Professional Documents
Culture Documents
@
VAN N OST R AN D R EIN H OLD C OM PAN Y
"tt
LONDON
i
NEW YORK CINCINNATI TORONTO MELBOURNE
Contents
PnrracE v
Lrsr or IllustnarroNs xiii
IlmRoouctroN xvii
Panr I
HIGH PO\VER
CHAPTER 2 ANIPLIFIERCLASSIFICATIONAND\-ALVE
CHARACTERISTICS 12
2.1 GrxrnelClassrrrcatroN 12
2.2 Drprxrrrox Or Cless A, B, C Ar';n D OprR,trloN 12
2.3 l.tarvp CsanacrERrsrrcs IJ
, *r"r.oitXffi
cHAprER rYPEoFoPERATIoN27 5.5 Vepour Cooltxc 79
The advantagesof vapour cooling-air and water coolant for heat
3 . 1 Grxenar. CoxsrosRAtroxs n exchanger-a typical vapour-cooling system-heat-transfer
3.2 Cuss A Alptlcettoxs ' 28
characteristics-comparison with other cooling systems .
?? Cress B Apprtcerlons
29
Choice of valve for linear amplifiers-linear amplification with
CHAPTER 6 POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN FOR H.F.
tetrodes*linear amplification with triodes-methods of improving
COMMUNICATIONS 65
tetrode linearity-linear application for broadcasting
3.+ Cr,ess C Alpr,rcerroxs 3+
6 . 1 Opnnlfl orqer,Rrgu rnrlrrNrs d5
Transmitters in the m.f. and h'f. bands-the choice of valve for Linearity-frequency changing and reliability
class C application--setting up tetrodes.in class C for anode- 6.2 Tnr PnrNcrpr,eOr SBlr-TuNlNc 86
modulated r.f. amplifiers-iypical operation for 100 kW carrier Anode-circuit tuning-automatic loading-setting the loading
output conditions
3 . 5 Cr,essD AppLrcerroNs 38
6.3 Tsr INpur Cncurt ANo Coansp TurvrNc 89
The principle of classD operation--oPerational frequency band- 6.+ A Couprrrr SErr-TuNtt{c AnnaNcpllnxr 91
method of calculating classD performance The tuning and loading proiess-economic advantages-antenna
3 . 6 ConpanrsoN Br-rwrsN Crass D ANo Cr-assC-100 kW Ourpur 40
L2 selection
3 . 7 Class D Foa VunY Hrcn Powrn
CHAPTER 7 TYPICAL DESIGNS FOR BROADCASTING
CHAPTER 4 CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION AND COM' 94
45 APPLICATIONS
PONENT SELECTION
4.L Pusn-Purl exo SrNcrn-Srono Crncurrs 45 7 . 1 Dnsrcx Fon 100 kW Cenr.rrn PowEn IN Tnr H.F. Barlo 94
affectingthe choiceandtype of circuit Reasonsfor circuit arrangement-the screensupply and modula-
Considerations
46 tion-typical circuit diagram and description-spurious oscilla-
+.2 Srnclr-StonpANoor-OurpurCIRcuIrsIN Tur H'F' BaNo
Valuss Fon I/Z Crncuns 48 tions and their prevention-the cooling system-a suitable drive
4.3 A Mrrnoo Or CelcurartmcCoMPoNENT
Informationrequiredfor calculation-formulaefor derivingcom- equipment
7.2 DmrcN Or A Vrnv Hrcn Powrn M.F. TnaNsutmtn 100
ponentvalues---example of calculationsfor a 30 kW amplifier-
frequencyranges Design considerations-circuit description
52 t -J Ecoxoutcal DpsrcN Fon A 1'0 kW M.F. TnlNs'rrttrrn 104
4.4 FrxsDCapecrtoRsIN PARALLEL
CepAcrrY OF CoPPsn CoNDuctoRsAt R'F' 54 The need for an m.f. transmitter of this power-transmitter
4.5 THnCunruur-CannvrNc
54 features-the modulation system-final amplifier arrangement
+.6 IwouctonCorsrrcunetroN
4.7 Vannnrc CesecrroRs 56
4.8 Vor.recr Fr.assorrunAr.roTsr Usr Or Conoxe Rrxcs )o CHAPTIR 8 AN L.F. TRANSMITTER DESIGN 1'07
4.g HeruroNrcAccrrrtuetron Ix Axooe Clncurrs JI
-1?H
Illustrations
Figure
1 . 1 Comparisonbetweenradio-frequencyspectrumrvith d.s.b.ands.s.b. J
l.z Waveformsproducedby d.s.b.and compatibles.s.b.systems 6
2 . 1 Load lines on constant-currentcharacteristicsof triode valvestvoe
BR 1161(EnglishElectric Valvb Co.) t+
2 . 2 Interpolationof 1o from V"llogtaph IJ
2 . 3 Tube performancecomputor (Eimac) 16
2.+ Elliptical load lines on characteristicsof triode type BR I 161 19
2.5 Effectof feedermismatchon anodecurrent w"u"ior* of triode 2l
2 . 6 Anode.dissipationand power output in relation to anode voltage
excurslon 22
2.7 Load lines on constant-currentcharacteristics of tetrode valve tvpe
4C X 35 000 C (Eimac)
(a) Screenvoltage: 1000V
(6) Screenvoltage: 1500V 24
2.8 Effect of changing screen voltage and static anode feed on anode
cutrent waveform of tetrode
3.1 Circuit for improving tetrodelinearity 1'
3.2 Load line on constant-currentcharacteristicsof tetrode valve for
Iow-level modulation
3.3 Load lines on constant-current characteristicsof tetrode valve for
anodemdulation JI
+ Basiccircuit arrangement for classD operation 38
I
3.5 Energy transfer in classD operation 38
3.6 Comparisonbetween classi and classD waveforms 4l
3,7 Load line on constant-current characteristicsof tetrode for very high
qgwer at high efficiency in class D. Valve type VCP 2002 (English
Electric Valve Co.) +3
4.1 Tuned-anode tuned-output circuie with magnetic coupling for
grounded-grid triode tn
r''l
xlv TLLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS
Figun Figrc
4.8 Modified IIZ circuit arrangement for high power 58 9.9 Bridged 'T' paralleling network for -oie than two transmitters 720
4.9 Graphs showing liabiliry for harmonic accentuation in anode circuits 59 9.10 Block diagram for operating two medium- or high-porvtr h.f.
4.10 Grounded-grid circuit with low-capacitance heater transformer transmitten in parallel by combining the field pattern r2l
secondary at r.f. potential 62 ?.1I llp"J ry..angementwhen paralleling is required on a temporary basis 122
4.l l Grouaded-grid circuit with cathode choke of low-impedance heavy- 9.12 Block diagram of paralleling by means of wideband tiansformers 123
current coaxial cable, such as Pyrotenax 63 9.13 lhasing and drive splitting for push-pull operation 123
4.12 Grounded-grid circuit with cathode choke consisting of a busbar 9.14 Transformer combining unit for push-pull-operation r24
sandwich through ferrite rings 64 9.15, fhasing and drive splitting for push-push opiration t25
5.1 Power required to raise 1 ft3/min of air by loC 68 9.16 Transformercombiningunit for push-pushoperation - tzs
5.2 Multiplying factors for pressureand air flow to allow for reduced air 10.1 Working conditionsfor a widebandamplifier 129
density above 20'C 68 (4) at the output
5.3 Multipt;ing factorsfor pressureand air flow to allow for reduced air (D),(c) at the interstagecoupling
density abovesea-level 69 (d) at the input
5.4 Characteristics of cooling fan 70 10.2 Simplified diagram of a distributed amplifier 131
5 . 5 Cooling by blowing 7r 1 0 . 3 Circuit for r,f. cathodefeedback 134
5.6 Cooling by suction 72 10.4 Anode delay lines showing the tapering sections 136
J.l Air cooling for valveswith anodesupwards 1 0 . 5 frgguenc}l responseof two-stage distributed amplifier, in terms of
5.d Typical air-cooling system by suction 74 drive level required for I kW output 137
5 . 9 Total valve dissipation relative to air flow and air-inlet temperature 7+ 10.6 Intermodulation products between two closely spaced tones with
5 . 1 0Air flow-air pressure characteristic IJ referenceto peak envelopepower 138
5 . 1 1Closed-circuit water-cooling system (a) 1kWp.e.p.
5 . 1 2Water-cooled r.f. load 79 (r) s00W p...p.
5 . 1 3Typical vapour-phase cooling system (Eimac) 8l 10.7 Output circuit arrangement for h.f. and m.f. version of distributed
5 . 1 4Nukiyama heat-transfer curves 82 amplifier 140
6 . 1 Yector diagrams of tie phase relationship in phase discriminator 87 10.8 Method of ferrite core assemblyfor 40 kW h.f. transformer r42
6.2 Fine-tuning section of self-tuned amplifier 88 10.9 Circuit arrangementof a 40 kW wideband transformer r+2
6.3 Loading discriminator of self-tuned amplifier 88 10.10 Smith's chart presentationof iaput matching of a 40 klV wideband
6.4 Final amplifier input circuit for self-tuning 90 transformer 143
6.5 Block diagramof completeautomaticsysternfor aself-tuned amplifier 9l 1t 1 Input circuit using a wideband step-up transformer r46
7.1 Simplified circuit diagram of 100 kW h.f. modulated amplifier 96 11.2 Partial tuning of the input circuit 147
7.2 Integrated vapour- and air-cooling system 99 I L3 Interstag! co-uplingwith a I/ circuit t47
7.3 Final amplifier for 750 kW m.f. transmitter 102 11 4 Capacitativeinterstagecoupling 148
7.4 Linear amplifier for 1.0 kW m.f. transmitter with low-level modula- I l 5 Two types of quarter-wave network t49
tion 106 ll.6 Practical arrangement for interstage coupling with a quarter-wave
8 . 1 Circuit arraogement of final amplifier for lfi) kW p.e.p. in the l.f. network 150
band lll 11.7 Constant-current characteristics of tetrode type 4CX250B (Eimac) 152
'in
9.1 Block diagram for operating two trantimitters in parallel by means l2,l Comparisonbetween the spectral cotopon.rrt d.s.b. and s.s.b. to
of a capacitor-hductor combining network 116 .. give the samepeak envelopepower 153
9.2 Drive splitting and phasing network 117 12.2 Comparison between d.s.i. and s.s.b. r.f. waveforms as seenon an
9.3 Phase change produced by each double If section of the phasing oscilloscope 154
network 117 12.3 Characteristicsof tetrode type QV08-100 with load line for 210 W
9.4 V.S.W.R. atinputof phasingnetwork with each outPut matched into p.e.p.output 156
lsOQ 118 Input circuit arangement when high-power drive is available t57
\?.!
9.5 Phase control available at various frequencies with each variable l?.t Typical circuit diagram for ..f. amitiner 157
capacitor covering 5G-500 pF ,- 118 12.6 Easic If circuit for anode-ouput coupling 162 "
9.6 Bridged'T' paralleling network 119 12.7 Breakdown of the Jl orcurt 163
9.7 Breakdown of the bridged 'T' nctwork in the balanced condition 119 12.8 Method of calibrating inductor for Ir circuit 165
9.8 Brea&downof thelridged'T' net*ork with one transmitter off 119 12.9 Send-receiveswitching with relays in the receiveposition 166
rvr ILLU STRATIONS
Figne
1 3 . 1 Basic circuit for transistor amplifier, class C 168
t3.2 Input and output waveforms of transistor amplifiers 168
1 3 . 3 Circuit for high-efficiency operation 169
t3.+ Efiective outPut circuit at higher frequencies i69
1 3 . s Spectrum showing low-frequency parametric oscillation due to non-
L70
lntroduction
linear collector-basecapacitance
1 3 . 6 Practical circuit for producing spurious parametric oscillation 170
13.7 Spectrumof frequenciesproducedby the circuit shownin Fig' 13'6 170
1 3 . 8 Gain/frequency resPonsefor constant Z" 17r
1 3 . 9 Typical contoursofiut-off frequency F1 relativeto voltage 7 " for two
tlL The essentialcharacteristic of any transmitterdesignis that the end-productshall
transistors
11) fulfil all the technicalrequirementsof its specificrtionregarding
13.10 Efiect ofincreasing frequency on transistor 1"/tr/" characteristics ierfo.-"nce,
reliabiliry. ease of operation, etc. The iniroduction of new tleciniquesand
13.11 Forward-biaseddiode for bias compensation l/J
13.12 Constant-currentmethod of bias compensation t7+ componentsis desirablenot only when they ofier operationaladvantages to the
13.13 Changein input impedancewith increasingfeedbacklevel 174 user, but also becausethe most modern equipmeni has considerable'customer
13.14 Single-stagewidebandclassB r.f. amplifier 175 appeal.However,since the commercialsuccessof a designdependsmainly on
its initial costand running expenses, innovationsshould bi treaiedwith.uuiiorr,
partly becausenew components generally have unknorvn operational retiability,
AI.1 A complex waveform with secondand third harmonic content'
and partly becausethere is a tendencytowards increasedcomplicationand cost ir,
The points identified numerically every 30o on the waveform arc
r76 striving for the perfect technical soiution. In fact, economic aspectsare of major
projected to determine the graduationson the paper strip . -
importance at all stagesof design, particularly regarding easeof manufacture,
AL2 The constituent comPonentsof Fig. AI.1 rvaveformplotted fronr
with consequentlow production cost and operation;l simllicity.
tlre information given in Table A1.1. Note: For clarity the sub-
Power amplifiers constitute that section of a radio tranimitter which orovides
divisions ,tot shown, but 10 on the linear amplitude scalc
"r" 177 amplification at the final radiated frequency, with or without modulation, but
rePresents 20 small divisions
do not include the modulator and fre(uency generating equipment. However,
AL3 The method of marking points at 30' intervalsfor curvesl, n and c,
the modulation systemwith which the amplifiei wilr be usedmlst be considerea
in accordancewith Table AI.l and using the paper strip inverted 178
ir1 relf91 to such requirements as lineariry and bandwidth. Amplifiers can be
AII.1 Self-inductance of single straight conductors of circular cross-
181 classifiedinto a number of categories,but are usually identified by the rype of
section
service, frequency and power.
AIII.I Self-inductance of single circular turns of circular cross-section
182 The intendedtpplication is the most imporrant considerationinitially, because
material .
183 it determines the frequenry rang to be covered and the power to be radiated
AIII.2 Mutual inductance of equal coaxial turns at various spacings
rrom.the transmltting antenna. For any particular application, the output power
AIV.1 Flashover voltage btween parallel circular conductors at Ooc at
r84 required from the final amplifier is dltirmined by the antenn" effi.i.rr"y, th.
sea-level j
propagationpath loss and the signal-to-noiseratio which will be necessaryii the
LIV.z Flashover voltage between a circular conductor, or a flat plate
185 receiving station to give an ade(uate service. The computation of these factors
with a radiused edge, and a flat plate
186 tiom published graphs cr by calculation, is not part;f this project, but the
AV.1 Inductance of single-layer solenoids
rmportance.ol-accuracy cannot be overstressedin relation to specifying
the
power required out of the final amplifier. If the estimate is too low, ttre sJ:vice
will inadequate, and to increasl the power output after compietion of an
.be
lnsallatron can be a very costly business. On the other hand, a serioug
over-
estimate will mean that both initial and running costs are higher than those of
competing manufacturers,resulting in fewer sales.
Apart from the economic aspect, excessiveradiated power is more likely to il
interfele with other radio tranimissions, yet the powei output of trarrr-itters , l. - t ,
differs considerably for different applications, evin for the same transmission ,'ii
li
path length in the.same frequency band. so, it is important that the reasonsfor il
this apparent discrepancy are fuily appreciated p.ioi to the commencementof j.!
any transmitter design, in order that the proposed eguipment shall meet the
i
I
XVlrI INTRODUCTION
kw PE.P.
1.I THE MEANING OF HIGH POWER ;aeo
kW rneon
| 180
The power output of a radio transmitter is normally specified as the radio- I
frequencypower deliveredby the final or high-poweramplifier. I
The actual power at the output terminals varies considerably for different
applications,both in level and by definition. This meansthat the power input
I
I
and size of high-pcwer amplifiers also cover a wide range, but the foilowing Amplitude I
comparisonsshow that, in many cases,these differencesare only apparent lvhen I
consideredin terms of the effectivelevel of intelligencepo]l,erradiated.In other l2O kW corrier
casesthe differencesare substantial, particularly when comparing transmirt:rs
for operationin the v.l.f. and the h.f. bands,where attenuationof the propagation
paths also differs considerably.
It is normal practice in telecommunications to express power, voltage and 30 kW sidebonds 30 KW PE.P.
current ratios in decibels.For receiver and low-power applications,a requirement 3 O k Wm e o n
for increasingthe gain by, say,6 dB, can be met with equipment which is relatively
easy to construct and inexpensive. When comparing levels in the high-power
region, ratios expressedonly in decibelsare liable to give a falseimpressionof the fqFl^
real significancein terms of equipment size, power consumption and cost. For
example, to increasethe power output of a 100 kW amplifier by 6 dB, means 0.S-8. tsrequency S.S.g-
an extra 300 kW. Hence, it is not surprising to find that overall system gain l0oTomodulotion S i n g l el o n e
achievedby increasingtransmitter power is sometimesdescribedas 'gold plated Ftc. 1.1 Compafisonbetweenradio-frequency
spectrumwith d.s.b.and s.s.b.
decibels'.
AA A/\
being divided betweenthe channelsso that the power on each channel is only a
fraction of the total. In considering power relationships, the importance of
radiating a number of channels within the band*'idth allocated1o a single
assignedfrequency should not be overlooked. This facility is an invaluable asiet
,", operating communications services in the h.f. spectmm,
Reciifiedoudiooulput 1l :.ry".ltions
wntch rs alreadyovercrowded.
Ftc. 1.2 Waveformsproduced by d.s.b. and compatible s.s.b. systems. In t.he caseof multi-channel operation, the signals on the two sidebandsare
quite independentof one another ixcept in relation to power level, and the systcm
limited to single-channel operation, but it is in quite general use for low-grade rs Xnown as independent sideband (i.s.b.). The power per channel must be
commercial-qualiry speechcircuits. reducedto a level which ensuresthat the peak power capabiliry of the transmitter
At full modulation, the sideband amplitude is equal to the carrier amplitude. is not exceededto such an extent as to ciuse excessivecross-ialk or out-of-band
The radiated power in the one sideband is half the total mean power aod one- Tdild9l, The amplitude of the compositesignal is the sum of the amplitudes of
quarter of the peak power. In terms of the proportion of intelligence power the.individual signalsand the amplitude ratios are the square ,oot ofih" po*er
radiated, this is obviously an improvement oD d.s.b., where the power in one' ratlosi so the total peakpower is the squareof the sum of the rootsof the individual
sideband is one-sixth ofthe total meanpower and one-sixteenthofthe peak power. Powers.fu an example, consider four frequency-division multiplex channelsof
The disadvantageis the high level of distortion, which increaseswith modula- equat_power, W, operating on a transmitter of 30 kW peak power, then
tion depth to ibout 30o/owhen the sidebandis the same,amplitudeas.the carrier. (4!y.):: 30 kW; fiom wh--ichW: (30116)kW, which ts t'b t<w per channel,
I Consequently, its use is normally limited to low-power transmitter applications. or 12 dB belowp.e.p.
8 powER RELArroNsHlps 1] M U L r r - C H A N N E oL p E R A T r o N
[Ch. 9
In the .a*e of multi-channel speech,the channel level and transmitter loading one-sixteenthof the total rated output power.,In the caseof t.d.m., the channel
cannot be clearly defined in terms ofp.e.p., since the duration ofsignals exceeding frequenciesare separatedon a pre-arrangedtime basis,only one frequency being
nominal rating is very short and not of great conselluence.G.P.O. telephony present irrespective of the number of channels. This means that dach channe-l
circuits (other than Lincompex) are operated at a speech-signallevel of -8 to can be operatedat the full output power of the transmitter. Taking four-channel
-10 dB RTP at a 0 dBm referencepoint
[2], where a 1 mW tone-signalproduces operation as an example, the permissible output power per channil on t.d.m. is
-6 dB relative to p.e.p. output at the transmitter. Speech-signallevel is measured sixteentimes that on f.d.m. for the same transmitter.
on a volume indicator in accordanceto C.C.I.F. specification(1936). Other When more than four f.d.m. channelsare being radiated, the C.C.I.R. Recom-
operating concernsoften use the American VU meter or a speechvoltmeter [3]. mendation[5] is that the power per channel can be increasedto:
Speech-channel level and transmitter loading continues to be a matter for
study and data directly relating to tests on actual transmitters is scanty. Some Total admissiblepeak power
tests have been made using speech or white-noise signals, but the difficulty 4n
remains of correlating tests with actual tramc conditions. Such tests have clearly
indicated the advantageof Lincompex circuits [4]. where z is the number of simultaneouschannels.In this way, wheneverthere are
The present G.P.O. practice for transmitters carrying Lincompex circuits is more than four channels, rather more than the theoretical channel Doiver can
(taking V : p.e.p. voltage): be radiated without exceedingthe total peak power for more than 1-292oof the
time.
Siag Ie- chanaeI Linc ompex In the caseof one or two speechchannels(except Lincompex), and a number
of f.d.m. telegraphy channels being radiated simultaneously, tle level of each
Pilot carrier: -16 dB relativeto p.e.p. :0.158 V
speechchannelis set as for telephonyonly. Tne level of eachielegraph channelis
Speechlevel: -6 dB relativeto p.e.p.:0.500 V
reducedby a further 3 dB for one channelof speechand 6 dB loitwo, relative
Control-signallevel: -11 dB relativeto p.e.p. :0.282V
to the channellevelwithout soeech.
0.94{ V Table 1.2 gives the recommendedlevel at which each telegraph channel
-
frequenc-vshould be set, in relation to the number of telegraph chinnels and the
Fou.r-channeI l:iae ompex absenceor presenceof speechin one or two channels.
Pilot carrier: -16 dB relativeto p.e.p.:0.158 V
Speechlevel: 4 at -16 dB relativeto p.e.p. :0.632 V Tarrr 1.2 Freqancy latel relative to peak pouer
Control-signal level: 4 at -21 dB relativeto D.e.D.: 0.356V
1.146
V Number of No speech One speech Two speech
f.d.m. charnels channel,dB channel, dB channels.dB
i.e. *1.2 dB relativeto p.e.p.
t
Lincompex is the term applied to a system developedby the British Post Office I 0 _J -6
for improving h.f. radio telephonecircuits. The system employs compressionof 2 4 -9 -t2
the speech level for transmission, with expansion on reception to restore the -9.5 -12.5 -15.5
original lwel .variations by merns of a separate control signal. The name 4 -12 -15 -18
Lincompex is derived from tie expression litked, compra,sor and erpander. 6 -13.8 -16'8 -19'8
The compressor is in the audio circ,uit of the transmit side, the expander is 8 -15 -18 -21
in the audio circuit of the receive side and linking is carried out by a narrow 12 -16.8 -19.8 -22.8
band f.m. channel situated above the speech band, but within the normal 3 kHz
channel bandwidth.
With this system, tle audio input level to the transmitter is substantially It is interesting to note the level of each of the twelve telegraph channels,in
^,
the
constant and the Fansmitter loading can be specified in terms of p.e.p. P^resence of rwo-speechchannels,i,e., -22.8 dB. Relative-to'300 kW e.r.g.,
For multi-channel telegraphy the power per channel depends on the type of -zz'6 dB is approrimately
1.5 kW. Allowing for an antenna gain of 10 dB, the
system employed. The two main systernsin general use are frequency-divisiqn rransmrtter output per channel is 150 W, which is the same
order of power as
multiplex (f.d.m.) and time-division multiplex (t.d.m.). Both systems use rwo that usedby amateurs.
An-important feature of multi-channel telegraphy operation is the ability
d:
-sideband frequenciesto represntthe mark and spaceconditions, but the manner ._ to
in which they are tmnsmitted is difierent. In f.d.m., one of the sidebandfrequen- rncreasethe power per channel by reducing thi numbei
ofchannels. This ohen 'l
cies is alwaya pr$ent on each channel,so four frequencieswill be presentsimul- a complete breakdown of the circuit under abnormal conditions by
ll:u.no.
ustng only one or two channels.
"taneously in r four-channel gystem,and the power per'channel must not exceed
l0 PowER RELATToNST{IPS [ch. 1l v A L v E c o N v E R s r o NE F F T c I E N c y 11
There are two other commentson conversioneficiency which are appropriate,
1.3 VALVE CONYERSIONEFFICIENCY First, the calculationof power output and effciency for any particular valve will
When contemplating the purchase of high-power ransmitters, one of the be based on the asetagecharacteristicsfor that type, as supplied by the valve
main features considered by operating organizations is total running cost, of manufacturer. Although all valves of the same type have very similar charac-
which an appreciableportion is attributable to power consumPtion. As most of teristics (especiallyhigh-power t1pes), they will not be identical. Consequently,
the power is fed into the final stages, the d.c. to r.f. conversion eficiency of some tolerancemust be allolved to accommodateprobable diferences. This point
power-amplifier valves must be a major considerationin all high-power designs- is particularly important when testing a nerv design for performance, which
The result of obtaining the optimum conversion efficiency is a threefolc cannot be fully proven until checks have been made with a number of valves.
advantage.First, the total power consumption will be at a minimum. (This is of The secondpoint is that the calculatedoutput power is that obtainedat the
great importance where the power has to be generatedon site.) In the case of valve anode.The transmitteroutput will be lorverthan that at the valve anode,
high-power amplitude modulation, the modulator must supply sufficient audio- due to the inherentlossin the circuits associated with runing and coupling.The
frequency power to modulate the d.c. input to the r.f. amplifier. The power circuit loss may not appear to be appreciablewhen expressedin decibels,but it
input to both modulator and r.f. stagesis reduced by improving the conversion can be a seriousembarrassmentif a design rvill not quite meet a specificationin
efficiency of the r.f. valve. terms of actualpower in kilcrvatts.For example,consideran amplifier in which
Secondly, the mains power not converted into r.f. is converted into heat; so the combinedanodeand output circuits have loadedand unlbadedQ factorsof
the arrangementsfor disposing of the unwanted heat will be simplified by im- 20 and 500, respectively.The power lost in the circuits is one-twenty-fifth of the
proving conversioneficiency. valve output, corresponciing to -0.17 dB. This ratio representsa loss of 4 kW
The third advantageis the result of the first and second. The overall size and in 100kW, so the amplifieroutput would be 96 kW for 100kW at the valveanode.
cost of the equipment, including mains transformers, rectifiers and cooling
arrangements,will be lower and more attractive to prospective purchasers. REFERENCES
The conversion efficiency of a valve dependson the dynamic operating con-
ditions and theseare groupedinto three main categori$, classesA, B and C. There [1] IilttN, L. R. 'Improved compatiblesingle-sideband equipmentfor standerd
broadcastservice.'I.R.E. natn.Cona. Rec.,7,55-60 (1958).
is also a recently introduced form of classC operation, which is sometimescalled
[2] Bnev, W. J. and Monnrs, D. W. 'Single-sideband multi-channeloperationof
classD. Amplifiers of this t_vpeuse rectangular,or curved-rectangular waveforms short-wavepoint-point radio links'. P.O. elect.Engrs'J.,45, Pan 3 (October
and have higher conversion efficienciesthan classC types. 19s2).
Table 1.3 has been compiled to show the relative conversion efficiencies of [3] Sur,uvr, J. M. and RrcHelos, D. L. 'The measurementcf speechlevel'.
triode and tetrode valves in classesA, B, C and D under typical operating con- P.O. elect.Engrs'J.,45, Part 3 (October1954).
ditions, in order to emphasizethe effect of conversion efficiency in terms of [4] Warr-CanrEn, D. E. and Wnunrrn, L. K. 'The Lincompex s]-stemfor the
Power. improvement of h.f. radiotelephonecircuits', P.O. elect.Engrs'J., 59, Part 3
(October1966).
tRecommendation
[5] C.C.I.R. 326,'Power of radio-transmitterrelationship
T,tBre 1.3 100kW r.f. output
betweenthe peak envelopepower, the mean power, and the carrier power of a
radio transmitter'. Docameatsof the Xth Plmaty Assembly,Vol. 1 (Geneva
Triodes Tetrodes 1963).
_J--
From this table it is apparent that if conversion efficiency \f,ere to be the over-
riding factor in dl transmitter designs,then classD operation with triode valves
would be the universal choice. But this is not so. There are many applications
where other factors are equally important, or even Paramount, such as linearity,
rapid changeof frequency, availabledrive power and sititable valves.The reasons
for the choice of valve type and classof operation ?re discussedin Chapter 2 in
relation to various high-power applicatiom.
t1 VALVE CHARACTERISTICS t3
2 ClassB
By definition, the bias of a class B amflifier is adjusted so thitt the anode
current flows for 180oofthe alternating voltage, i.e., for halfthe electrical cycle,
In high-power applications,the bias voltage is rather less, allowing some anode
Amplifier Classificationand Valve current to flow in the no-signal condition (static feed). When an alternating grid
voltageis applied,the anodecurrent flows for rather more than 180o.In accordance
Characteristics with conventional definition, this is class AB operation. However, compared
rvith the peakanodecurrent at the crestof a driving rvaveform,the static anodc
current is relativelysmall and power amplifiersin this state are still said to be
in classB.
Valves operating in class B are more efficient than those in classA. The peal
and mean-poweroutput is also higher, but the peak driving voltage for full
2.1 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION output is approximately twice as high.
Valve amplifiers can be grouped into a number of categories,depending on ClassC
their power rating, application, frequency range, valve types and their dynamic
For classC operation,the bias is set at a level well above that required to
operating conditions, circuit configuration, etc. Most of these classificationsare
cut off the valve in the static condition, and anode current flows during lessthan
interdependent, that used at any one time being determined by the context of
half of the alternatingcycle,normally for about 120'.
the subject under discussion.
ClassC is more efficientthan classB in terms of d.c. to r.f. conversion.Also,
Within the context of high-power amplification, the intended application is
the required peakdriving voltageis higher for full output rnd the drive powcr
the important aspect initially, for it directly implies ttre frequency range and
I order of power level required. The frequency range is ther^a frit aecompli,but
is higher, due to the presenceof grid current.
i,
the method of obtaining the power level is determined by the dynamic operating ClassD
I; conditions of the power valves appropriate to the application. Valve type (triode,
Class D is a modified form of class C, first used by Tyler [4] for high-power
tetrode or pentode), is determined partly by the application and partly by the
applications. The biasing condition is the same, but the applied waveform is
type available at the power level required.
rectangular instead of sinusoidal. The efficiency is higher than class C, an im-
The circuit configuration associated with the vaive (grounded cathode,
portarrt feature for high-power transmitters. The peak driving power is the
grounded grid, neutralized, etc.) is also determined by bot}r the application and
satneas for classC, but the mean driving power is much higher. In fact, available
the valve type, but the configuration of the anode-output circuits is often depen-
grid dissipation can be the factor which limits the output in class D operation.
dent on the availability of suitable components in respect of value, voltage and
At radio freqrencies, it is not practical to derive a truly rectangular rvaveform
current rating. at the powerlevelrequiredto drive a final amplifier.It hasbeenfound in practice
From the foregoing observations, it is clear that the basis of a successful that a 'squared' waveform, consisting of fundamental plus a second or third
power-amplifier design depen& on a full appreciation of the dynamic operating harmonic in the correct proportions, is sufficiently rectangular to givo efiicicncics
conditions of valves in relation to various applications. It follows that it is neces- approaching90o/o.
sary to apply the correct interpretation to valve characteristics in terms of per-
formance capability.
A number oftextbooks [1-3] give a fairly exhaustive description and analysis 2.3 VALYE CHARACTERISTICS
of classA, B and C amplifiers, together with sub-divisions, indicating the absence Prelimiaary considaat iotts
or presence of gtid current by subscripts 1 and 2, respectively. A degtee of
For many years the electrical characteristicsof power valves were plotted in
recapitulation is given, but only in sufficient detail to point out the salient features
the form of anode current ag'ainst anode voltage (In/I/n) for constant grid
affecting high-power applications. Class D operation is also included,
voltages, I/r. It is now more usual to use 'constant current'. characteristics,in
which Z^ is plotted against Zr for constant values of 1o. While the former
2.2 DEFINITION OF CLASS A, B, C AND D OPERATION mcthod enabled a fair estimate of linear performance to be obtained from a
curuory examination, the latter is acceptedas being more suitable for the com-
Class A putation of performanceunder all oprating conditions.
A valve amplifier is operating in class A when the grid bias and alternating Additional information is supplied regarding the limiting values of voltage,
l
voltagesare such that the anode current is flowing continuously throughout every currcnt and power dissipation which can be permitted for each electrode,when
: ustng the cooling arrangemenB recommended by the valve manufacturers.
electrical cycle.
r
i:
t.
l4 AMPLIFIER AND VALVE GROUPS Ich. 2] s F p o w E RT R t o D E s
cHARAcrERIsrIco 15
Typical operating conditions are also given for the appropriate classand applica- areasmust be avoided.The latter arealimits the minimum anode voltageat peak
tion, for which the particular yalve is suitable. These typical conditions are very current to about 1'5 kV, which will give a peak anodevoltage excursionof 6'5 kV
useful at the pre-design stagewhen scanningdata for the most appropriate valve (8- 1.s).
for the application under consideration. They not only enable a'shortlist' of If the lineariry is perfect in the operating region, the porver output will be
valves to be selected quickly, but they also provide guide lines for verifying halfthe product ofthe r.m.s. valuesofr.f. voltageand current (halfthe product
subsequentcalculationsbasedon the plotted characteristics. becausethe valveis conductingfor only half of eachcycle),i.e.,
X
A b r i d g e dd o ' i o A n o d ev o l t o q el 5 k v P e o kg r i d v o l t o g e l ' 2 k V
Moximum v o l u e s A n o d ec u r r e n ' i l 5 A N e g o t i vger i d v o l l o q 7
Anode di$ipatron35kW
e5 O V
t, 9i., "/
Ftc. 2.1 Load lines on constant-current characteristics of triode valves type ,*-"Y
=6--^-]6----
I
BR 1161 (English Electric Valve Co.).
When the amplifier load appears as a Pure resistance at the valve anode, i'e',
Frc. 2.2 Interpolationof .I^ from Z"i /^ grrph.
when the anode circuit is in tune, the excursion of the anode current follows a
straight line, called the operating line or load line. This line joins the point given
biasof -80 V is requiredto allow 1'0 A of static feed,so point -Y is at thc intcr-
by the bias and anode voltages at zero signal, to the peak value of anode current
section of -80 V and 8 kV. This method will also be found advantagcottsitt
reached at peak grid voltage. These points must be settled first.
determining other V"lIn points with Sreater accuracy for subsequent analysis.
The reasons for the seLction of these limiting points initially and a method
The next step is to determine the performance obtained by operating on this
of deriving the performance from the resulting load line, can be clarificd by meanr
load lirie in terms of power output at fundamental and low-order harmonics,
of a simpli example. Consider a requirement for a linear class B amplifier, Yrjh
d.c. anode curent, power input, anode dissipation, conversion efrciency, d.c.
a power output of gO tW, from a valve having the .characteristics sh.wn in Fig.
grid current and required driving power. A practicalmethod consistsoftabulating
2.i znd, an available h.t. supply of 8 kV. The obvious non-linearity nrar cut off
a list of anode current levels, correspondingto grid voltagesat regular intervals
and in the rcgion of pe4k anode qtrrent at low anode yoltage, mc:rrrs thot these
J
A M P L I F I E RA N D v A L v E c R o u P s [Ch' 2] c H A R A c r E R I s r I c so F P o w E R T R I o D E s 17
16
current amplitudesat theseinterv'als'These amplitudes are recordedas A, B,C,
of the drive waveform, tfuoughout the conducting period of the anode-cycle' D, E, F, G, and the performanceis calculatpdfrom the following fo.rmulae.
From this list the req-uired information can be obtained by 1ry-yell-$t*
method of waveform *"tyri", such as that given in Appendix I. Similar_ly' an Anode current, d.c., meter reading:
analysis of the grid currint waveform can be obtained- Intervals of 15" are
nono"lly except where there is a cusiderable departure from sinusoidal (0.5A+B+C+D+E+F)
waveforms,"d.qrraie,
as in class D oPeration. t2
A nertod of performance computation Grid current, d.c., as for anodecurrent, from grid characteristics.
'tube Peakfundamental(r.f.) :
A simplified method of analysis can be perf-orm-edby the use--ofthe
performance comPutor' first produced by EitelMccullough Inc' [5]' A copyof + 1'+lD+ E + 0'52F)
(A + l'938+ 1.73C
ihi, is siro*n in Fii. 2.3, although it should be realized that it must be t2
"o*prrt",
Output power:
A =O '
(peakr.f. anodecurrent x peakr.f. anodevoltage)
2
Driving power: grid current, d.c. x peakr.f. grid voltage
Peaksecondharmonicr.f. (approx.):
(A+r'738+C-E-r'73F)
12
Peakthird harmonic r.f. (approx.) :
- r'+\D-28 - r'41F)
(A+ 1'+18
r2
'Ihe
harmonic formulae are suitable for tetrode and pentodesonly, so anothr
method such as that describedin Appendix I must be used for triodes.
Ttttg 2.2
h.t. voltage,d.c. 8kv 8kv 8hv Rsistrvelood line Ellip-ticol lood line Ellipticol lood tine
Anode voltage trough 1.5kV 0.5kv 2.5kV R e d u c e dl o o d i n g l n c r e o s e dl o o d i n g
Peak r.f. voltage 6.5kV /.5 KV 5.) KV - -- woveforms
Sinusoidol forcomporrson
Peak of anode current 204 t7.2A 2tA
Static anode current 1.0A 1 . 0A 1.0A Frc. 2.5 Effect offeeder mismatch on anode current waveform oftriode.
Anode current excursion t9A 16.2A 2AA
Peak fundamental r.f. currenr 9.6A 8.54A 10'1A' peakvoltage.The efiect of a slightly rounded waveform at the grid will be a slight
Anode current, d.c. 6.0A 5.38A 6.35A rounding at the peak of the anode current waveform. Referiing to Fig. 2,51 it
Power input, d.c. 48 kW 43 kW 50.8kw will be seen that a degree of rounding will make the anode *it"nt *la.tnefo.m
Power output, r.f. 31.2kW 32kW 27.8kW more nearly sinusoidal,in both the normal and more heavily loaded conditions,
Anode dissipation-neglecting harmonic
reducing distortion. In the lightly loaded condition, the greater demand on
Power 16.8kW 1l kw 23 kW drive power will cause the anode current waveform to depart fufther from a
Power conversion effciencv, d.c. to r.f. 6s% 74% 5+.7o/o sinewaveand n increaseddistortion will result.
Grid current, d.c. 0.7A 0.94A 0.67A
Peak r.f. grid voltage 350V 350V 350V Operation at reducedanodee*ctrion
Drive power required, valve only 2+5W 330W 235W
.Linear amplfiers are normally used for multi-channel operation, during
which the meanpower ourput is considerablylessthan the pea&power. rt followl
that the meaninput power under multi-signal conditions is lessthan that required
The main differencesfrom a power viewpointare the changesin anodedissipa- tor a-single r.f. signal giving full anode excursion. Advantage is often taien of
tion and efficiency, the change in power output being of a lower order. The this fact to economizein the design of the d.c. power supplyl In these cases,the
significant factor is the increase in anode loss in the heavier loaded conditions. power will not be adequate for a single-channel constantlevel signal, such as
This accounts for the fact that the valves used in r.i high-power classB amplifiers, tlTu:"ry. shift keying (f.s.k.), so the anode swing is reduced by reducing the
which must cater for mismatched conditions, so often appear to be well under- drive level-
rated in normal operation. In the lighdy loaded condition, the rcquired increase The power,output and anode .lissipation obtained at various percentagesof
in drive power could cause significant deterioration in performanie if the drive .,
the total anode excurcion is shown in Fig. 2.6 plotted from load line IiX on
stage *'as capable of supplying just sufficient power under normal conditions, Fig. 2.1. It will be noted that the anode-dissipationincreaseswith reductions
The anode current waveforms shown in Fig. 2.5 correspond to the conditions zu! anode swing, rising to maximum dissipation in the region of 80o/oof
l:"t"
given in Table 2.2. From these waveforms the relative distortion is immediately
apparent, even witiout an analysis for harmonic content. In the lighdy loaded
condition the distortion i" p*dy due to tlle dlipse and partly to running into
the anode swing for full p.e.p. output. Typically, an economically designedd.c.
powe_r_supply for 30 kW peak power, would be adequateto,supply an output of
20 kW on f.s.k. It can be senirom Fig. 2.6 that the-anodeaissiiaton is a mari-
,.l
ttre non-linear region of the'characteristics.In the heavily loaded conditioi, the mum at 20 kW, about 8/o higher than it would be at 30 kW continuous output.
22 AMPLIFIER AND VALVE GROUPS lch. 2] c H A n A c r E R r s r r c so F p o w n R T E T R o D E s 23
Adding this fact to the increased anode dissipation likely to be encountered similarly rated triodes. With power tetrodeg the higher capacitancecan be an
due to feeder mismatch, furthe4 emphasizesthe necessityof using a valve with embarrassmentwhen designing circuit componentsfor the high-frpquency end
an anode dissipation appreciably greater than that calculated for a continuous of the operating range.
signal at full excursion on a straight load line. In the caseof the specimen load It is important that the screensupply is not applied to the valve in the absence
hne, WX on Fig. 2.1, the anode dissipation of 16'8 kW calculated for a steady of the anodesupply, and interlocksmust be providedto preventthis happening,
signal output of 31.2 kW, would increaseto about 25 kW, if operated at 20 kW either when running up or during anodetrips. In making triode/tetrode decisions
with a mismatched feeder. on economicgrounds,the total costof the screensupply and associated interlock-
ing arrangementsmust be consideredin relation to the cost of the drive and
neutralizing requirements.
the loading on the driving amplifier will also vary with frequency, This is not a
I desirablefeature, so it is usual to swamp the loss variation by meansof a fixed
q resistor acrossthe input circuit. In the casereviewed, a resistor of 1000o would
o
be a rypical value, thereby limiting the total drive power variation of 2l-24 W
o
(,
-Zero drive power is not realizablein practiie, due to the lossesin the input lSoo----l
circuit, which are higher in the case of tetrodes of high input capacitance. The F-t80.-
- *reenvottogl.Okv Screenvotioqel.skv Screen vottogel.skv
average input capacitancc of this tetrode is +65 pF,-which has a reactance of I As t o t i ct o A I A s t o r i cl . o A Ia stotic i.oA
l4 ohms at 25 MHz. With a peak voltage driveiof 200 V pealq the r.m.s. current - S i n u s o i d owt c v e t o r m fso r c o m p o r i s o n
is 10 A, giving a I/^ of 1,100.Assuming a Q factor of 350 for tle input tuned Ftc. 2.8 Effect of changing screen voltage and static anode feed on anode current
circuit, the logseswill b e 4W atZSIvIHz, As the'power loss varies with frequency,
waveform of tetrode.
26 AMPLIFIER AND VALVE GROUPS
over the h.f. range.This is still considerably lower than the drive power of 93 W
required for a triode under similar conditions.
The results obtained from load line MN, Eig. 2,7(b) and KL, Fig. 2.7(a),
3,
show the greateroutput obtainable by increasingthe screenvoltage from 1'0 kV
to 1.5 kV.
Load lines MN and MP represent rypical operating conditions, bearing in Application and Typ" of Operation
mind the probable increase in anode dissipation which may be encounteredin
service. Increasingthe static anode feed from 1.0 A to 2.0 A, load lines MN and
MP, respectively,gives an increaseof 3.3o/oin output power, for a 1o/odecrease
in conversionefficiency and an increase of 8o/oin anode dissipation. However,
as linear operation is being considered, the most useful effect of increasing the
3.I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
static feed is the improvement in linearity. This is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 2.8, in which the waveform of the anode current is plotted for two static There are a number of factorsinfluencing the selectionof the most appropriate
feed conditions, compared with half sinewaves.The anode waveform at 1'0 kV circuit configurationfor a particularapplication,such as frequencyband to be
screensupply alsoindicatesthat linearity would be improved by increasingthe covered,valve type, balancedor unbalancedfeeders,etc. If the frequencyis in
static feedabove1.0A. the v.l.f., l.f. or m.f. bands,groundwavepropagationwill be usedand the trans-
mitter will operateon a singleassignedfrequencywhen in sen'ice.On the other
hand, transmissionsin the h.f. band empioy skyrvavepropagation,with the
REFERENCES
accompanyingneed for a number of frequenciesto maintain the service.An
[1] Trnve-v, F.E. RadioEngineering.
McGraw-Hill, New York (1937). exceptionto this generalrule is the use of h.f. and groundwavepropagationfor
[2] Sexoru,tw, E. K. Radio Engineering,Vol. 1. Chapman and Hall, London local broadcasttransmissions in the tropics.
(le47). For fixed-frequency transmitters, the majoriry of components can be of fixed
[3] Gnev, L. F. and Gnenelr, R. Radio Transmitters.McGraw-Hill, New York valuewith a small number of variablecomponentsof only sufficientvalue to be
(1e61).
used as trimmers. The result is that the choice of circuit configuration is often
t4] TYLER,V. J.: 'A new high-efficiency high-power amplifier'. Marconi Ret:.
21, 3rd quarter(1958). governedby the most simpie and inexpensivemethod of construction,rather
'Tube performance computor'. Eitel McCullough Inc. application bulletin than by technical elegance.At an early stage in design, development effort can
[5]
No. 5. be saved by considering adequatecomponent values to cater for any frequency
likely to be used in one band, but frequency changing is not an operational
requirement.The operatingfrequencyis nominallvset up by the manufacturers,
prior to installation. This means that the fixed-value components in any one
transmittercan be limited to thoserequired for one frequencyand the value of
variable componentscan be reduced by providing pre-set tapping points on
inductors, with an arrangement of links for fixed capacitors. The adoption of
these methods of construction enablesthe cost of a fixed-frequency transmitter
to be kept at a minimum.
For transmitters operating in the h.f. band, the type of serviceis an important
factor in determining the arrangements needed for changing frequency, and
hence the circuit configuration. For broadcastingapplications, transmissionsare
permittedonly in limited sub-bandsof the h.f. spectnrm,so only that equipment
required to coverthesesub-bandsneedbe supplied; complete frequencycoverage
is not necessary.To be effective,the times of transmissionon specificfrequencies
must be pre-programmed, to enable listeners to have the information before-
hand. Also, most broadcasting organizationsallow a'certain time for changing
frequency between programmes. While changes of frequency should be of
relatively short duration, they neednot necessarilybe rapid. Wherq rapid changes
are deemedto be necessary,by adding a degreeof mechanical complexity, they
can be madeby switchingbetweenpre-setcomponentvalues.
In the h.f. band, communication transmissions are also normal! limited to
cenain sub-bands of the spectnrm, but in two major respects the transmitter
28 A p p L r c A T r o NA N D T y p E o F o p E R A T I o N [Ch. 3] clAss I APPLtcATroNs 29
requirements differ from those of broadcasting. ('Normally' is used advisedly, surfaceareaof this portion of the inductor can ensurethat the conductor tempera-
for military organizationsare liable to use any convenientfrequency in wartime, ture rise is not great and the cooling requirdment for considerablepower iissi-
regardlessof peacetime regulations, so military transmitters should cover any pation need be little more than that provided by convection. By theie meansthe
frequenry within the h.f. spectrum.) In other respects the requirements of damping is more controllable, the equipment required for the extra cooling is
communication transmitters for civil use are the same as tlose for military negligible and advantagecan be taken of the higher conversion efficiency at the
purposes. It would be uneconomical to design different transmitters for the two upper end of the band.
types of user, and so it is usual for all communication Eansmitters to be able to
radiate on any frequency in the h.f. band.
While a degreeof frequency/time planning is employedin r.f. communications,
3.3 CLASS B APPLICATIONS
particularly on the main traffic circuits, it is quite practical, and not uncorunon,
to changefrequency at short notice. Also, a changeof route often accompaniesa The main purposeof using valvesin classB for power amplifiers is to provide
frequency change,so the new frequency required cao be in any of the sub-bands. the linear amplification necessary for most communication circuits. Linear
For civil organizations,loss of trafnc time meansloss of revenue,especiallywhen amplification is not necessary for plain c.w., single-channel f.s.k. or multi-
multi-channel operation is in progress. The time taken to change frequency channel telegraphy using t.d.m., but for nrost other types of multi-channel
should be as short as possible, and rapid frequency changing is an economic traffic it is essential.
necessity. For two major reasons,the importance of linearity cannot be overstressedin
Loss of traffic time is probably most important to military organizationswhere connection with communicetion transmitters. The first concerns multi-channel
frequency changesare more spasmodic,and delayedrnessages could be calamitous trafFc on the systembeing operated.The distorting effectsof non-linearity cause
in dealing with high-speed aircraft and military vessels.So again,rapid frequency undesirablecross-talk betrveenchannels,which can result in a complete loss of
changing is a necessityto reduce messagedelaysto a minimum. This also applies intelligenceunder poor conditions. The secondis that the resulting intermodula-
to civil aircraft. tion products increasethe bandwidth, thereby producing out-of-band radiation
From the foregoing considerations it is clear that the circuit configrration and interferencewith other communication circuits.
depends both on the operational frequency band and the type of service within Operationally it is usual for transmitters to be set up in a linear condition all
that band. the time, leaving the type of signal, number of channelsin use and the level per
Valve type and class of operation are so closely allied to circuit confguration channelin the handsof the traffic controller. With the advent of automatic tuning,
that it is convenient to classify application in terms ofclass A, B, C and D opera- combinedwith remotecontrol of transmittersand antennaselection,it is becoming
tion. more general for the entire operation of transmitters to be also in the hands of
the traffic controller. This is much more efficient operationally and enables
transmining stations to be manned by maintenancestaff only. Not only is it an
economic advantagein reducing the number of staff required, but it overcomes
3.2 CLASS A APPLICATIONS
the difficulty thlt many user organizationshavein being able to obtain an adequate
Class A amplifiers are not normally considered for high-power applications, number of trained stafr at transmitting stations,due to the sites being in relatively
owing to tJreirlow conversion eficiency, but there is a v.l.f. application where the remote areag,
final amplifier conversionefficiency is not the most important comideration. All automatic systerrs are inevitably accompaniedby complexity. The greater
It is pointed out in Chapter 1, Section 1.1, that some form of antennadamping the complexity the greater the liability of something going wrong, and greater
may be necessaryat v.l.f. to increase bandwidth, by reducing the antenna Q skill is required for rapid diagnosis and fault correction. It follows that for
factor, which can be of the order of 300. It can be shown that the damping provided successfulautomatic control, both the transmitters and the controi system itself
by the low anode impedance of a final amplifier operating in class A, can give an must be as simple and reliable as possible.In t}le present context of high-power
effective improvement in bandwidth. By using this method, the damping losses amplifien for communication purposes, the circuit configuration must be as
are dissipatedat the valve anode and oo additional cooling equipment is required. simple as possible,consistentwith the capabiliry of being controlled and tuned
This is a more simple and less costly arrangement than first generating the r.f. automaticallyover the complete h.f. band, without manual intervention.
Power more efficiently in a class B stage, subsequently dissipating it in an external With simplicity and reliability as the keynotes,the number of circuits to be
resistor requiring additional cooling arrangments. Class A stagesalso require tuned, or adjustrnentsmade for di-fferentfrequencies,must be limited to those
less driving power than class B stag$. ; , absolutely essential to obtain the required performance. In this respect it is
Although this is a desirable application, it is also very limited. The amount preferable to have the same setting-up procedure as regards operational levels,
of damping provided is not controllable and the antenna Q factor reduction allowing for sufficient power lass at the highest frequencies and obtaining rather
may be reguired only at the low-frequency erld of the band. Consequently it is more output at lower frequencies.As the circuits depend on the type of valve
more general-to use class B or class AB, andito asociate the required damping used, the relative meri6 of tetrodes and triodes for linear amplification are
with that part of the inductor used for the lower {roquenciesonly. The large consideredfirst.
30 A p p L r c A T r o NA N D T y p E o F o p E R A T r o N [Ch. 3] clAss B APPLrcATroNs 31
effect is not so obvious. The rapid change of grid current with positive grid
Choiceof oalaefor linear ampliferc voltage means that the efective input resistince of the valve changesrapidly
The relative merits of tetroilesand triodesare consideredon the assumption over the positive region ofthe driving cycle; but the input capacitatife reactance
that both rypes are available at the power level required, but for power levels remains constant at any one frequency. A change of phase occurs during each
up to about l0 kW it is probable that triodes are not available,so the use of a half cycle, causinga phasechangein the modulation envelope,and producing a
tetrode is inevitable. There are also a ferv power pentodes,but they tend to be phasedistortion which is just as detrimental to linearity as amplirude distortion.
available for lower-power applications only, and in any case the circuits are The alternative arrangement of grounded-grid connection is more suitable
similar to those required for tetrodes. for triodes as linear amplifiers in the h.f. range. Neutralizing is not normally
The method of setting up both tetrodes and triodes for linear operation in required, becausethe grounded grid behavesas an effectivescreenbetweenanode
classB, basedon typical characteristics,has been given in Chapter 2. It was not and cathode.As in the caseof tetrodes,there will be occasionswhen a small
pointed out that in r,f. applicatiom the energy-storagecapaciry of the tuned amount of neutralizing will be neededto counteractuhwanted positive feedback,
anode circuit (flywheel effect) is sufncient to permit linear operation with single but again the circuit can be made sufficiently wideband to cover the whole h.f.
valves. This is distinct from the push-pull arrangement necessaryat audio band at one setting.
frequencies. On the scoreof lineariry, the perfdrmanceof triodes in grounded-gridcon-
figurationis very good.The feedbackeffectof the circuit improvesthe inherently
Linear ampliflcation with tetrodes good linearity of the valvesthemselves.On the input side, the anode-cathode
For single valvesin grounded-cathodecircuits, stableoperationof tetrodesis load presentsa substantiallvconstantresistanceover the driving half cycle,of a
quite practicable without neutralization, due to the isolating effect of the screen much lower elTective valuethan that causedby grid current.
betweenanode and grid. Even so, with the very high porvergain of tetrodes,some The variationof grid current is swampedby the steadyload and the eiTectsof
positive feedback between anode and gri<i is usually present, due either to the amplitudeand phasedistortionare redu':edto a lorv level. The actualdistortion
residual interelectrode capacitanceor to incompleteisolation betweenthe external level dependson the ratio of peak anode current to peak grid current, which
circuits. Unless this positive feedback is cancelled by neutralization, it will not dependsboth on the type civalve and the relationberweenanodevoltagetrough
be possibleto obtain the optimum linear performance.The level of the neutralizing and peakgrid voltage.This meansrhat if rhereis more than one triodeof suitable
signal required is quite small and not at all critical. In consequencethe associated rating for the applicationbeingconsidered,the type havingthe lowergrid current
circuit can be sufficiently wideband to cover the whole h.f. spectrum, without requirement should be selected.Also, as the slope of the load line affects both
the needfor adjustment during frequency changes.It is quite practicalfor tetrodes the peakgrid current and the anodevoltagetrough, for better linearitythe slope
to be used in classB for linear amplifiers in grounded-cathodecircuits, without the of the operatingload line shouldbe steeperthan that which would giveoptimum
complication of controls for neutralization. In tiis way tetrodes can be used for efficiency.
high-power output levels with very small drive levels, without grid current. It is obvious that the r.f. power required to drive grounded-grid triodes is
much greater than that neededby the samevalves in grounded-cathodecircuits,
Linear amplifuation with triodes ii but the addition{ power is not lost. The drive power into the anode-+athodeload
On the other hand, triodes must be neutralized when usedin grounded-cathode
circuits. With push-pull configuratioru neutralizing is relatively simple, although
i is in serieswith the anode output power and so appearsas part of the amplifier
output. This accounts for the anode--cathodedrive power being known as
it is unlikely that a single setting will be adequateover the h.f. band, and adjust-
ments will be required for changes of frequenry. With single valve stages, j 'throughput', and
it is interesting to note that this arrangement was known
originally as a seriesamplifier.
additional circuits are nec$slary, adding to the complexity. Even the simplest s The high level of power required to drive grounded-grid triodes comparesvery
form of neutralrzingby meansof a split grid circuit, requires arr increasein drive { unfavourably with tetrode drive power, but in general, triodes enable a better
level. Bearing in mind the need for rapid frequency changing, neutralizing by 1 linear performance to be obtained more readily, due to the inherent feedback
t
itself means that grounded-cathode circuits are not reco(unended for triodes in ,
7 with grounded-grid circuits. Apart from the probability of a slightly inferior
the h.f. band, but there is an additional disadvantage. ,d linear performance, the main disadvantageof tetrodes is that an additional d.c.
5
To obain high-power outputs from triodes, they must be operated in the power supply must be provided for the screen, with associatedinterlocking
positive grid region, with accompanying grrd current, and grid current is a
t
't circuits. In deciding which valve type to use, all these factors must be con-
major cause of distortion in linear amplifiers. The effect of grid current on
g sidered very carefully from both technical and economicaspects.
t
linearity is twofold. First, as the grid voltage gxcursion increasespositively, the ;l
'i
rise in grid current is very rapid, particularly when the trough of anode voltage Methods of imprwing tetrode lineaity
,fi
approachesthe level of the grid voltage, i.e., when operating as efficiently as
possible within linear limits. Unless the drive power availablefrom a low-power I Probibly the most effectivemethod of obtaining better linearity from tetrodes
is to use a grounded-grid configuration.As well asgiving improved performance,
source is co.,oiderably in excessof that reqdired to drive the valve, the grid
vgltage peaks.will be depressed,witl resultant amplitude distortion. The second f,
I
{
neutralizing is quite unnecessary.However, both a high drive level and a d.c.
screensupply hasto be provideci,so it is a costly arrangement.It is not commonty
4'i
{
,fl
32 AppLrcATroNAND TypE oF opERATtoN
[Ch. 3] clAss B ApplrcArroNs
usedand is not readilyappticableasameansofchangingfromanexistinggrounded- 33
cathode circuit. the drive power required is about l0 w, so borh drive and modulator
can be solid_
There is another method wlich is simple to apply to existing amplifiers state devices' This means that the onry valve in the transmitter
and is the outout
grves q.ite an improvement in rinearity. In princi'pie, correctionls amplifi.er,and as it is operated under condition" ,".ft b"to*
roit moi.iir;';;;;;
long hte can.beexpected.Arthough the cost of the single varve
"pirJ which"
envelopeby mearx oi a resistancein the cathode circuit, is high, thisis a
l]df{::q:.lcy
t: very economical type of transmitter as regards initiar co.-stand
enectrvely rn circuit at audio frequenciesonly. It is sometimes runnini ;.p;;;r:
called an .i.p. It is also a transminer of high performanie.
improver,.
The characteristicsof a titrode suitable for being grid modulated
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.t. Capacitor C,, and Eivins a
Wpicallv 0.01 rrf carrier power of l0 kW, are shown in Fig. 3.2. In oriJr to obt;;
njoyraes 1t^oy--impedance by-passto earth for r.f. The chot. i, r{i-*i'"ar*-"ril ;-rt_h,:;;T
o,tabout l'0 H{ *.d a d.c. resistanceof l'0 o offering a high up condidons,a load line is first selectedto give a peak power of
impedanceto audio 40 k\,,f;;li*:.
rrequencr$ and a low impedance to d.c. (a choke of high d.c.
iesistancewoulc
Constont current
choroctgrislics
S c r e e nv o i t o g e =1 5 0 O v o t t s
- Plote currnt- omFEres
- --- urlo Cutrent-Omperes
I
L
I Frc. 3.1 Circuit for improving tetrode linearity.
il
ruin.linearity by causing cJrangesin gdd bias, in sympathy
with the audio
envelope). The resistancevalue of R, dJtermines the revei of Ploie voltoge-kilovolts
appried
gudly of between 20 o and 100 o, andis adjusted ror opti-,r- "or...ai"", Ftc. 3.2 Load line on constant-current characteristics of tetrode 'ralve
It,ma1 be necessaryto changethe varue of the iesistor oveithe fuiio.-"n|.. for low-
h.f. band, but the level modulation.
value $ not critical, and as only audio frequenciesare involved
simple switched
rslstors are quite satisfactory.
This circuit should not beconsidered as a cure for a[ forms amplifier.p-rl ,iri, load line, the operatingconditionsarc derermined
ofdistortion, but by usins
applied after obtaining the best performance 11 the tube performancecomputer describedirich ^pter Z,S..ti,,n Z.+.;it
l::td,."*be . .,;il;;
I h:n th,e imp.rovement possible can make all the difference
"."r""i"*f conditionsobtainedby operatingon load line nS, fig. 3.2,arc givcn .f;blc
iiilit?il in i.p. in a.i
level berng a few decibels worse and a few decibets better than I nereare severalpoints to be noted from the resultsgiven in .Iablc .1.
a specification. l.
Liyar pgwt anplifu sfor broadcasting (a) The anodecurrent does_notchangewhen moduration is appricrr,
vr thc
Double sideband transmitters witlia carrier power of about anode dissipationdecreases-:ndthe efficiency increases.H"n..
r0 kw are used grii rxr.iurati,-
for l.oc1l broadcasting in both the m.f. and h.f. bands. The h.f. is a type of efficiencymodulation.
band i, *"J ir, (D) The.carrier power is d:te,rmined by selecting point ? on
troptcal
legrors where the atrnospheric oois i.sless tlan at m.f. As groundwave such a position that about l0 kw outpuiis obtainid on
the loatl linc, at
propagation is u8d in both frequency bands. rapid frequency secrion ?,5 'f thc lratr
a requireoent. o--o -i" --- line.
I "rr"igi'g ""t ,
Modern transmittcrs for these services errproy grid modurated (c) Thc difference in grid voltage between points r and R
hieh-Dowcr on thc r.arr linc
grvesthc positivegrid excursionrequired to give a
fT the.final amplifier, which must operatein-a line* .onaition. ii.'qurl, peak of l(x),){,nrrtlrrlari.rr,
:T,:1Tpoy:t ncnceiltc (lflvc powerrequired.
output_ can be obtained without grid current, so both the r.f. drive
ry (d).with rhc grirl voltagedeterminedfrom (c) -rz0 v in
In fact, thcs power levels are determined by this casc,it wril lrc
T:-T:i:iP:3rtQw-nowL'1il6.
urc value or the- rcsiator, which is normally fitted across the input tlrc ncgativepeal._ofgrid voftagewill not cut the valve off. .I'hc rr'rrgh
to the final ::.:li"i
olm_od.ulatio.i8 not.quite
ttage in ordqtopmvide a constarrtH fprLoth e;r" *a -"d"ilr. iydJt, lt:lN'echaractr.ristics -100%.Thjs is, of course,due to the **nt ,"rrf ti,"
'.. f '.' in the low anodecurrent region.
:.
.
34 APPLICATION AND TYPE OF OPERATION lch. 3] cI,lss c AppLrcATroNs 35
Tasr,B 3.1 h.f..transmitters.Although it is usual to designthe transmitters for both purposes
(Anode voltage:8 kV; sireen voltage: 1.5 kV; grid bias: -320 V; with sufficient componentsto cover their respectivefrequency bandr, the mech-
gtatic anode current: 1.0A) anical arrangementmust be governedby the easewith whlch the frequency can
be changedin the h.f. case.
hand and adequatedrive level on the other mean that the drive level must be
40
adjusted within fine limits; a very undesirable condition. Fcrtunately, this can 30
be overcome by the self-compensatingaction of automatic grid bias, ob^.ained ?o
0 to
from the voltage set up acros{ta resistor by the grid current. It follows that the 50
compensation will be proportional to the level of bias produced automatically, t.o
but there must be some steady d.c. bias to prevent excessiveanode dissipation o
in the event of drive failure.
(e) When calculating the drive power required by means of the tube perfor-
mance calculator, the value obtained is that required for the valve alone. To
obtain the total drive power required, the power dissipated in the grid resistor Plot! volfogr - kilovolt.
and bias circuit must be added, together with the grid circuit losses,which can
Ftc' 3.3 Loadlines on constant-current"characteristics
of tetrode valve for anode
be appreciablewith classO becauseofthe high level ofr.f. grid voltage.Allowance
must also be made for valves with characteristics which differ from the typical
characteristics published. Bearing in mind these additional requirements, it is
not unreasonable to allow a drive power of three times that required by the valve by feeder impedancechangesduring programmesdo not affect the performance
itself in order to avoid the embarra,ssmentof being short of drive later. as much as they do in class B amplifien, even if the load line ii somewhat
(, Limits are specified for maximum screen voltage and dissipation, so elliptical.
allowance must be made for the audio modulating voltage and screen dissipation For load lne MO, the d.c. anode voltage is higher than might be expected
_
^t l00o/o modulation. The peak of audio voltage on the screenwill be about 80o/o from condition (i), but it is within the valvi limitsld has beenlhosen deliber-
qf the d.c. voltage, which means an increased screen dissipation of about 30o/o ately. The characteristicsare for the same valve as used for the class B tetrode
above that calculatedfor tle carrier condition (0'8 x 0.70f'z :32%. calculations,with the screenvoltage reduced to 750 v. not becauseit is the onlv
(g) The total r.f. plus d.c. voltage on the valfe anode is another limiting factor, valve available,but to demonstratJthe versatilirv of modern varves.This feature
which meansthat the d.c. voltage must not b{too high. This is an advantagein is particularly useful during experimental tr"rrr-itt., work, for it permits the
reducing anode circuit losses,for the r.f. losseirincreaseas the square of the r.f. samevalvesto be used for severalapplications,thereby reducing the ixpenditure
voltage increase. on expensivevalves.
(l) In selectingthe bias voltage for the carrier condition, i.e., the lower-end Opcrating on load line MO, calculation by means of the tube performance
ofthe load line, considerationmust be given to the angular portion of the positive computor givesa carrier power output of 103.5kW at 83.7o/oconversionefficiency.
grid excursion during which anode current will flow. For a given peak anode rn order to avoid duplication, the full performancefigures are given
in Section
current the yalve conversi'on cftciency incrsa$es as .the angle of current flow is r.o, where they are compared with those obtained for classD opernti.n, for the
but the poweroxtput falls. Therefore, within t}le capabilitie of any samevalve, on load line l/O.
.pduced,
38 AppLrcATroN AND TypE oF opERATroN fch. 3] clAss D AppLrcATroNs 39
3.5 CLASS D APPLICATIONS action of the harmoniccircuit, from a funda:nentalangularpositionof 60"-120.
The prineiple oJ classD olnation, the phaseofthe harmonic energy is reversedand transferredinto the fundamental
circuit. At 120othe phaseis againreversedand for the remainderof th3 conductins
Class D is the name given to class C operation with waveforms that are more
cycle the harmoniccircuit again receivesenergy from the valve.This action i!
rectangular than sinusoidal, as a means of obtaining improved conversion
shown clearly in Fig. 3.5, the two types of cross-hatchingrepresentingthe change
efficiency. The highest efficiency is obtained by the use of truly rectangular
of phase between the fundamental and harmonic energies.This diagram alio
waveforms, but the r.f. voltagesrequired by high-power amplifiers are not readily
shows a side-effectof operating the valve with a comple.xrvaveform,,"hich is to
available in rectangular form. Worthwhile improvements can be obtained with
increase the angle of current flow, relative to using a sinewave under similar
3rd hormonic
conditions.In the diagram the increaseis from 120-'to 1400,which is rypical.
Fundomenfo I Operationalfrequencyband
R .E o u t p u t
Fundomentol The additionofthe third harmonicresonatorsdoesadd a degreeofcomprication
R F. inpul
to the tuning procedure, which although relativelv simple makes friquency
changing more difflcult. As operatiohal changesof frequency are necesJaryin
the h.f. band, classD is not recomrrrended for h.f. There is alsothe difficulw of
designingthe third harmoniccircuits for high power at frequencies.pprou"hing
90 !IHz, for use at the upper end of the h.f. band (rvith a total anodetunin[
Frc. 3.4 Basiccircuit arrangementfor classD operation, capacitance of 100 pF, the r.m.s. circulating current is likely to be in .*.... of
100A at the upper end of the h.f. band).
waveforms consistingof fundamentaland third harmonic componentsin the It would be exceptionalto requireanodemodulationin the v.l.f. and l.f. bands,
right proportion and in the correct phase relationship. so the use of classD is limited to the m.f. band. In this band it is -high
oarticularlv
The method of deriving the input waveform from the fundamentai and of useful as a meansof savingpower consumption,becauseof the very poru.i
deriving the fundamental output from the resultant complex waveform at the often used.
anode, can best be describedby referenceto the simplified circuit diagram shown
Method of cahtlating dassD performance
in Fig. 3.4.
A third harmonic resonatorZrC2 is inserted as part ofthe input tuned circuit Owing to the complex waveform, the 15' intervals used for calculating the
I,C,, resulting in a waveform at the tetrode grid of fundamentalplus third oPeratingconditionsby meansof the tube performancecalculatorareinadequate
to obtain sufficient accuracy. It is necessaryto obtain levels of anode current
Fundomentol power and anode voltage from the load line at intervals of 10" of the drive waveform.
output clrcuit A waveform with a substantiallyflat top is obtained by adding a third harmonic
_/-in
kW, 3rd hormonic circuil component at Xo/o of the fundamental level, in phase opposition at the funda-
to outpui circuii
3 mental peak. The voltage at each 10oof the positive grid excursion is calculated
on the basist}lat the two peaksof the combined waveform are of the correct value
kVA, volve to 3rd
: hoimoniccircuit to drive the anodealong the full extent ofthe load line. These voltagesare used
]o to determine the instantaneouslevels of anode current and anode voltage at l0o
o
Volve power outpui intervals along the load line. By subtracting the instantaneousvoltagesfrom the
d.c. voltage the anode voitage excursions are obtained, correspo;ding to the
instantaneousvaluesof anode current. Assuming that the instantaneou; values
Frc. 3.5 Energy transfer in clrs D operation. of anode current 1 and anode voltaqe excursion i at 10ointervals from 90oto 0o
are indicated by the suffi.xesA to J, rkpectively, the performancecan be calculated
harmonic, in the correct relative phase. Both fr.*o*t circuits are similarly, from the following formulae:
but lightly, loadedby tJretetrode input impedanle, so the amplitude relationship
is substantially as required. It follows that the *rode current and anode voltage 0.51A+
Is+Ic+.'.+I,
Anode current d.c. :
have waveformssimilar to those at the valve inolt. 18
The anode tuned circuit LrCs also incluiis a third harmonic resonator
LaCa, the purpose of which is io iestore Oe sllusoiad waveform of the funda] lh9 d.c. values of grid current and screen current are obtained similarly from
their instantaneougvalues at 10" intervals.
mental at the output of the anode circuit. This bccurs in the following manner.
The initial portion of anode power output feeils power into the fuidamental 0'5IoxV + IBVB+ IcVc+ .., + ItVl
circuit,' and wattless energy into the third halmonic circuit. By the resonant Output power, r.m.s. :
l8
40 AppLrcATroN AND TypE oF opERArroN [Ch. 3l COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASS D AND C 4l
The r.m.s. power of drive required by the valve only must be calculatedin the
same manner as that used for qutput power, but using the instantaneousvalues
of grid current and voltage. T--
l Bi o s
l-soov
3.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASS D AND CLASS C-1OO KW t_
OUTPUT 9
A power output level of 100 kW carrier has been chosenas an exampleof class
D operation, in order to give a direct comparison with classC on the same valve
and under similar conditions, as in the example given in Section 3.4.
Referring again to Fig. 3.3, load line NO representsthe operating line for
class D, to give approximately the output power as class C on load lirre MO.
Details ofthe carrier perforrnanceofthe two classesofoperation on their respective
load lines are given in Table 3,2. Significant differencesare atsogiven for 100f1
modulation.
Anode
cutrent
TanrE3.2
ClassC ClassD
700% 1009/o
Valverype4C X 3500 Carrier Modulation Carrier IVlodulation
for m.f. broadcasting. The constant current characteristicsof such a valve are
allowed,both the scrcenand controlgrids are near their limits. This is typic:rl,,f
classD operation.
'.
'I'hc For 260 kW output from the samevalvein classC would requirean additiorul
showq in Fig. 3.7, with the preferred load line for this purpm, Pp. cal-
culated performance obtainable when operating on load line Pp is givcn in
Table 3.3, comparedwith the maximum permissibleratings of the valvc.
d.c. input of 27 kW on carrier.To this must be addedthe extra power into thc
modulator and thc a.c. nrainsto d.c. conversionefficiencv.This meansthat orl I
44 APPLICATION AND TYPE OF OPERATION
Tanrr 3.3
ClassD
Maximum 100%
Tetrode type VCP 2002 ratings Carrier Modulation Circuit Configurationand Component
Anode voltage, d.c. ll.5 kv 1 1 . 5k v Selection
Screengrid voltage, d.c. 1.2kV 0.8kV
Control grid voltage d.c. -800 v -725y
Grid voltage excursion 900v
Mean cathodecurrent, d.c. 60 A 29.6A
Anode dissipation 180kw 42kw 63 kW 4.1 PUSH-PULL AND SINGLE-SIDED CIRCUITS
Screengrid dissipation 2.7kW 1.82kW 2.37kW
Before the advent of high-power tetrodes, the push-pull or balanced circuit
(approx.)
Control grid dissipation was almost universaily employed for triodes in final amplifier stages.The main
l.2kw
Drive power, valve only reason for this was that the balanced circuit formeci a simple and convenient
1.08kw
Anode current. d.c. meansof neutralizing the effect of the internal anode-grid capacitance,by cross-
26.3L
Anode power input, d.c. connecting neutralizing capacitorsfrom the anodeof each side to the grid of the
303kw
Power output, r.f. other side. There were a number of other reasons.
261klv
Conversion efrciency (a) The anode-earth capacitanceof the two valves was in series, so that it
86%
Angular width of current pulse was possible to tune to higher frequencies,with suftciently large inductors for
145.
magnetic coupling between the anodeand output circuits.
(6) The use of magnetic coupling made it possibleto use the sameanode and
broadcast transmission,-with an average modulation depth of about 30o/o,the output cirqrit for either balancedor unbalancedfeeders. Fcr balanced feeders
saving in a.c. mains power obtained by operating the final r.f. amplifier in clasgD the output capacitor and inductor were connected in parallel, while for un-
instead of class C, is about 40 kW/h for a 250 kW carrier. As the high-power balancedor coaxialfeedersthey were connectedin series.
output levels proposedare basedon 250 kW units, the saving in mains power by (c) Even with the biggest triodes availablethere were instanceswhere power
using high-efficiency class D amplifiers in the final stages is proportional to output was required in excessofthat obtainable from a single valve. Two valves
the number of 250 kW units. The approximate saving in mains power by the in push-pull supplied double the power and it was not unknown for the power
use of classD for these high-power transmieers will be of the order of 40 kW/h to be.further intreased by using valvesin parallel on each side of the push-putl
{;
i
at 250 kW, 80 kW at 500 kW, 120kW at 750 kW, 160 kW at 1000kW and 240 kW crrcurt.
at 1500kw. (d) With a balancedcircuit, the physical centre-point of the anode inductor
is at a very low r.f. potential to eanh. In consequence,the d.c. supply could be
il
r1
In terms of daily running costs,it can be seenthat the real advantageof clasgD
operation is more apparent at very high power. fed in at this centre-point, with very little fundamental potential acrossthe h.t.
I choke.
I There were, of course, .lisadvantages,such as the tendency to self-oscillation
ril at frequencies above the operating band, when the neutralizing arms become
inductive. This type of oscillation could be particularly prevaleni at the second
harmonic frequenry, due to the fact that the pulsesof anode current through the
d.c. feed choke were at twice the fundamental frequency.
; With modern high-power tetrodes, internal anode-grid capacitanceis so low
that even if neutralizing is required, it can be accomplished across individual
valves, by meansof a very low external capacitance,combined with a wideband
transfomer for changing phase. The elimination of the need for highJevel
neutralizing with tetrodes is undoubtedly a major reason for the tendency of
designersto depart from push-pull in favour of single-sidedcircuits.
Triodes can also be operated without neutralizing, provided that they are
gtounded-grid circuits, so againpush-pull hasgiven way to the greatersimplicity
46 CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION lch. 4] STNGLE-srDE
ADNoDE-ourpur crRcurrs 47
of unbalanced circuits. However, the high drive level required by triodes in For an amplifier in the h.f. band, the main disadvantageis that three controls
grounded-grid circuits must !e taken into account in deciding which type of must be operatedfor eachfrequencychange.Also, the indication ofogtput circuit
circuit to use. resonanceis not sufficiently simple for operational frequency changes.Output-
The type of input required by the antenna must also be considered.In the circuit tuning can only be set to predetermined positions, making the whole
v.l.f. and l.f. bands, the antennasare monopolesrequiring unbalanced or con- circuit unsuitable for completely automatic tuning systems
centric feeders.Consequently,single-sidedcircuits are preferred for applications
in these bands.
In the m.f. band, monopole antennasare also more general, though there are
applications where balanced feeders are required, for example in split-mast
radiators. In the h.f. band, dipole antennaswith balancedinputs are most usual.
Where single-sided output circuits are usedfor coupling into b:rlancedfeeders 50O leeder
oulput
it is quite a problem to obtain a well-balancedoutput over a complete frequency
band. If the output is not balanced, the twin-wire feeder behaves as a single Q, Cablocking
cop0crt0rs
radiator for the unbalancedcomponent.The effect is not only a loss of power in
the antenna, but also undesirableradiation which can be detrimental to the radi- 9lgl' H.r.o.c.
ation pattern, particularly in the vicinity of the antenna.
For communication transmitters with power outputs of 30 kW or less, the Frc. 4.1 Tuned-anodetuned-outputcircuitswith magneticcouplingfor grounded-
problem has beensolvedby the use ofwideband unbalanced-to-balanced feeder grid triode.
transformers. These transformers have ferrite cores, with a substantially flat
responseover the h.f. band, and are capableof carrying 40 kW r.f. power. Wide-
The circuit shown in Fig. 4.2 is a combinationof I/ and Z circuits, with a
band baluns with similar characteristics,but capableof carrying rather more porver common shunt elementC, ; normally called a IIL circuit. With only two controls
are also available. Either of these devicesenablescoaxial feeder switching, with for tuning and loading, it is very simple to operate and particularly suitable for
obvious advantagesover balancedfeederswitching, to be used for the operational automatic tuning. The whole h.f. band can be coveredin a number of ranges,by
antenna changesrequired in the h.f. band. means of tapping points on tle tuning and loading inductors I, and 12. In
For h.f. applicatioru up to 30 kW output, singie-sided circuits are preferred addition, the required inductance value of Z1 is greater in the caseof Fig. 4.2
on all counts, with either grounded-cathodetetrodes or grounded-grid triodes.
For broadcastingapplicationsin the h.f. and m.f. bands,with antennasrequiring
a balanced input and power levels of the order of 10G-250kW, wideband trans-
formers and baluns are not available for unbalance-to-balanceconversion. For
this purpose push-pull anode-output circuits are recorlmended. It means that
balanced feeder sr*'itchingis necessaryfor antennachanging. But the problem is
less difficult than in the communications case. since the number of antenna
changes required is usually less, and more time can be allorved for frequency
and antenna changng. For theseapplications,tetrode valvesin grounded-cathode
circuits are preferred to triodes h grounded-grid becauseof the lower driving
Power necessary. =
Frc.4.2 BasicI/Z circuit for grounded-grid triode.
4.2 SINGLE-SIDED ANODE-OUTPUT CIRCUITS IN THE H.F.
BAND
for the same frequency, making it more practical to constmct the low value of
The two most usual forms of single-sidedanode-output circuits are shown in inductancerequired for the upper frequencies.
Figs. 4.1 and,4.2. Both contain triodes in a grounded-grid arrangement, but the An alternative arrangement of. r IIL circuit is obtained by eliminating the
points raised in this section are just as applicapleto grounded-cathode tetrodes. variable capacitorCs, and making inductor Z, variable for anode tuning. While
i
The combination of a shunt-tuned anodecircirit .L, C1 and a series-tunedoutptrt
circuit.LrC2 (Fig. 4.1), has the advantagethatithe h.t., d.c- supply is fed into a
point efiectively at zero r.f. potential, with the output circuit and feedersisolated
this has some technical advantages,variable inductors for high power are not
only di$cult to constnrct but are more liable to give trouble in service and are
quite expensive.
'l
It
from this supply. Loading control can be either by adjusting the mutual coupling It is for this reason that the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 4.2 is most
generally adopted for h.f. power amplifiers and why it is used to demonstratea
between Z1 and tr2, or by adjusting the feeder inductor 23, leaving the mutual
methodof calculatingthe componentvaluesfor single-sidedcircuits.
l
coupling betlfeen L1 and L, in a fixed position.
5 i
tt
r
48 CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION lch. 4l M E T H o Do F C A L C U L A T I NcGo M P o N E N TV A L U E S 49
(5) v.s.w.r. The likely standing wave ratioto be encounteredin service,or the
4.3 A METHOD OF CALCULATING COMPONENT VALUES FOR limits giveo in a specification,in order to determine the reactivepomponent X"
I/Z CIRCUITS of the correspondingfeeder impedance.
(6) The frequency range to be covered.
Information requhedfor caktlations
As explained in Section 4.2,nL circuits consist of II and L circuits in series (1) Detetmiaationof R1
(Fig. a.3(a)). For calculation purposes this is further divided into a series of PVAx PVA
Rr:
three Z circuits (Fig, a.3(D)).By this means it can be seen that the calculations 1/2x{2Woutput
consist of a number of conversionsfrom resistanceand reactancecomponents in
shunt to equivalentseriescomponents,or vice versa. Thus, for a 31 kW output, if the d.c. voltageis 8000,the anodeswing PVA will
be about 6000 V for a linear amplifier. Then
R,
Incidentally, t/(n-1) is the Q factor of the circuit, and in subsequentcal- 4.83Q 49'32Q
fl1
culationsn1,n2, h1 refer to difierent parts of the circuit.
If monographsare not readily availablefor reactanceinductance, or reactance- rCtn: rrl(n, - 1) -52.7+Q -161'77Q
capacitanceconversion, the following formulae might prove useful, particularly ;r/,, : -r6"n s2.7+Q 161.77Q
as they contain units appropriate to the application R2 (selected) 170Q 170Q
X. (or xr) : 6.283.L (pH)./ (MHz) R,
f l -t : : 35.2 J.*J
fl
15'93'104
xt ('or tc):
c (PF)./(MH4 \/ (n2- 1) 5'U5 1.56
xlrr:rr41or-t, 28.26Q 76.94A
Example of thc calculationsrcquired to obtaia componentualuesfor a 30 hW amplifier r/r (total): xlr, + xl, 81.00Q 238.7rQ
flppling pottet into a 50 Q feedet, ztia a IIL circtit from 3 MHz to 30 MHi D
It is assumedthat a d.c., h.t. supply of 8 kV is contemplated,and as linear xc.,: -
-29'06 Q - 1 0 8Q
t/("2 1)
operation is typical for this application, the peak anode swing is taken as 6 kV.
It is also assumedthat the correct load line hasbeenselectedto give 31 kw output tF s0Q 50Q
at the valve anode, as described in Chapter 2, Section 2.4. Component vatues
R,
for 30 MHz and 3.0 MHz are given in Table 4.1, for the brea&.dorvniircuit shown ll:--g J'+ J.t
in Fig. 4.3(D). fF
An examination of the results in Table 4.1 indicates the large range of capaci- t/(q-r) 1.53 1.53
tance and inductance required to cover the 10 to 1 frequency rangeof 3-30 MHz.
consequendy, it is not unusual for high-power communication transmitters to R2
XC..: -111.110 -111.11Q
hays a fimilgd coverageof 4.-n.5MHz. Apart from the advantageof lower range t/(n' - l)
of component values,there are operational ressonsfor this limitation.
Transmissions between 3 MHz and 4 MHz are for short-range links, with low , :{92-I9e
xc, rtotar)
xcr, + xcD
-23.06Q -54'8 ()
propagation attenuation, so it is usual for operating organizations to use lower
Power on these frequencies. xlr: rr{(n, - l) 76.5Q 76.st)
Between 27-5 M}Jz and 30 MHz there are only two very narrow bands for
fixed communication services and they are of little value for long-range links Allowing 2 to 1 v.s.w.r.on C2,12
except at very limited periods of the sunspot clcle.
XC, -20 to -26 {) -43 k) -70(l
Frequenqt ranges r/r 36-120Q 3 6. l 2 ( )o
100pF 3{X)pl,'
While it is obviously an operational advantagefor fiequency changing to have ll 4'3 p"H 1 2 7* l l
thc smallest number of ranges po*sible, as well as the limited coveraeeon each (." 265-205pF 124{)76{)pl;
range imposed by'the capacitancerange, there is a limit due to r.f. iirculating ,
curre,nt.
.l
1'9-6'4pH 1 9 6 . 1/ . l l
52 CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION lch. +) F r x E Dc A P A c t r o R sI N P A R A L L E L 53
The circulating current is determined by the anode impedanceof the resistive valve. With this arrangement,an early check should be made that there are no
and reactive series components,..whichare 4'83 Q and 52'74 O, respectively,at similar resonanceswithin the band.
30 MHz (Table 4.1). With a peakr.f. voltageof 6 kV, the r.m.s. circulating current The other solution is to connect the grid directly to ground, providing the
at this frequency is: lowest possibleimpedancepath at all frequencies,without the possibility of this
type of resonanceoccurring. This solution does add a degree of complexiry to
6000
uuA r'm's' the d.c. power supplies, but it is known scienceand by far the easier problem
7'' {$WTnn: to solve.
Returning again to Fig. 4.2, consider the reasonsfor requiring capacitors in
The use of the full three to one capacitancerange of Cr" (100-300 pF) would
parallel for Co and the lilely resonanteffect of so doing. At low frequenciesthe
make it possibleto tune from 30 MHz to (301.\/3)NIHz, i.e., 17'3 MHz. As the
reactanceshould be low, other*'isethe inductanceof I' must be increasedand
reactanceis the dominating factor in the impedance, the impedance would fall
by {3 at 17.3 MHz, and the circulating current would increaseby y'3 to 138 A
r.m.s. Also, the loss increase being proportional to the current increase, the
losseswould increaseby three times.
This means that the size of inductor material would have to be increasedto :
o
carry a circulating current which will not be present elsewherein the band, or
the upper frequency ranges must have a limited frequency coverage.In practice
the number of ranges is a compromise between operational simpiicit,v, current-
carrying capacity and manufacturing costs.
L
I
O 04pH
4.+ FIXED CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
Referring to blockhg capacitorsC, and Ca, Fig. 4.2, there are reasonswhy it :
might appearto be advantageousto use two or more in parallel insteadof a single o
unit, but this is not a good principle for transmitters covering a 10 to 1 frequency I
range.
Consider capacitor Cr, the dual purpose of which is to isolate t}le d.c. grid
o.0or6;
supply from ground and at the sametime to provide a very low impedancepath
to r.f. To reduce further the r.f. impedance and to spread the anode circulating F r e q u e nicnyM H z
current round the valves, the grid connectionsshould be via a surrounding ring. FIc. 4.4 Probableresonance of capacitorsin parallel,
The most suitable capacitor for this purpose is formed by isolating the ring from
the ground plane with a ttrin film of iruulating material' Even with a film
having a high dielectric constant and high breakdown voltage, the capacitance the r.f. voltage acrossthe capacitor must be added to the d.c. voltage for rating
achievable is often too small to provide a sufficiently low r.f. impedance path at purposes. At high frequencies capacitor Ca has to carry the total r.f. current
the low-frequency end ofthe band. circulating in the 11 section. Replacing Ca by two capacitorsin parallel is likely
One solution is to replace the thin film with a number of fixed capacitors to causean in-band resonance,resulting in a circulating current within the loop,
distributed round the ring, but the value of ttre individual capacitors must be limited only by the loop losses,This current can be considerably greater than
selected with care. When capacitors are connected in parallel there is an inevitable that in a single capacitor of the same value @rrying the maximum circulating
inductance both in tlre inter-connecting leads and in the capacitors themselves. current of the Z section. Not infrequently such loop resonanceswill cause the
At some frequency this inductance will resonate with the caPacitance of the capacitorsto explode, combined with a short circuit. The d.c. voltage will be
individual units in seri6. applied to C2, and a flashoverin the capacitoris not improbable.
Experience indicates that typical loop inducpnces are between 0'04 pH and Two solutions are possible. First, every effort should be made to obtain a
0'08 pH, and these values have been used in Fig. 4.4 to show likely resonant single capacitor of adequatecurrent rating, even if the capacitanceis such that a
frequencies. As an example, supposethat two capacitors of 0'01 pF are used to, slight increasein I, is required.
obtain a suftciently low reactance at 3 MHz. From Fig. 4.4 it can be seen that The "othersolution is to connect the d.c. blocking capacitor in series with the
rrnnance is probable in the region of 8-12 MHz; when the grid-to-ground r.f- feeder inductor 12 and to provide a loading capacitor C2 of adequate voltage
impedances will be far too high for satisfactory operation. rating to withstand the d,c. plus r.f. voltages.
There are two practical solutions to the problem. First, a multiplicity of . These two examplesshould serveto show that paralleled capacitorsshould not
capacitorS,eachof lessthan 0'001 pF (seeFig. 4.4), can be distributed round the be used in high-power applicationswhere a rangeof frequenciesis to be covered.