1.

Write about the following

i. Physical Address
Think of the physical address as the 48-bit MAC address that manufacturers encode
in their network interface cards (NICs). This type of address is unique, referred to as
the Ethernet or hardware address, and cannot be changed but can be spoofed. The
MAC or Ethernet address is associated with Layer 2 (data Link) of the OSI Model.
ii. Logical Address
The logical address is a 32-bit IP address that is not embedded in the network card but
it is assigned to it for the purpose of routing between networks. This type of address
operates at Layer 3 (network) of the OSI Model.
iii. Port address
A port number is a way to identify a specific process to which an Internet or other
network message is to be forwarded when it arrives at a server. For the Transmission
Control Protocol and the User Datagram Protocol, a port number is a 16-bit integer
that is put in the header appended to a message unit.

2. Briefly explain the ATM Architecture in detail

ATM Protocol Architecture

3 a) An 8 bit type with binary value 1010111 is to be encoded using an even-parity.

Hamming code. What is binary value after encoding?
1010111- Even Parity is 1

b. What is HDLC? Explain.

HDLC defines three types of frames:
1. Information frames (I-frame)
2. Supervisory frame (S-frame)
3. Unnumbered frame (U-frame)
1. Information frames
I-frames carry user's data and control information about user's data.
I-frame carries user data in the information field.
 The I-frame format is shown in diagram.

2. Supervisory frame
S-frame carries control information, primarily data link layer flow and error controls.
It does not contain information field.
The format of S-frame is shown in diagram.

3. Unnumbered frame
U-frames are reserved for system management and information carried by them is used for
managing the link
U-frames are used to exchange session management and control information between the two
connected devices.
Information field in U-frame does not carry user information rather, it carries system
management information.
The frame format of U-frame is shown in diagram.
U-frame is identified by the presence of 11 in the first and second bit position in control field.
These frames do not contain N(S) or N(R) in control field.
4 Define random access and list three protocols in this category
slotted ALOHA
ALOHA
CSMA and CSMA/CD

time is divided into equal size slots (= pkt trans. time)

node with new arriving pkt: transmit at beginning of next slot
if collision: retransmit pkt in future slots with probability p, until successful.
Slotted Aloha

Pure (unslotted) ALOHA

unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
pkt needs transmission:
send without awaiting for beginning of slot
collision probability increases:
pkt sent at t0 collide with other pkts sent in [t0-1, t0+1]

CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access

CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short time
colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
persistent or non-persistent retransmission
collision detection:
easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
difficult in wireless LANs: receiver shut off while
transmitting
human analogy: the polite conversationalist
5a. Explain the multicast routing in detail
Multicast Routing When a router receives a multicast packet, the situation is different
from when it receives a unicast packet. A multicast packet may have destinations in more than
one network. Forwarding of a single packet to members of a group requires a shortest path tree.
If we have n groups, we may need n shortest path trees. We can imagine the complexity of
multicast routing. Two approaches have been used to solve the problem: source-based trees and
group-shared trees.
Optimal Routing: Shortest Path Trees
The process of optimal interdomain routing eventually results in the finding of the
shortest path tree. The root of the tree is the source, and the leaves are the potential des tinations.
The path from the root to each destination is the shortest path. However, the number of trees and
the formation of the trees in unicast and multicast routing are dif ferent. Let us discuss each
separately.
Source-Based Tree. In the source-based tree approach, each router needs to have one shortest
path tree for each group. The shortest path tree for a group defines the next hop for each network
that has loyal member(s) for that group.
Group-Shared Tree. In the group-shared tree approach, instead of each router
having m shortest path trees, only one designated router, called the center core, or
rendezvous router, takes the responsibility of distributing multicast traffic. The core
has m shortest path trees in its routing table. The rest of the routers in the domain have
none. If a router receives a multicast packet, it encapsulates the packet in a unicast
packet and sends it to the core router.

b) What is traffic shaping explain in detail

Traffic shaping is a mechanism to control the amount and the rate of the traffic sent to the
network.
Two techniques can shape traffic: leaky bucket and token bucket.
Leaky Bucket If a bucket has a small hole at the bottom, the water leaks from the bucket at a
constant rate as long as there is water in the bucket. The rate at which the water leaks does not
depend on the rate at which the water is input to the bucket unless the bucket is empty. The input
rate can vary, but the output rate remains constant. Similarly, in networking, a technique called
leaky bucket can smooth out bursty traffic. Bursty chunks are stored in the bucket and sent out at
an average rate
Token Bucket: The leaky bucket is very restrictive. It does not credit an idle host. For example, if
a host is not sending for a while, its bucket becomes empty. Now if the host has bursty
data, the leaky bucket allows only an average rate. The time when the host was idle is
not taken into account. On the other hand, the token bucket algorithm allows idle
hosts to accumulate credit for the future in the form of tokens. For each tick of the
clock, the system sends n tokens to the bucket. The system removes one token for
every cell (or byte) of data sent. For example, if n is 100 and the host is idle for 100 ticks,
the bucket collects 10,000 tokens. Now the host can consume all these tokens in one
tick with 10,000 cells, or the host takes 1000 ticks with 10 cells per tick. In other
words, the host can send busty data as long as the bucket is not empty.

6 a. Explain the link state routing

Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of distance vector routing. In
link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire topology of the domainthe list of
nodes and links, how they are connected including the type, cost (metric), and
condition of the links (up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's algorithm to build a
routing table.

The figure shows a simple domain with five nodes. Each node uses the same topology
to create a routing table, but the routing table for each node is unique because the calculations are
based on different interpretations of the topology. This is analogous to a city
map. While each person may have the same map, each needs to take a different route to
reach her specific destination.
b) How do you control congestion in virtual subnets? Explain.
These are closed-loop based designed for virtual circuits subnets, which are connection oriented
during connection set up, something can be done to help congestion control
The basic principle is obvious: When setting up a virtual circuit, make sure that congestion can
beavoided
Admission control: Once congestion has been signaled,no more new virtual circuits can be set
up until the problemhas gone away. This is crude but simple and easy to do.

Select alternative routes to (a) (b) avoid part of the network that is overloaded, i.e. temporarily
rebuild your view of network e.g. Normally, when router A sets a connection to B, it would pass
through one of the two congested routers, as this would result in aminimum-hop route (4 and 5
hops respectively). To avoid congestion, a temporary subnet is redrawn by eliminating congested
outers.
A virtual circuit can then be established to avoid congestion Negotiate quality of connection in
advance, so that network provider can reserve buffers and other resources, guaranteed to be
there.

7 a. Give the transport service primitives in detail

7b.Explain the TCP sliding window management

Window management in TCP decouples the issues of acknowledgement of the correct

receipt of segments and receiver buffer allocation.

For example, suppose the receiver has a 4096-byte buffer, as shown in Fig. below. If the
sender transmits a 2048-byte segment that is correctly received, the receiver will
acknowledge the segment. However, since it now has only 2048 bytes of buffer space
(until the application removes some data from the buffer), it will advertise a window of
2048 starting at the next byte expected.
 Now the sender transmits another 2048 bytes, which are acknowledged, but the
advertised window is of size 0. The sender must stop until the application process on the
receiving host has removed some data from the buffer, at which time TCP can advertise a
larger window and more data can be sent.

When the window is 0, the sender may not normally send segments, with two exceptions.
First, urgent data may be sent, for example, to allow the user to kill the process running
on the remote machine. Second, the sender may send a 1-byte segment to force the
receiver to reannounce the next byte expected and the window size. This packet is called
a window probe.

The TCP standard explicitly provides this option to prevent deadlock if a window update
ever gets lost.

Senders are not required to transmit data as soon as they come in from the application.

Neither are receivers required to send acknowledgements as soon as possible. For

example, in Fig. above, when the first 2 KB of data came in, TCP, knowing that it had a
4-KB window, would have been completely correct in just buffering the data until
another 2 KB came in, to be able to transmit a segment with a 4-KB payload. This
freedom can be used to improve performance.

Consider a connection to a remote terminal, for example using SSH or telnet, that reacts
on every keystroke. In the worst case, whenever a character arrives at the sending TCP
entity, TCP creates a 21-byte TCP segment, which it gives to IP to send as a 41-byte IP
datagram.
 At the receiving side, TCP immediately sends a 40-byte acknowledgement (20 bytes of
TCP header and 20 bytes of IP header).

Later, when the remote terminal has read the byte, TCP sends a window update, moving
the window 1 byte to the right. This packet is also 40 bytes. Finally, when the remote
terminal has processed the character, it echoes the character for local display using a 41-
byte packet.

In all, 162 bytes of bandwidth are used and four segments are sent for each character
typed. When bandwidth is scarce, this method of doing business is not desirable.

8 a. What are the various fields in the TCP segment header and explain them

8b. Discuss the crash recovery in TCP

9a. Give the architecture and services of E-mail.

E-mail system normally consists of two sub systems

1. the user agents

2. the message transfer agents

The user agents allow people to read and send e-mails. The message transfer agents move the
messages from source to destination. The user agents are local programs that provide a command
based, menu-based, or graphical method for interacting with e-mail system. The message transfer
agents are daemons, which are processes that run in background. Their job is to move datagram
e-mail through system.

A key idea in e-mail system is the distinction between the envelope and its contents. The
envelope encapsulates the message. It contains all the information needed for transporting the
message like destinations address, priority, and security level, all of which are distinct from the
message itself.

E-mail systems support five basic functions. These basic functions are:

1. Composition:

It refers to the process of creating messages and answers. Any text editor can be used for the
body of the message, the system itself can provide assistance with addressing and the numerous
header fields attached to each message.

For example: when answering a message, the e-mail system can extract the originators address
from the incoming e-mail and automatically insert it into the proper place in the reply.

2. Transfer:

It refers to moving messages from the originator to the recipient. This requires establishing a
connection to the destination or some intermediate machine, outputting the message, and finally
releasing the connection. E-mail does it automatically without bothering the user.

3. Reporting:

It refers to acknowledging or telling the originator what happened to the message. Was the
message delivered? Was it rejected? Numerous applications exist in which confirmation of
delivery is important and may even have a legal significance. E-mail system is not very reliable.

4. Displaying
The incoming message has to be displayed so that people can read their e-mail. Sometimes
conversation is required or a special viewer must be invoked. For example: if message is a
postscript file or digitized voice. Simple conversations and formatting are sometimes attempted.

5. Disposition

It is the final step and concerns what the recipient does with the message after receiving it.
Possibilities include throwing it away before reading, throwing it away after reading, saving it,
and so on. It should be possible to retrieve and reread saved messages, forward them or process
them in other ways.

9b.What is SMTP? Explain in brief

The actual mail transfer is done through message transfer agents. To send mail, a system must
have the client MTA, and to receive mail, a system must have a server MTA. The formal protocol
that defines the MTA client and server in the Internet is called the Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). As we said before, two pairs of MTA client/server programs are
used in the most common situation (fourth scenario). Figure 26.16 shows the range of the SMTP
protocol in this scenario.

commands and Responses

SMTP uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an MTA client and
an MTA server
10 a. What is MIME? Explain in brief
MIME defines five headers that can be added to the original e-mail header section
to define the transformation parameters:
1. MIME-Version
2. Content-Type
3. Content-Transfer-Encoding
4. Content-Id
5. Content-Description
10b.Explain in brief how to implement Network Security
No one can deny the importance of security in data communications and networking. Security in
networking is based on cryptography, the science and art of transforming messages to make them
secure and immune to attack. Cryptography can provide several aspects of security related to the
interchange of messages through networks. These aspects are confidentiality, integrity,
authentication, and nonrepudiation.
Cryptography can provide confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and nonrepudiation of
messages.
Cryptography can also provide entity authentication.