AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE

1. INTRODUCTION:
An automated guided vehicle system is a material handling system that
uses independently operated , self propelled vehicle that are guided along defined
pathways on the floor. The vehicles are powered by means of on board batteries
that allow operation for several hours (8-16 hrs.) between recharging. Guidance is
achieved by using sensors on the vehicles that follow the guide wires. The vehicle
is controlled by an off board controller or a micro- processor. This controller sends
commands to the vehicle such as identification of load, its destination and other
special instructions. An AGV system provides a material handling system i.e. both
flexible and readily adaptable to either production or production changes.

Audible signal
Flasher
Emergency stop
Protective bar
Status indicator

Obstacle sensor

Protective bar

Side protection
rails

Figure 1.1
Basic Diagram of Automated Guided Vehicle

AGV systems are originally developed for the distribution of material in

warehouse environments although this is an imp. use, two major growth areas
have been evolved the movement of material to and from production areas in
manufacturing facilities, reflecting manufacturing work lifts and use of carriers of
work in progress in assembly plants, replacing serial type asynchronous or fixed
index assembly conveyor system and small packages, in hospitals to deliver
meals, and for material handling. (Miller, 1987).

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AGV system were first introduced in 1950 in USA and later in Europe in
early 1960, the technology caught on much faster in Europe.

2. TYPES OF VEHICLES:

2.1 Towing Vehicles (Driverless trains):

These vehicles consist of an AGV with no load carrying facility but
with a hitch or tow bar that can pull trailers, carts pallets jacks and wheeled racks.
They are used where large volume of product to be moved or in retro fit
applications where product in historically been moved by trailers. These vehicles
can move loads up to 50,000 pounds.

Figure 2.1
Towing type Automated Guided Vehicle

2.2 Unit load Transporters:

These vehicles are designed to carry individual loads. Unit load
transporter can have an extremely versatile deck design, which permits them to be
equipped with rollers, belt conveyors, power lifts, special fixtures, or on board
robot arm, These AGV can be either bi-directional or unidirectional and are used
in house as well as on factory flowers. Unit load transporter scan lift loads ranging
between 12,000 to 60,000 pounds.

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Figure 2.2
Unit Load Transporter Type Automated Guided Vehicle

2.3 Standard Automatic Guided pallet Trucks:

These vehicles are designed to service palletized loads to and from
floor level positions. The shadow fork region has limited fork travel and is
designed to move pallets to and from floor positions exclusively. The fork truck
version has travel up to 20 feet and can move pallets both at floor level and on
stands or racks.

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AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE

Figure 2.3
Unit Load Transporter Type Automated Guided Vehicle

2.4 Assembly Line Vehicles:

These vehicles have a fixture on board that accept the frame initial
parts of the product that is to be assembled. The vehicle is routed through the
various manufacturing stations of the factory where parts and assembly are added
to the product. These AVG can provide total automatic transfer of material these

are known as material handling system on automated assembly line. They can skip
assembly section if required in particular section breaks down.

3. AGV SYSTEM COMPONENTS:

Although all AGV system are different, in general they consist of
following components:

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3.1 Vehicles:
The component of an AGV system that is most readily identified is
vehicle itself. The vehicle consists of a frame, batteries on board charging unit,
electrical system drive unit, steering, precision stop unit, on board controller,
communication unit, safety system and work platform.

3.1.1 Frame:
The frame is usually constructed of welded steel member with
aluminum cover Plate.

3.1.2 Batteries and charging:

AGV systems are typically powered by 24 or 48v D.C. industrial
batteries. Battery charging is accomplished by one of two techniques viz.
Opportunity charging or full cycle charging.

3.1.3 Drive unit:

The main components of motor speed controller and drive
mechanism. The driver speed controller mechanism is usually a pulse width
modulated four-quadrant servo drive unit. The carrier drive commands are
generated either through the microprocessor or at the hand control unit.

3.1.4 Steering:
Vehicles are designed to maneuver in three different ways forward
only, forward and reverse, four directional. The major components of
power steering system are the steering antenna, the steering motors and
their controllers, steering linkage and steering limit switches.

3.1.5 Precision stop controller:

A precision stop controller is used to stop AGV with close location
accuracy at workstation and charge station. At some point before an
upcoming precision stop location, the vehicle will receive a precision stop
command from off board controller or by code bar on board on the floor.

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AS it approaches stop point the vehicles metal detector is activated and

AGV slows to the end of the plate.

3.1.6 On board controller:

The vehicle controller is used to monitor vehicle performance
through encoder data to determine position and velocity discrete digital
input, monitor functions as controls, activation of safety devices, battery
conditions, steering limit, break release, running light drive controller
status.

3.1.7 Communication Unit:

Instructions to the vehicle microprocessor are usually
generated by the Area controller and then relayed to the vehicle. The
communication System may be either continuous or discrete.

3.1.8 Safety:
Safety systems may be divided in to three specific categories, vehicle
to Vehicle, vehicle to object, and vehicle to people. The first system uses
photo cells mounted on AGVs leading edge and reflecting material on
trailing edge to avoid collision of vehicles. Vehicle to object system uses
bumpers , toe born limit switches, proximity sensors to protect both
vehicle and any object in AGV path generally vehicle have warning light
buzzers or toner which flashes or sounds to indicate automatic mode.

3.2 Guide Path and Guidance System:

Generally most AGV s need guide path to follow. The guide path
techniques used are known as passive or active tracking. Passive tracking depends
upon either optical or metal detection principles where as active tracking involves
inductive principles.( (Taghaboni and Tanchoco, 1988; Gaskins et al., 1989))

3.2.1 Passive Tracking :

The optical method may be simply involved a light sensitive photocell
mounted on the vehicle, which follows the tape on floor. It depends upon
contrasting floor surface so that variation in reflecting light that is sensed by
photocell can be detected when the vehicle begins to stray from them guide
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path. If guide path becomes dirty, faded or damaged or if the ambient light
distorts the light level sensed, the vehicle may stray from guide path.
A variation of optical method is lightening patented optical system. It is
based on bonding fluorescent particles to the floor surface and stimulating these
particles with ultra violet light and causing them to omit a generated light in the
sensing head an oscillation mirror scans the guide path and reflect the generated
light in to photo reflector, which intern relays signal to microprocessor.
The other passive tracking techniques involve vehicle with metal detecting
sensor s following a stainless steel ribbon. Tran scar patterned guidance system
consists of two sensors packs each containing five sensors and located at each
end of AGV. The three central sensors allow the vehicle to center itself on the
guide path. The two remaining sensors assist the vehicle in transverse curve. The
sensor locates the presence of guide tape and transmits this information to the
onboard microprocessor.

3.2.2 Active Tracking :

Active tracking involves use of guide wire and most commonly
used Technique in industry. A low voltage (less than 40 v), low current (less than
400 ma), low frequency ( to 15 kHz.) and signal is conducted through a wire
buried in a slot in the floor. A small electromagnetic field is radiated from the
wire and two inductive type sensors are compared and as long as they are equal,
the vehicle is centered on the guide path if vehicle begins to stray, signal
magnitudes sensed are no longer equal and sensor difference is used to steer the
vehicle back on the guide path.

3.3 Floor and System Controls:

The controller is the brain of the whole system, trying the vehicle to
the guide path and integrating the system. Not only does it control the AGV
system but it also integrates with automatic assembly facility. The AGV

system itself will usually contain three levels of controller architecture, vehicle
control system, floor control system and vehicle on board processor.

3.3.1 vehicle control system:

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The top level of vehicle control system often communicates

with and under the control the facilitys host computer. Most of the decision
making takes place at this level as it oversees the system operation. The
vehicle system stores in memory exact vehicle location at all the times and
provides network access.

3.3.2 Floor Control Unit:

This level is referred to as the data concentrator and acts as
traffic manager and communicating directly with the vehicles and providing
them with formatted detailed commands.
3.3.3 Vehicle Processor:
. Generally the vehicle processor knows the vehicle location, and it
can interpret commands received from floor control unit and can monitor on
board safety devices. The two type of vehicle control processors are intelligent
type and non-intelligent type

4. AGV GUIDENCE & CONTROLES:

Some AGV system use vehicles, which have sophisticated
microprocessor on board and are known as smart or intelligent vehicles. Other
systems have minimal vehicle computing ability and use a central computer for
all process. In such systems central computer decides location, direction, proper
rout and path of the vehicle. This is accomplished by turning on and off the path
at decision points or by commanding vehicle to follow a particular frequency.
All decision is making is made by central computer in smart vehicles. The
central computer dispatches the vehicle to next location, though its on board
microprocessor, the vehicle itself makes decision as to which path it takes. (et
al. (1990) and Smith et al. (1992))

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Figure 4.1
Controlling Of Automated Guided Vehicle

4.1 Navigation Technology:

There are several forms of Navigation/Guidance Technology available
today. Selecting the correct technology for your application is sometimes the
difference between a successful and an unsuccessful system. The end user must
acquire a reasonable knowledge of the guidance technology before making an
informed decision about which navigation type to use.
The most popular forms of AGV navigation are laser, spot, magnetic, and
wire. Keep in mind that selecting the navigation/guidance technology involves
reviewing the current project, as well as any future expansions/changes.

4.1.1 Magnetic Spot Guidance Technology:

Guide path is marked with magnetic pucks that are place on the floor
Guide path sensor and Gyroscope (Gyro) is mounted on the vehicle
Paths are open, the systems guide path can be changed
Extensive layouts can complicate the layout of magnetic pucks
Depending on the accuracy of the Gyro, calibration of the position is
demanded in different vehicles
System guide path is flexible

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System can be expanded without damage or major alteration to the facility

Figure 4.2
Magnetic Spot Guidance

4.1.2 Laser Guidance Technology:

Area is mapped and stored in the vehicle's computer memory
Multiple, fixed reference points, reflective strips, located within the
operating area that can be detected by a laser head that is mounted on the
vehicle
Guide path is easily changed and expanded
Most flexible for vehicle movement
Most reliable and secure form of navigation
Most accurate form of guidance
System can be expanded without alteration to the facility
Most dynamic control of blocking and traffic management
Most suitable for fork lift vehicle

Figure 4.3
Laser Guidance
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4.1.3 Ceiling Guidance Technology:

Markers place on ceiling for position reference.
Guide path is virtual
Paths are open, the systems guide path can be changed
System guide path is flexible
System can be expanded without damage or major alteration to the facility
Complex ceiling installation, but easy to re-program in the operating area
Accurate positioning

Figure 4.4
Ceiling Guidance

4.1.4 Magnetic Tape Guidance Technology:

Guide path is marked with a magnetic tape that is place on the floor
surface
Guide path sensor is mounted on the vehicle
Paths are continuous
Paths are fixed, the systems guide path can be changed easily and quickly
Tape may have to be epoxy coated to floor
Guide path is marked with a magnetic tape that is place on the floor
surface
Guide path sensor is mounted on the vehicle
Paths are continuous
Paths are fixed, the systems guide path can be changed easily and quickly

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Tape may have to be epoxy coated to floor

Figure 4.5
Magnetic Tape Guidance

4.1.5 Inductive Guidance Technology (Wire Guidance):

Floor is cut and a wire is imbedded to represent the guide path
Guide path sensor is mounted on the vehicle
Paths are well marked on the floor
Paths are continuous
Paths are fixed, the systems guide path is not easily changed
Expansion of the facility is not as flexible as some other navigation
technologies and may be limited due to constraints

Figure 4.6
Wire Guidance

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4.2 Path Decision:

AGVs have to make decisions on path selection. This is done through
different methods: frequency select mode (wired navigation only), and path
select mode (wireless navigation only) or via a magnetic tape on the floor not
only to guide the AGV but also to issue steering commands and speed
commands.
4.2.1 Frequency select mode:
Frequency select mode bases its decision on the frequencies being emitted
from the floor. When an AGV approaches a point on the wire which splits
the AGV detects the two frequencies and through a table stored in its
memory decides on the best path. The different frequencies are required
only at the decision point for the AGV. The frequencies can change back to
one set signal after this point. This method is not easily expandable and
requires extra guide cutting meaning more money.
4.2.2 Path select mode:
An AGV using the path select mode chooses a path based on
preprogrammed paths. It uses the measurements taken from the sensors
and compares them to values given to them by programmers. When an
AGV approaches a decision point it only has to decide whether to follow
path 1, 2, 3, etc. This decision is rather simple since it already knows its
path from its programming. This method can increase the cost of an AGV
because it is required to have a team of programmers to program the AGV
with the correct paths and change the paths when necessary. This method
is easy to change and set up.

4.3 Traffic Control:

Flexible manufacturing systems containing more than one AGV may

require it to have traffic control so the AGVs will not run into one another.
Methods include zone control, forward sensing control, and combination
control. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.

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4.3.1 Zone Control:

Zone control is the favorite of most environments because it is

simple to install and easy to expand. Zone control uses a wireless
transmitter to transmit a signal in a fixed area. Each AGV contains a
sensing device to receive this signal and transmit back to the transmitter. If
the area is clear the signal is set at clear allowing any AGV to enter and
pass through the area. When an AGV is in the area the stop signal is sent
and all AGV attempting to enter the area stop and wait for their turn. Once

the AGV in the zone has moved out beyond the zone the clear signal is
sent to one of the waiting AGVs. Another way to set up zone control traffic
management is to equip each individual robot with its own small
transmitter/receiver. The individual AGV then sends its own do not enter
message to all the AGVs getting to close to its zone in the area. A problem
with this method is if one zone goes down all the AGVs are at risk to
collide with any other AGV. Zone control is a cost efficient way to control
the AGV in an area.

Figure 4.7
Zone Control

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4.3.2 Forward Sensing Control:

Forward sensing control uses collision avoidance sensors to avoid

collisions with other AGV in the area. These sensors include: sonic, which
work like radar; optical, which uses an infrared sensor; and bumper,

physical contact sensor. Most AGVs are equipped with a bumper sensor of
some sort as a fail safe. Sonic sensors send a chirp or high frequency
signal out and then wait for a reply from the outline of the reply the AGV
can determine if an object is ahead of it and take the necessary actions to
avoid collision. The optical uses an infrared transmitter/receiver and sends
an infrared signal which then gets reflected back; working on a similar
concept as the sonic sensor. The problems with these are they can only
protect the AGV from so many sides. They are relatively hard to install
and work with as well.

Figure 4.8
Forward sensing control

4.3.3 Combination Control:

Combination control sensing is using collision avoidance sensors

as well as the zone control sensors. The combination of the two helps to
prevent collisions in any situation. For normal operation the zone control is
used with the collision avoidance as a failsafe. For example, if the zone
control system is down, the collision avoidance system would prevent the
AGV from colliding.

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5 APPLICATION OF AGVS:
AGV is used in various growing number and a variety of applications.

5.1 Driverless Train Operation:

These applications involved the movement of large quantities of
material over large distances. e.g. the moves within a large factory building or
buildings in large storage depot. For the movement of trains consisting of to
10 trailers, this becomes an efficient handling method.

Figure 5.1
AGV Used In Driverless Train

5.2 Storage / Distribution system:

Unit load carriers and pallet trucks are particularly used in these
applications. In these storage or distribution operations, the movement of
material is in unit load form. The application often interfaces the AGV with
some other automated handling or storage system this type of storage /
distribution can also be used in light manufacturing and Assembly operation in
which work in process is stored in a central storage area and distributed to
different work station for assembly or processing.

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Figure 5.2
AGV Used in ASRS

5.3 Assembly Line Operation:

AGV system is being used in a growing number of assembly line
applications. In these applications rate is relatively low and there are variety of
different models made on production line.

5.4 Miscellaneous Applications:

Other applications of AGV system including non-manufacturing and
non-warehouse applications such as mail delivery in office building and
hospital material handling applications between different floors of the hospital.

6 FUTURE TRENDS:
Although it is difficult to predict the future with absolute certainty, it can be
concluded from the trends that seem to indicate future status of AGV systems.
6.1 Guidance:
The research is being accomplished to expand capability and even to
eliminate the need for guidance using guide path on board controller. On board
controller is becoming more sophisticated and at same time they are becoming
smaller and less expensive the vehicle controllers are exhibiting such features
as expanding diagnostics. Although vehicle cannot repair themselves, they can
at least indicate their problems to maintenance and repair person. Controller

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sophistication will also allow the vehicle to operator more intelligently in

complex handling situation and will increase the system integrity in the event
of host computer failure.

6.2 Vehicle Communication:

The trend is towards continuous as opposed to discrete communication.
So that vehicle will be able to communicate and receive updated instruction at
any time.

6.3 System Controller:

System will be designed to have capability to track material and store
this information. They will be able to follow and control material flow to
support just in time concepts. The system controller will also be able to be
integrated with network allowing it to communicate with any other facility
controller.

6.4 Vehicle:
Vehicle will become more standard requiring less engineering to adapt
the vehicle to a particulate task, thus lowering the coast of vehicle to a
particular task, thus lowering the coast of vehicle to a great extent this will
make them easier to justify for many users.

6.5 Improved Graphical Display:

There will be probability the increased use of color graphical display
showing entire guide path, every vehicle location, the vehicle identification,
the vehicle status and vehicle load.

6.6 Safety:
New safety sensors for proximity detection will be developed and
coupled with computing power of on board controller to produce on even
vehicle that readily negotiate pedestrian clogged aisle.

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Figure 6.1 Safety Features of Automated Guided Vehicle

7. Advantages and Disadvantages:

7.1 Advantages of AGV:
Following are the advantages of AGV
1. Reduction in labor force.
2. Improved productivity and quality.
3. Job enrichment and worker satisfaction.
4. Reduction in space requirement
5. Reduction in product damage.
6. Improvement in housekeeping.
7. Ease of removal and relocation.
8. Integration with other type of automations.
9. System adaptability and flexibility.

7.2 Disadvantages of AGV:

Following are the disadvantages of AGV
1. Expensive
2. Requirement of specially designed floor space.
3. Performance is affected if guide path bed is not stable.

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8. CONCLUSION:
This paper presents a classification scheme for automated guided vehicle
systems. This scheme is developed from a system control perspective. The
paper provides a discussion of the functionalities required of a generic AGVS
controller. The classification scheme is then developed based on the impact the
AGVS design alternatives have on the control system.
The scheme is useful as a structured method for understanding the impact
of design decisions on the control system. It provides a mechanism for
organizing the academic literature on AGVS and comparing the application
domains of different techniques. It also provides helpful information to the
system designer about the impact of design decisions on the required
controller functionality and resulting complexity. The ultimate goal is to use
the classification scheme as a design aid.
The classification scheme presented in this paper provides an organization
mechanism for AGVS from a control perspective. More importantly, it
provides the foundation for the long-term development of an automated
guided vehicle system design aid.

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9. REFRANCES:
1. Bakkalbasi, O. and McGinnis, L.F., 1988, ABCs of Preliminary In-
House Planning and Analysis of AGVS Applications, Proceedings of
AGVS88, MHI, Cincinnati, OH, September 27-28.
2. Baumgartner, E.T. and Skaar, S.B., 1994, An Autonomous Vision-based
Mobile Robot, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 39, pp. 493-
502.
3. Christensen, J.H., Struger, O.J., Norrie, D. and Schaeffer, C., 1994,
Material Handling Requirements in Holonic Manufacturing Systems,
Proceedings of the 1994 International Material Handling Research
Colloquium, Grand Rapids, Michigan, June.
4. M. P. Groover Automation, Production Systems and Computer integrated
Manufacturing TATA McGraw Hills Publications,Second Edition,1995.
5. Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Recent Developments (Manufacturing
Research and Technology) by A. Raouf and M. Ben-Daya (Hardcover - 9
Feb 1995)
6. Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design, Analysis and Simulation
(Manufacturing Engineering and Materials Processing) by Joseph Talavage
(Hardcover - 18 Dec 1987)
7. J.H. Fuchs Advanced Manufacturing Methods, Tata McGraw Hills
Publications, First Edition,1992
8. Journal paper of Flexible Manufacturing System with AGV based material
handling by FUHONG DAI, BASc northest university of technology of
P.R. Chaina 1982.
9. Modeling, Simulation, and Control of Flexible Manufacturing Systems: A
Petri Net Approach (Series in Intelligent Control and Intelligent
Automation) by MengChu Zhou and Kurapati Venkatesh (Hardcover - 1
May 1999)
10. A controle classification of Automobile vehicle system by Brett A. Peters,
Department of Industrial Engineering, Texas A&M University

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