film Flow, Publishing House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, 1984) published.
He is an editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Bulgarian Chemical Communications (since 1996). He was also
an editor of textbooks on chemical technology in Bulgarian (1986).
His teaching activity consisted in delivering courses in hydrodynamics in the Faculty of Chemistry, University of
Sofia "Climent Ohridski" as a assistant professor and a reader (1976-1984); in biochemical engineering in the
Faculty of Biology, University of Sofia "Climent Ohridski" as a reader (1987-1989); in technology in
bioconversion as a reader in the University of Chemical Technology & Metallurgy, Sofia, Bulgaria (since 1999).
He was Deputy-minister of The Ministry of Environment Protection in the Government of The Republic of
Bulgaria (1991/92), consultant and trainer in different international projects on environment protection (since
1993).

To cite this chapter

V. Beschkov, (2004), CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, in Pollution Control
Technologies, [Eds. Bhaskar Nath, and Georgi St. Cholakov], in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS),
Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK, [http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved
August 31, 2007]