SuezCanal University 1

Faculty of Petroleum& Mining Eng.

PetroleumEngineeringDept.

DnfttrNG ANDorLwELL, -:: : : :

DUvnLoPMENT

Dr. Mohumed ShehutaFaruhut

G
1200u
 CONTENTS

CoxrnNTS
CrrA.pranI
TncrrNoLoGY oF wELL
CoNrnor,

Page #
l.l introduction and scopefor well conhol
I .l. 1 RotaryHelperTrainingCriteriafor eualificationin Well Conhol z
1.l.l.l Prerequisites
for rotaryhelperqualification 2
1.1.1.2Govemment regulations- 2
1.1.l .3 Blowoutprevention equipment J
1.1.1.4 Themoreobviouswarningsignalof kicks -'
l.l. 1.5Well-controloperations 3

1.1.2Derrickmantrainingcriteriafor qualificationin well-controloperations 4

1.1.2.1Prerequisites for derrickman
qualification 4
1.1.2.2Government regulations 4
1.1.2.3Blowoutprevention equipment 4
1.1.2.4Drilling fluids d.
1.i.2.5Wamingsignalsof kicks 5
l 1.2.6Well-control operations 5

1.1.3Driller trainingcriteriafor qualificationin well-controloperations 5

1.1.3.1 Prerequisites for driller qualification 5
1.1.3.2Govemment regulations 5
1.1.3.3 Drillingfluids 6
. I .I .3.4Causes of kicks 6
1.1.3.5WamingSignalsof kicks 6
I .1 3.6 Shutting-ina well for well-controlpurposes 7
I .1.3.7Wee-control operations 7
1.1.3.8Unusualwell-control operations 7

Dr. M. S. Farahat
II CONTENTS

1.1.3.9Controllingshallowgas
8
1.1.3.10Blowoutpreventeranddivertersystem
8
1.1.3.11Closingunits
9

1'1.4Toolpushertrainingcriteriafor qualificationin weil-contror

operations 9
l. 1.4.1 Prerequisitesfor toolpusherqualification
9
1.1.4.2.Govemmentregulations
9
1.1.4.3Well-conholcalculations
9
l. 1.4.4Equipmentlimitations
9
l. 1.4.5Mechanicsinvolvedin well_conholsituations
10
1.1.4.6Supervision of well-controloperations l0
l 1.4.7Closingunits
l0

1.1.5 Operator s representalivetraining criteria for qualification

in well-
controloperations. l1
1.1.5.1Prerequisites for operators representative
qualification ll
l. I .5.2Govemmentregulations
11
1.1.5.3Well-controloperations
ll
1.1.5.4Strippingandsnubbingoperations
ll
l. 1.5.5Detectingabnormallypressuredformations
11
L 1.5.6Supervision of well_controloperations t2
1.1.6 Qualificationprocedures
lz
l. 1.6.I Rotaryhelper
12
I . I .6.2.Derrickman
t2
1 . 1 . 6 .D
3riller
13
1.1.6.4Toolpusher
l3
1.1.6.5Operators representative
t4
l. 1.7 Well-controldrills
l5
1.1.7.1 On-bottomdrilling
16
1.1.7.2 Trippingpipe
l6
1.1.8Reliefassignments
t7

1.2Well Control and ShaltowCasingStrings

t7

1.3Generalproceduresfor onshoreandoffshorewell control

27
1.3.1Diverterprocedures
27 j
1.3.2.Flow checkprocedures
30
1.3.3Shutin procedureswhile drilling ,rl
3l
1.3.4Shutin procedureswhile tripping JJ
....,.,

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CONTENTS
III
1.3.5Kick killing procedures
1.3.6StackGasClearingprocedures 39
1.3.7OffBottom Kicks 43
1.3.8Tertiarywell controlprocedures 48
69
1.4DeepWater-WellControltechniques
1.4.1RICK DETECTION 94
I.4.2 FRACTLIREGRADIENTS 94
I.4.3 SURFACEHOLE KICKS 95
1.4.4RESERVOIRDESCRIPTION 95
98
I.4.5 WELL CONTROLMEASURES
1.4.6KICKS BELOW PROTECTIVECASING 98
I.4.7BARITE PLUGS 100
I.4.8 ACCUMULATOR SYSTEMS l0l
I.4.8.1 DESIGNPROCEDURE 105
I.4.9 FLLIID DENSITY CONTROL 109
I.4.10VISCOSITY ll0
1.4.1IFLTIIDLOSS lls
1.4.12SALIMTY r17
I.4. 13GAS COTINTING 117
1.4.14 SPECIALOPERATIONS 119
1.4.14.1 STRIPPINGAND SNIIBBING ll9
1.4.14.2 VOLTIMETRICMETHOD 119
119
1.4.14.3 PRESSTIRE METHOD
tzv
1.4,14.4 PLUGGEDDRILL PIPE
1.4,14.5
120
HOLE IN DRILL PIPE
1,,4.1 120
4.6 EXCESSTVE CASINGPRESSURE
1.4.14.7 T'NDERGROTINDBLOWOIJTS r2l
l2r
'5 Field Practicefor well conhol problemand
rheir sorutions,andworksheet r23
I.5 .1 SPECIALWELL CONTROLPROBLEMS
I.5.2 WORKSHEETPROCEDIIRE 130
13t
I.5.2.1HOW TO CALCULATE WELL KILLING
PROBLEMS 131
1.5.2.2W ell ControlWorksheet
133

Dr. M. S. Farahat
IV CONTENTS

CHAPTERII
Orpsnonr DRILLING
TEcHNoLoGY
Page#
.l
2.1 Introductionandscopefor offshoreoil andgasdrilling technology 137
2.I.I DRILLING 138
2.1.2PLATFORMS 140
2. I.3 SUBSEATECHNOLOGY r4l

2.2 Dilling andproduction t45

2.2.1FloatrngSystem 145
2.2.2PlatformWell ProductionSystern 148
2.2.3ConventionalPlatforms 148
2.2.4CompliantTowers 150 ':

2.2.5Jackuprig positioningsystems ls3 rr

2.2.5.1FinalRig Move 155
2.2.5.2Casing-Supported
Templates t57
2.2.5.3 T emplateInstallation 157
2.2.4.5ConductorCasingInstallation 158
2.2.5.5Diverlessreleasable
casingcomectors 160
2.2.6FloatingPlatforms 163
2.2.7SeafloorWell ProductionSystem 166
2.2.8Semisubmersible
ProductionSystem 168
2.2.9OneAtmosphereSystem 170
2.2.10Subsea
Atrnospheric
System(SAS) 173
2.2.1I Subsea
Production
System(SPS) 173
2.2.12FlowlinesandPipelines 175
2.2.13SinglePointTankerMooring System 181
2.2.14MannedMaintenanceSystems 182
2.2.15SafetyAnd Reliabilify 184

Dn M. S. Farahat
 , CONTENTS
v
CHAPTERIII
Dnrr,r,rNc pRocNosls ANDINTRoDUCTToN
TO DRILLING UNDERBALANCE

F r.r: 1

Page #
3.1Drilling Prognosis l
186
:
3.2.1What is Underbalanced
Drilting?
193
3.2.2Why Drill Underbalanced?
195
3.2.2.1Increasedpenetrationrate& Bit Life
195
3.2.2.2MiloimizedLost Circulation
196
3.2.2.3MirumizedDifferentialSticking
197
3.2.2.4ReducedFormationDamage
t97
3.2.2.4 EarlierproductionandReducedStimulation
requirements 197
3.2.2.5ImprovedFcrmatironEvaluation
r98
3.2.2.6EnvironmentalBenefits
t99

3.2.3Underbalanced
Drilling Techniques
199
3.2.3.1Gaseous
Drilling Fluids
200
3.2.3.2Two-phase
Drilling Fluids
204
3.2.3.3Liquid Driiling Fluids
208

3.2.4.SurfaceSystems
208
3.2.5Limitationsto Underbalanced
Drilling 210
3.2.5.I WellboreInstabiliW
210
3.2.5.2WaterInflows
2ll
3.2.5.3DownholeFires
212
3.2.5.4DirectjonalDrilling Equipment
ZLJ
3.2.5.5ExcessiveHydrocarbonproduction
213
3.2.5.6EconomicFactors
214

.'!r.'t .- :

Dr. M. S. Faraha
VI CONTENTS

CsaprrnfV
Druutne tNo Couptrrtorv or Gts llnus ttt
EcyprraN Mrlrrnnn q.NEan Coxcrssrox
CaseHrsrony
Page # .,

4.I Introduction 216

4.2 GeologyOverpressure
Sourcesof the Area 219
4.2.1GeneralGeology 219
4.2.1.1Temsahconcession 2r9
4.2.1.2B altimconcession 219
4.2.2Overpressure
Sources 219
4.2.2.1Compaction 221
4.2.2.2Tectontcs 221
.. i..rr'.
J..

I
4.tl9t5 Effortl 224
4.3.1 ProgrammingModifications 224
. 4.3.1.1Programming
Modificationin TemsahConcession 224
4.3.2ContingencyPlan 226

4.4 CaseHistory of ContingencyPlane 229

4.4.1Conditions 229
4.4.2OperationalSequences 229
4.4.3Evaluation 232

4.5 ProgrammingModification in Baltim Concession 232

4.5.1New casingProfile 232
4.5.2Evaluation

4.6 New applications 233

4.6.1 CatenaryDirectionalApplication 234
I
4.7 Catenryapplicationin Baltim East4 235

Dn M, S. Farahat
 CONTENTS VII

4.7.1Evaluation 238
4.7.2Comments 238
4.8 Bicenterlsshnique to OversizeHole underCasings 239
.. r
4.8.1Inhoductionto Bicentertheory 239
4.8.1.I Bicenterapplicationin well TemsahNorth West# I 241
4.8.1.2Evaluation 242

4.9 Real-TimePP/FGApplicationin ConjunctionWith LWD )4)

4.9.1Introductionto Real-TimePP/FG 242
4.9.2 Casehistoryof Real-timePp/FGapplicationin oneof IEOC wells 243
4.9.3Evaluation 245

4.1030 in XLS Connections 248

4.11PosicloseruSystem(SecondGeneration) 248

4.12 1995Drilling Performance 249

CsAprnnV
. TEcHNoLoGY FoR DRILLING AI\D CoMPLETING
HORTZONTAI.,EXTENDED REACHWELLS
Page#
5.1 LateralDrilling: A new applicationshowspromise 251
5.1.1 Initial Drilling Operations 251
5.1.2DrainholeDrilling Operations 254

5.2 HorizontalDrilling Useon the Rise:why andNow 255

5.2.1Why horizontaldrilling 256
5.2.2Pickrnggoodcandidates 258
5.2.3Selectionguidelines 260
5.2.4Classifyingcandidates 261
5.2.5Planning,designandsupervision 266

Dr. M. S. Farahat
VIII CONTENTS

5.2.5.I Design/Planning
Stages 266
5.2.5.2Supervision 268

5.3HorizontalDrilling is BecomingCommonplace:
I{ere s How It s Done 269
5.3.1What constitutesa horizontalwell 271
5.3.2Applicationsfor horizontalwells 272
5.3.3Well geometry 274
5.3.3.1Radiusof curvature 275
5.3.3.2Hoizontalsectiondiameter 275
5.3.4Drilling operations 276
5.3.4.1Verticaldrilling 276
5.3.4.2D eviateddrilling 278
5.3.4.3Approachingthetarget 279
5.3.5Drilling thedrainhole 280

f'
5.4 High-AngleandHorizontalWell Completions 283
5.4I HOzuZONTAL COMPLETIONS 284
5.4.2HIGH-ANGLE COMPLETIONS 286
5.4.3CEMENTINODESIGN 287
5.4.4OFF-BOTTOMCEMENTING 288
!,i:1,r
5.4.5Rotation/ Reciprocation 289
5.4.6TorqueLimitations 291
5.4.7FORMATHON PACKERS 294
5.4.8Evaluation 294
.* ,1., _i.

5.5 ControllingSandin a HorizontalWell Completion 297

5.5.1Formationdamageeffects 297
5.5.2Weak formations 298
5.5.3Preventing
holecollapse 302
5.5.4GravelPackine 305

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CONTENTS IX

CnaprnRVI
Appr,rcluoN oF,corlD
: Tubing .i:
Page#
6.1 Coiled Tubing Fluid (Water)Jetdrilling
309
6.1.1 UltrashortRadiusRadialSystem(llRRS)
311
6.1.2Control While Drilling
311
6.1.3Inclinationandrhree Dimensionarsurvey of RadialDrainhole
312
6.1.4Completions
312

6.2 Coiled Tubing DeployedCompletionTechniques

313
6.2.1introductionandScope
313
6.2.l. I Definition of initial trial operation
313
6.2.2 CompletionComponents
316
6.2.2.1The CoiledTubing
316
6.2.3UniqueEquipment
320
6.2.3.1CoiledTubingUnir
320
6.2.3.2WorkWindow
320
6.2.3.3.Air WinchSystem
320
6.2.3.4MouseHole.
321
6.2.3.5HydraulicTubing Straightener.
321
6.2.3.6HydraulicpositioningRams.
321
6.2.3.7SloftedSpool.
321
6.2.3.83 t/2 inch StabbingSnake
321
6.2.3.9Slip-TypeLift Nubbins.
322
6.2.3.10ClampAroundprotectionTray
322
6.2.3.11PowerBevelingTool
322
6.2.3.12TaperedRoller Bearingsin GooseneckRollers
322

6.3 Efficiently log andperforate600(High Angle wells) with coiled rubins

324
6.3.1Whencoiledtubingis useful.
324
6.3.2Coiledtubingadvantages.
327

Dr. M. S, Farahat
x CONTENTS

6.3.3Pre-Jobmodeling )zt

6.3.4Coiledtubinghistory 328
6.3.5Fuhre Applications 329

Cnlprrn WI
-'.
Furunr oF HoRTzoNTAL :... t. -

DRILLING IN EGYPT
Page#
7.1 Evolution of Horizontal Technology 330
7.1.1OptimalPlacement i 331
7.1.2 Geosteering
into Reservoirs )JZ

7.1.3Why be so accurate? , 335

7.1.4FutureTechnologyNow Available 336
7.1.5Old FieldsContainBypassed
Oil 336
:1

7.1.6FaultingResultsIn Bypassed
Oil 338
a
7.1.7 StratigraphicComplexitiesToo 339

7.2 Gulf of SuezPetroleumCompanyHorizontalwells 347

7.2.1 JulyField HorizontalWell 348
7.2.2 Badi Field HorizontalWell 349
7.2.3GS 365FieldHorizontalWell 350
7.2.4SidkiFieldHorizontalWells 355

7.3Nile DeltaFirstHorizontalGasWells 355

7.3.1Pilot Hole Drilling ProcedureandRelatedProblems 359
7.3.2DralnHole Drilling Procedureand Relatedproblems 361
7.3.3RevisedPilot andDrainHole 362
7.3.4CompletionSystem 364
7.3.4.I CompletionTechniquesandConsiderations 367

REFERENCES 368

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

CHAPTERI
TnCTTNOLOGYOF WELL
CONTROL

l.I introduction ond scopefor well control

We have now entered a new millenium and have made a significant leap forward
with respect to well control. In the past. efforts were constrained by the complex
nature of multiphase flow in an arurulus.This flow regime, which occurs during a
well-control situation. wzrsvery diffrcult to understandand impossible to model in a
timely manner becauseof limited calculation capability. do you remember using a
slide rule?

Our predecessorscame up with a very effective method of dealing with this

complex situation and the lack of computing power. they ignored it. Also, the
devised the traditional drillpipe methods of well control that have been used
successfullyfor years and should remain the underlying approachto well control.
However. with well-control R & D (researchand development) results during the

controlthe annulus.
. :..1

This understandingand control is very important becauseof the narrow margin of

operation. particularly in deepwater and high pressurehigh temperature wells. It
also may essentialfor those situations where formation damagemust be prevented
durhg the drilling process. The primary benefit of this new knowledge and
understandingis cost-effective drilling. Improved well control is almost secondary.
Full considerationof developmentsin the annulus enablesus to avoid problems or
to frnd solutions to problems. However. e. g. some issues of well control area
follows:

l. Downholemud propertiesandrheologl.
2. Realisticinflux mechanisms.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF IYELL CONTROL

3. Timing of events.
4. Gasmigrationanddispersion.

In all cases,understandingthe annulus events leads to solutions.In somecases, ;

wells reach total depth,while offsetsfail. In othercases,proceduresaresimplified
significantly resulting in time andcostsavings.Safetyis nevercompromisedand,
sometimes,may be improved. So, this brings us to the present.what aboutthe
future?. Today,explorationistsoften displaytheir interpretations
andunderstanding
on 3D visualizationworkstations.A logical next stepis to attachthe engineering .:
analyses to these workstations.This step will enable us to see the effects of
geologicaluncertaintiesandgeneraterisk andcostevaluationsin real time. We look
forwardto the integrationoftechnologyandunderstanding.

However, this standardprovides the minimum criteria for the qualification of

drilling personnelin well-control equipment,operations,andtechniquesto ensure
safety and prevent pollution duringdrilling on offshorelocations.This standardis
applicableto the following drilling personnelclassifications:
't-

1. RotaryHelper.
2. Derrickman.
3. Driller.
4. Toolpusher.
. 5. Operators Representative.

1.1.1Rotary Helper Training Criteriafor Quaffication in llell Control

1.1.I. 1 Prerequisitesfor rotary helper qualijication

The drilling engineershalehavesatisfiedthe employmentrequirementspecifiedby

the employer.

1.1.1.2 Governmentregulations
The helper shall receive general instructionson govemmentregulationsthatare
pertinent to the work in regardto well controlactivities.Copiesof the regulations,
orders,or absfractsof pertinent sectionsshall be furnished to the helper.These
instructions(asin USA) shallincludeasa minimum: '

A. Drilling procedures.
B. Pluggingandabandonment.
C. Pollutionandwastedisposal.

' Dr. M. S. Farahut

 CH I TECHN0L0GY oF IhELL CoNTRoL 3

I. I. 1.3 Blowout preventiott equipment

The rotary helper shall receive general instructions on blowout prevention

equipment consistent with the type of blowout preventer stack utilized on the
drilling rig upon which the helper is employed. These instructions shall consist of
the purpose.operation.and generalcare of the following:

1. Annular blowout preventer dith and without diverter system.

2. Diverter system.
3. Ram-type blowout preventer.
4. Accumulatorsystem.
5. Drill string inside blowout preventer.
6. Drill string safety valve.
7. Kelly cock.
8. Chokemanifold.

tn addition to the above. the helper strati ieceive instruction on the purpose.
operation.and generalcare of thefollowingauxiliaryequipment:

A Mud-pit level indicator.

B Mud-volumemeasuringdevice.
C Mud-return indicator.
D Gas detector.
E Trip tank.

1.1.1.4 The more obvious warning signal of kicks

The helper shall receiveinstructionson the more obviouswarning signalsof kicks

but not limitedto- the following:
includin-s..

l. Gain in pit volume and,/orincreasein mud-refirm rate.

) Hole not taking proper amount of mud during trips.
3. Well flowing with pump shutdown.

I. L I. 5 l{ell-control operations

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

The rotary helpershall receivehands-ontrainingat thejob site for operationofthe

choke manifold-standpipe. and mud-roomvalves which require settingsfor kill
operationsdifferentfrom thoseusedin normaldrilling operations.

1.1.2 Derrickman troining criteria for qualification in well-control operations

I. I. 2.1 Prereq uisitesfor derrickman qualification

The derrickman shall have completed the training as a rotary helper or possess
equivalentexperiencebefore enrolling in the derrickman course.

1.l. 2.2 Governntent regulations

The derrickmanshall receivegeneralinstructionson governmentregulationsthat

are pertinentto the work in regard to well-controlactivities.Copies of the
regulations.orders. or abstractsof pertinent sectionsshall be fumished to the
candidate.The training organizationshall revise this material. as necessary.in
accordance with the revisionsor additionsto the govemmentrequirements.These
shallincludeasa minimum:
instructions

l. Drillingprocedures.
2. Pluggingandabandonment.
- 3. Pollutionandwastedisposal.

I. l. 2.3 Blowoutpreventionequipment

The derrickmanshall receivegeneralinstructionson blowout preventionequipment

consistentwith the type of blowout preventerstack utilized by the drilling rig upon
which the derrickman is employed. the candidate shall receive instructions on the
purpose.operation.and careof the following:

I . I .l .3.
l. Equipmentlistedundersubsections
2. Degasser.
choke.
3. Adiustable

I. 1.2.4Drilling Jluids

The derrickmanshall receivegeneralinstructionson drilling fluids with ^i,

"-pt
on thefollowing:

Dr. M. S- Farahat
 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF II.ELL CqNTRqL 5

A Density.
B Viscosit-v.
C Fluidloss.
D Salinity.
E Gas-cuning.
F Procedurefor increasinsmud densitv.

1.1.2.5Wornings@ak of kicks
Thederrickmanshallreceivegeneralinstructions
consistent
with his assigned
duties
on warningsignalsthat indicatea kick or conditionsthat can leadto a kick suchas.
butnot limitedto- the followine:

1. Itemsin subsection 1.1.1.4.

2. Slou_ehing shaleandits appearance at surface.
3. Drilling ratechange.
4. Changein salinity. :
5. Changein flou,properties of drillingfluid.
6. Trip. connection.andbackgroundgaschanges.

I. I. 2.6 Well-control operations

Thederrickmanshallreceivehand-ontrainingat thejob siteon the itemscoveredin

subsection
I .1.2.5andgeneralinstructions
on well-killingoperations.

1.1.3DriIIer training oiteriafor qualification in well-control operations

I. I. 3. I Pr er equb itesfor driller qualiJi cati on . ,r1.

The driller shall have completedtrainingas a rotary helperand derrickmanor pssess

equivalentexperiencedriller.

1.l, 3.2 Goventntent regulati otts

The dritler shall receive instructionson all applicablegovemment regulationsthat

pertain to his work in regard to well-control operations and equipment. copies of
the regulations. orders. or abstractsof pertinent sections shall be fumished to the
driller. Theseinstructionsshall includeas a minimum:

l. Drilling proceduresincludingfield drillin-erules.

2. Pluggingand abandonment.

Dr. M. S. Forahat
6 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF VELL CoNTRoL

3. Pollution and waste disposal.

I. 1.3.3 Drilling fluids

The driller shall receive instructions on drilling fluids with emphasison the
following:

A Density.
B Viscosiry.
C Fluid loss.
D Salinity.
E Gas-cutting.
F Procedurefor increasingmud density.

1.1.3.4Causesof kicks

on the maior causesof kicks. Thesecauses

The driller shall receiveinstructions
include:

1. Failing to keepthe hole full.

2. Swabbingeffect of pulling the pipe.
3. Lossof circulation.
4. lnsufficientdensityof drilling fluid.
5. Abnomrallypressuredformations.
6. Effectto toorapidloweringpipein thehole.

The importanceof measuringthe mud requiredto fill the hole during trips and
methodsfor measuringand recordinghole-fill volumesshall be emphasized.Such
for shallowgasconditions.
importanceshallbe furtheremphasized

1.1.3.5Warning Signalsof kicks

The driller shall receive instructions on the waming signals that indicatea kick or
conditionthat can leadto a kick. Thesewarninesienalinclude:

l. Gainin pit volume.

2. Increasein returnmud-flowrate.
3. Holenottakingproperamountof mudduringtrips.
4. Drillineratechanse.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF IYELL CONTROL 7

5. Decreasein circulatingpressureof increasein pump strokes.

6. Trip, connection,andbackgroundgaschanges.
7. Gas-cutmud.
8. Water-cutmud or chloridecliange.
9. Sloughingshaleandits appearance at the surface.
10. Well flowing with pumpshutdown.
11. Changein flow propertiesof drilling fluid.

1.1.3.6Shutting-in a wellfor well-control purposes

The driller shallreceiveinstructionson the correctproceduresfor controllinga well

with the blowoutpreventersystem,the chokemanifold,and/orthe divertersystem.
These instructions shallincludethe sequentialstepsto be followed to be consistent
with the type of blowout preventer stackutilizedby the drilling rig on which the
engineeris employed.

1.1.3. 7 ll/ee-contr ol operations

The driller shall receive instructionson oneof the followine constantbottom-hole

Dressure methodsof well-control:

l. Driller s.
.
2. Wait and weight.
3. Concurrent (circulate and weight).
4. Other applicable constantbottom hole pressuremethods.

The instruction process for the aboveshallincludethoseconditionswhich may be

unique to either the surface-or.subsea- blowout preventerstack utilized bythe
drilling rig upon which the driller is employed.An adequatesimulator is an
acceptablealtemateto the model well. A completewell-killing exerciseshallbe
carriedout a simulatoror a modelwell. Theseinstructionsinclude:

1. Mud densityincreaserequiredto controlkick.

2. Conversion betweenmud density and pressuresand the importanceof the
conversionsin understandingformation breakdown,particularly with shallow
casingsetting.
3. Drop in pumppressureasmud densifyincreasesduringkill operations.
4. Relationshipsbetweenpumppressure,pumprate,andmud density.
5. Pressure limitationson casinss.

Dn M. S. Faruhat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF W,ELL CONTROL

I. 1.3.8 Unusual well-control operations

The driller shall receive instructionson unusualwell-control situationsto include as

aminimum:

1. When drill pipe is offbottcm.

2. When out of hole.
3. When lost circulationoccurs.
4. When drill pipe is plugged.
5. Excessivecasingpressure.
6. Hole in drill pipe.

1.1.3.9Controllingshallow gas

Thedriller shallreceiveinstructionson the following:

A Controllingshallowgaskicks.
B Useof diverters.
C Useof marinerisers.(offshoreoperations).

1.1.3.10Blowoutpreventerand divertersystem

The driller shallreceiveinstructionson the blowoutpreventeranddivertersystems.

l. Installation.
2. Operation.
3. Maintenance.
4. Testing.

In addition to the above, the driller shall receive instructionson the purpose,
installation. operation. and general maintenanceof the following auxiliary
equipment:

lst. Mud pit level indicator.

2nd. Mud-volume measuringdevice.
3rd. Mud-rerurn indicator.
4th. Gas detector.
5th. Trip tan-tc.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF IYELL CONTROL 9

6th. Mud-gas separator.

7th. Degasser.
8tn. Adjustablechoke.
,.,.r'.,,-.. :,., .: ".: : : '

1.1.3.1I Closing units

The driller shall receive instructionson proper accumulatorprechargepressuresand

the relationship using appropriateproblems. tn addition. maintenanceof equipment
shall be included.

1.1.4 Toolpusher training criteria for qualiJication in well-control operations

1.1.4. 1 Prer eq uisitesfor tooIp usIt er qual iJication

the toolpusher shall have completed the training described in subsection 1.1.3 for
the driller or possessthe equivalentexperience.

I. 1.4.2. Government regulations

The toolpusher shall receive instructions on all applicable government regulations

that iertain to his work in regard to well-control operationsand equipment. Copies
of the regulations.orders. or abstractsof pertinent sectionsshall be furnished to the
toolpusher. The training organization shall revise this material. as necessary.in
accordancewith the revisions or additions to the govemment requirements.These
instructionsshall includeas a minimum:

A Drilling proceduresincludingfield drilling rules.

B Pluggingand abandonment.
C Pollution and wastedisposal.

1.I. 4.3 lle Il-contro I cal cul ations

The toolpusher shall receive instnrctions on the calculations required for well-
control operations. Example calculation shale be practiced in class problems. The
toolpushershall also receiveinstructionson the calculationof equivalentpressures
at the casing seatwith emphasison the importanceof casing seatdepth.

I. 1.4.4 Equipment limitotions

Dr. M. S. Farahat
l0 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF NlELL CONTROL

The toolpusherreceive instructionson the limitations of the various items of

equipment.which will be subjectedto pressureand./orwear.

1.1.4.5Mechonics involved in well-control situations

The toolpushershall receive instructionson the mechanicsinvolved in various well-

control situations.The instruction shall include the following subjects:

l. Gas bubble migration and expansion.

2. Bleeding volume from a shut-in well during gas migration.
3. Excessiveannular surfacepressures.
4. Differencesbetweena gas kick and a salt water and/or oil kick.
5. Proceduresand problemsinvolved in stripping operationswith drill pipe.
6. Special well-control techniquessuch as. but not limited to. barite plugs and
cementplugs.
7. Procedures and problems involved when experiencing loss circulation in
well-killing operations.
:
1.1.1.6Sup,ervisionof well-control operations

The toolpushershall receiveinstructionon organizingand directinga well-killing

operationand shall subsequently directsuchan operationusing a modelwell or
equivalentsimulationdevice.In addition.the toolpushershallreceiveinstructions
on a diverterooeration.

1.1.4.7Closingunits

The toolpushershall receiveinstructionson the purposeandusageof closingunits.

includingthe following:

One. chargingprocedures
l. prechargepressure
2. operatingpressure.

b. fluid volume.
1. usable
2. required.

c. fluid pumps

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF IYELL CONTROL u

d. maintenance.
l. chargingfluid.
2. Inspectionprocedures.

1.1.5 operator s representative training criteriafor quaffication in welt-control

operations.
1.1.5.1Prerequisitesfor operator s representativequaffication

All operators shall be familiar with the basic dutiesand trainingoftherotary

helper,the derrickman,the driller, andthe toolpusherduringwell-control
situatrons.

1.l. 5.2 Govern ment regulations

The operator s representativeinstructionson all applicablegovernmentregulations

that pertain to his work in regardto well-controloperationsandequipment.
copies
of the regulations,orders, or abstractsof pertinentsectionsshallbe furnished
to
him. The trainingorganizationshallrevisethis material,asnecessary,in accordance
with the revisions or additionsto the governmentrequirEments. Theseinstructions
shallincludeasa minimum:
' '. ;
I Drilling proceduresincludingfield drilling rules.
II Pluggingandabandonment.
III Pollutionandwastedisposal.

1.1.5.3 ll/ell-co ntrol operatio ns

The operator s representative shall receive instructions on one of

the constant
bottom-hole pressuremethodsof well-control as set out under subsection
I .1.3.7 of
this standard. He shall also receive instructions on the calculation ofequivalent
pressuresat the casing seatwith emphasison the importanceof casing seat
depth.

1.1.5.4Stripping and snubbing operations

blowout preventersystem for workingpipe in or out of a wellborewhich is under

well pressure.

1.I. 5.5 Detecting abnormally pressaredformations

Dr. M. S. Farahat
l2 CH I TECHNOL0GY oF WELL CoNTRoL

Operators representativeshall receive instruction on acceptedpracticesusedfor

detecting entry into abnormally pressured formationsand the accompanying
warningsignals.Thesesignalinclude:

1. Penetrationratechange.
2. Shaledensitychange. .....":.,, 1.,.;
3. Mud chloridechange.
4. Trip, connection,andbackgroundgaschanges.

I. 1.5.6 Sup ervision of well-control operations

well-killing operationandshallsubsequently
directsuchan operationusinga model
well or equivalent simulationdevice.In addition,he shallreceiveinstructionson a
diverteroperation.

1.1.6 QualiJicationprocedures
1.1.6.1Rotaryhelper

Prerequisites.' prior to qualification as a rotary helperhe shall satisfiedthe training

criteriaof subsectionI .1. I .2 within the first 6 monthshis initial employment.

Type of test: The rotary helper qualificationtestwill be a crewperformancedrill

that requiresthe rotary helper to carry out his assignment in a well-controldrill
within a prescribed
time limit (seesectionL 1.7).

Maintenance of qualiJication.'To maintainhis qualification,he mustparticipatein

well-control drills, as describedin section I . 1.7, and carry out his assignments
within the time limit prescribedfor the drill.

Documentation of test results: The time requiredfor him to completethe drill shall

shallbe fumishedto him.

1.1.6.2.Derrickman

Prerequisites.'He shall have satisfiedthe criteria of subsections1.1.2 and I . 1.3.1.

Dr. M. S. Faraltat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 13

Type of ust: The derrickmanqualification test will be a crew performance

drill that
requiresthe derrickmanto carryout his assignment in a well-controldrill within a
prescribedtime limit (section1.1.7).

Maintenance of qualification.' To maintainhis qualification, he must participate

in
well-control drills, as describedin section I .1.7, and carry out his
assignments
within the time limit prescribedfor the drill.

Documentation of test results..The time requiredfor him to completethe

drill shale
be recordedon the driller s log. Appropriatedocumentation of initial qualification
shallbe furnishedto him.

1.1.6.3Drillcr

Prerequisites.'He shalr have completed the training for rotary

helper and
derrickman or possessthe equivalentexperience.He shall have completed
the
trainingcriteriaoutlinedsubsection1.1.3.

QualiJication tests.' written and/or verbal testsand hands-ondernonstrationsshall

be'used to verifr that he has a thorough understandingof the well-conhol
equipmentandtechniquesoutlinedin subsectionI .l .3.

Maintenanceof quatijicatioz..He shallmaintainqualificationby:

1. Successfulrepetitionof thecriteriasetforthin subsections

1.1.3and 1.1.6.3
every4 years.
2. Successful completion of an annual refresher course in well-control
operationsduringthe intermediate
period.

This refreshercourse shall be a minimumof 8 hoursandshallincludeinstmction

and training in the most recent improvementsin equipmentand .methodsfor
blowoutpreventionusinga testwell or simulator.

Documentation of test results:

haining record, and appropriate documentationshall be furnished the candidate
uponsuccessful completion.

1.1.6.4Toolpusher

Dr. M. S. Faralmt
 l4 CH I TECHNDL0GY oF WELL CqNTRqL

Prerequisites.' He shall have coarpletedthe training for driller or possessthe

equivalentexperience'He shallhavecompletedthe trainingrequirementsoutlined
in subsection
1.1.4.

Qualijication fesfs.' Written and/orverbal testsand hands-ondemonstrationsshall

be usedto veriff that the candidatehasa thoroughunderstandingofthe well-control
equipment,techniques,andprinciplesoutlinedin subsectionl 1.4.

Maintensnce of quaffication He shall maintainqualification by: {,".!"1J . r

l. Successfulrepetitionof thecriteriasetforthin subsections

1.1.4and 1.1.6.4
every4 years.
2. Successful completion of an annuar refresher course in well-control
operationsduringthe intermediateperiod.
.r
This refreshercourse shall be a minimum of 8 hoursandshall includeinstruction
and haining in the most recent improvementsin equipmentand methodsfor
blowoutpreventionandshallincludethe successfulindividualcontrol of a r',,ellkicl<-
uslnga testwell or simulator.

Documentation of test results: Test results shall be recordedin the toolpushers

trainingfile, andappropriatedocumentation
shallbe furnishedto him.

1.1.6.5Operators representative

Prerequisites..He shall have familiar with the basic duties of rotary helper,
derrickman,driller, and toolpusherduring well-conhol operationsandshallhave
completedthe trainingrequirementsoutlinedin subsectionr.l.5.

Quaffication resrs.'Qualification testsand hands-ondocumentationshall be usedto

assurethat the operator s representative hasa thoroughunderstandingof the well-
control equipmentprinciplesand practices,outlinedin subsection1.1.5, andis
qualifiedto organizeanddirecta well-controloperation.

Maintenanceof qaalifrcation..He shallmaintainqualificationby:

1. Successfulrepetition of the criteriasetforth in subsections1.1.5and L1.6.5

every4 years.

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
 CHI TECHNqL0GYoF InELL coNTRoL
l5

2. Successfulcompletionof an annual refreshercourse

in well-control
operations
duringtheintermediate
period.

This refreshercourseshalrbe a minimumof g hoursandshail

includeinstruction
and training in the most recentimprovementsin equipmentand methodsfor
blowoutpreventionandshallincrudethesuccessful
individualcontrolof a well kick
usinga testwell or simulator.

Documentation of test resalts: Test results shall be recorded

in the operators
representativetraining file, and appropriatedocumentationshall
be furnishedto
him.

1.1.7 Well-control drills

The individual assignmentsfor the crew memberduring a well-control

operation
will, of necessary'vary with the equipmenton the offshoreunit
and with the type of
operationsbeingperformed.Thus,the drills shallbe designedto
acquainteachcrew
member with his function on the particular test station so he
can perform it_
promptly and efficiently.

The steps described below are generaland are basedupon

essentialsof the
operationand shouldbe variedto fit the equipment,personnel,and
specificneedsof
each site' A well-control drill pran, applicabreto the particulai
site, shalr be
preparedfor eachcrew memberoutliningthe assignments
he is to fuIfiil duringthe
drill andestablishinga prescribedtime for the completionof his portion
of the driil.
A copy of the complete well-contr
and/orbulletinboard.

The actualdrill shallbe carriedout duringperiodof activity which wourd

minimize
the risk ofsticking the drill pipe or otherwiseendangeringthe operation.
In eachof
these drills, the reactiontime shallbe measuredup to the point when
the designated
personis in the positionto beginthe closingsequence ofthe blowout preventer.The
total time for the crew to completeits entire pit drill ussignmeni
sha[ arsobe
measured.This operationshallbe re well-control drill.
All drills shall be initiatedby the toolpusherthroughthe raisingof the float
on the
pit level device,activatingmud-refurnindicator,or their equivalent.
This operation
shall be performed at leastonceeachweek(well conditionspermitting)
with each
crew. The drills shall be timed so they will covera rangeof different
operations,

Dr. M. S. Farahat
16 CH I TECHNDLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

which include on-bottom drilling and tripping.A diverterdrill shallbe developed

andconductedin a similarmannerfor shallowoperations.

-.
Suggesteditem for inclusion inon-bofrom drilling ardtripping pipe drills are set
out in subsectionsl 1.7.1 andl.l.T.2respectively.The listing of theseitemsdoes
not necessarilyconstitutea recommendationthat eachof the itemsbe includedin
the drill or that the drill sequence
be the sameasthe listing.

1.1.7.1On-hottomdrilling i ' -'. '", r !."': ' i rt{:l+'\- {.

A drill conductedwhile on bottom may include the following:

1. Detect kick and sound alarm.

2. Position kelly and tool joints so connectionsare accessiblefrom floor, but
tool joints are clear of sealing elementsin stack; stop pumps; check for flow
closein the well.
3. Recordtime.
4. Record drill pipe pressureand casingpressure.
5. Measurepit gain and mark new level.
6. Estimafe volume of additional mud in pits.
7. Weight sample of mud from suction pit.
8. Check all valves on choke manifold and blowout preventer stack for colrect
position(openor closed).
9. Check blowout preventerstack and choke manifold for leaks.
10. Check flow line and choke exhaustlines for flow.
11. Check accumulatorpressure.
12. Prepareto extinguish sourcesofignition.
13. Alert standbyboat or preparesafety capsulefor launching.
14. Place crane operator on duty for possiblepersonnelevacuation.
15. Prepare to lower all escapeladdersandprepare otherabandonmentdevices
for possibleuse.
16. Determine materials neededto circulate out kick.
17.

1.1.7.2Trippingpipe

A drilt conductedduringa trip may includethe following:

1. Detectkick andsoundalarm.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL t7

2. Install safetyvalve;closesafetyvalve.
3. Positionpipe: prepareto closeannularpreventer'
4. Install insidepreventer;opensaferyvalve.
5. Recordtime.
6. Recordcasingpressure.
7. Check all valveson chokemanifold and blowout preventerstackfor correct
position(openor closed).
8. Checkfor leakson blowoutpreventersstackandchokemanifold'
g. Checkflow line andchokeexhaustlinesfor flow"
10. Checkaccumulator pressure. . :.:.ii.
11. Prepareto extinguishsources ofignition.
12. Alert standbyboator preparesafetycapsulefor launching'
13. Placecraneoperatoron duty for possiblepersonnelevacuation'
14. Prepareto lower all escapeladdersand prepareother abandonmentdevices
for possibleuse.
15. Prepareto strip backto bottom.
16. Time drill andenterdrill reP

1.I. 8 Relief assignments

Any employeewho acts as assignedrelief for anotheremployeewith a higher

classification(as coveredby this standard)shallmeetthe requirementsof the higher
classificationjob. unless such temporary duties are performed under direct
supervisionof an employeeof higher classification.@xample:In the eventthat a
derrickmanrelievesa driller, the derrickmanshall be qualified as a driller unless
performingthesedutiesunderthe direct supervisionof
representative).

1.2 WeII Control anrl ShaIIow Casing Strings

Trendsthat indicatea potentialwell controlconditionor that a kick hasstarted:

Core volunte cala ation

Example:
TD 1000ft
Hole size 26 inches
Mud wt. 9.0 ppg
Holevol. 0.6567bbVft.

Dr. M. S. Faraltat
l8 CH I TEcHNoLoGY oF qELL C0NTRqL

Porespace 20% containinggas

0.1313bb for eachft

0.7374cu ft. of holedrilled

Expandedgasfrom 1000feet:
(465psi) (0.7374cuft) : 14.7v2

Y2:23.33 cu ft (expandedgas32 timesoriginalvolume)(42 banels).

Therefore,pressurereductionat bottomcouldtheoreticaliybe:

Psi : 4.zbbVft* [(0.465pstlft)/(0.6324bbyft)]

: 12.97psi for eachfoot of holedrilled.

By drilling a 12 l/4 pllot hole,the pressurereductionfor eachfoot is reducedto

0.678psi.

Big Hole-Shallowgasproblem (massvolumeof core gas)

TD 1500ft
Holesize 26 inches
Mud wt. 9.2ppe
Holevol. 3.687cu ff/ ft (0.6567bbyft)
Porespace 207ocontaininggas
ROP 50 ft/hr (184.4cu ff/ hr drilled)
Gasdrilledperhour: 184.4* 0.2:36.87 cu ft /hr.
Formationpressure @ 1500ft : 698psi
Plvt:P2v2
698+37= 14.7Y2

Before kick:
{. Penetrationrate(increasingtrendwith samebit weight/RPM/hydraulics).
{. Torque trend increase (only trend, not sharp fluctuations due to lithology
changes).
* from local areaor
normal earths temperaturegradienttrend.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL
l9

'"-
' : '!'
"
*

impermeableformation, containingsalt water,hasbeendrilred.If

the formation
haspermeability,of course,a flow is taking place.
* A trend change in AW (drag up or down). Recording AW
trends, each
connection,will makethis hend a valuabletool for detectingtransitionzones.
{. D exponent trend changethis is normally recording plotted
by drilling
engineer, and is based on the drilling parametersand mud factors
alread.r
suggestedfor recordingby driller.
l. Influx of gas or or waterwhenpump is shutdown (lossof ECD).
This will
show up as connectiongasor water on bottomsup. In transitionzones,
this will
graduallyget worsein manycases.

Arterkick:

{. Flow rate changeandpit gain.

' Pump pressure drop or in the caseof diesel-electricrigs,
an increasein pump
strokes,but little changein pressure.The most importantpoint is
that a changein

pressureand strokes.
{. Chloridechangein mud filtrate.

Y2 = 1756 cu ft of gaswhich would createseriousheadinggas

aroundbell nipple
andrig floor ifnot diverted.

If a kick is detected with only a short casing string se! what

are the stepsfor
securingthe well?

Diverter problems & recommendations

l. Too small,use 12 inch or larger.

2. Make surelines arestraightandunrestricted.
3. Rig-upcarefullyandcheckregularly.
4. Make suresystemis automatic
5. Ineffectivesealon SSslipjoint to get (maintain)effectiveseal.

How do you kill a flow without holding any backpressure? . , ,",

Example:ShallowKick:

Dr. M. S. Farohat
 20 CH I TECHN,L^GY oF VELL C,NTR,L

The well is flowing 9.0 ppg salt H2O at 12 BPM. How fast would you haveto
pump 16 ppg mud to give anequivalentmud12.5ppg?The estimatedbalancing
mudweightis 12.5ppg.

DilutionFactor: l(16-12.5)I (t6 9.0)l : 0.5

Therefore,mix and pump 16 ppg mud at the sam l2 BPM andtheresulting

mixturewill weigh 12.5ppg.

Stepsfor divertingflow and analyzingcondition:

To divert:
.l Openchokeline.
.f. Closeannularpreventer.

Note: Make surechokelinesareunrestricted.If valvesareon the down streamfrom

inside hydraulic valve, make surethey areopenandarecheckedoften.On critical
-offshore wells, the line(s) should be a minimum size of twelve inches. Some
operators prefer to have hydraulic choke line valve open automaticallywhen
annularpre?enteris closed.

To Analyze:

{' Pre-calculate the maximum pressure that can be safety closed-in without
fracturingthe formationbelow the casingshoe.If offshore,considerthe pressure
createdby the columnof seawater.An exampleof this will be shownlater.
'f' check flow rate after diverting. A small flow, in some
cases,canbelived-
with if the casingpoint is near.Thereis an advantageoffasterpenetrationrates
under small water flow conditions.The situation shouldbe closely analyzed,
however, and in most cases the mud weight should be increasedwhile
circulatingwithout backpressure,until the flow stops.

The following stepsshouldbe takento kill anunrestrictedflow:

* Analyze the kick contaminant so that the safety of the operation takes
priority.
* Rig-up bulk mud facilities so that baritecanbe mixed quickly and without
delays.Theseshouldbe someredundancyin equipmentto assureno shut down.

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHN)L0GY oF VELL C,NTR7L
2l

'l Pre-mix as much base mud containing

bentonite,caustic, etc., as canbe
handled in the activesurfaceandstoragefacilities.Having
mud pre_mixedto a
heavier mud weight is a definite advantage.The mud weight
shouldbe very
close to fracture weight becauseof cutting tendencyof contaminant.
The
experienceof the writer has indicateda mud weightrangeof 90
r05 pcF or
0.3 to 0.73psi./ftgradient.
* once killing mcving operationsstarts,do not stop until flow
is balanced.
Intemrptionsin the killing operationwill causelost circulation
below the shoe,
much like choking at the surface,and or course, hasthe side
cosequence of .
stickingthe pipe.
'!' circulate at maximum rate so that mud
mixing equipment cankeepmud
weight adjusted.The addedECD effectwill help to containwell.

once the Jlow has been contained (baranced), what is the

recommended
operationalplan?

Considerations and options open to operatorafter a top hole

flow has been
cdntained:

{. The team that is responsiblefor picking casingdepth,comprising

a drilling
supervisor, drilling engineer,geologist,andin somecases,a mud
loggeror data
unit operator,shourdmakethedecisionofwhetherto (l) drill
a""pJf ar (2) set
casingat this point.
If the casing point team decidesto drill ahead,extremeprecaution
"!' of lost
circulation and flows should be considered. ECD drilling iechniqueshouldbe
considered.
'l' Ifthe casingteamelectsto setcasingat
this depth,considerations for sethnga
cementplug on the bottomanddressingit off ascloseto bottomaspossible
( 10_
15 ft) shouldbe given.The reasonfor this consideration is that thereis a strong
possibility of losingcirculationwhile runningcasing.If the annulus
level drops
with this nearbalancedsituation,the well will startflowing.
* A casing running scheduleof metaldispracement versuspit shouldbe made
up andmonitoredclosely.All pit readingsshouldbe takenwith the
casingful of
mud. Establisha trend actualmud displacement versustheoreticalcarcuration.
Lossesor gains can be caught early by small variationsfrom the
estabrished
trend. For example,if a losstrendis observed,the drilling supervisor
canslow

loss problem. Tripping schedulesare coveredunder special practices

in this
book.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
JJ CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL

How does a driller analyze how much pressure can be closed in with short casing
strings set?

To analyzn.how much pressurecan be safety closed in requires a little knowledge of

fracture gradients in the area. This information can be obtained from leak-off tests
or offset well information. Once the formation strength(fracture gradient) is known,
he can analyzethe problemtwo ways: (l) simplecalculation.(2) graphically.

A simple examplecalculationis shown(Figure 1.1)below:

How much pressure can be sa.fetyclosed in?

= 500* (0.74 0.465)= 138psi

Fracturepressure

Therefore.ii more than 138 psi were closedin, lost circulationwould probably
occur. On regular standpipegauges.it would be doubled whether the pressure
would registerbelow 200 psi. so on this kick. it would be betterto divert and
evaluatepressurewith accuratechoke manifold pressuregauee and stay below
fracturepressure.

The illustrationsbelow illustratethe samething graphicallywith depth(feet)versus

pressure(psi) giving gradientcurve of mud formationand geostatic(fracture),and
the conditionbeforeandaftera kick is taken.

To minimizeshallow gasproblems:
1. Drill shallow hole carefully to minimize washouts,This will facilitate
cementingcasing.
2. Locateshoesin morecompetentformation.
3. Measurefrac (leakoff) gradient.
4. Usesqueezingto guarantee validity of leakofftest.
5. Desisr to shutwell in below250feet(250feetbelowmud line).

l. openchoke.then
2. closeannularpreventer.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF IYELL CONTROL 23

with short strings of 18 5/8 in casingset,only divertthe flow, do not attemptto

close in. the driller mustbe awareof this, andmustunderstanddivertingprocedure.
To divert a flow, openthe choke,andthencloseannularpreventer.Somerigs have
the HCR andannularpreventercontrolsriggedup so that whenthe control valve is
activatedto close the annular preventer,the HCR (chokeline) is opened.MAKE
SURETHE COMMUNICATION LINK INCLTIDESTHE DRILLER.

Drilling in the top hole sectionwith short casingstringscan be very hazardousas

documentedby many case histories.Shownherearethe gradientcurves(Fig. 1.2)
for mud and formationfluids.

When the fracture gradient curve is draw (as shown in Fig. 1.3),theveryfine
balancebetween gain and loss canbe readilyseen.Oncethe well is closedin, the
balance shifts very quickly, and, in the case of the short casing string- lost
circulationdevelops.

Figure L4 points out that lost circulationwould occurif only 2000 2200 feetof
easing were set. The amountof casing,in this example,would dependon whether
the minimum geostaticgradientcuryeor the 85% of minimum geostaticcurvewas
beingused.

Frac gradiens: [(Ieak olf pressure) -(water depth * 0.44pslrn / depth below mud
linel
Formation pressare = (water depth t, 0.44) + (depth below mudline * frac
gradient)
Example:
Leakoffpressure :620 psi
Waterdepth : 500 ft
Fg : [620-(s00*0.44)y500 = 0.8psi/ft
Fp = (500* 0.44)+ (500 * 0.8): 620psi.

Note : Locationof 2noshoekey to well control.

The importanceof early detection (asshownin Fig. 1.5)becomesvery important
becausethe largerthe kick, the higherthepressuresareat all depths.To takea large
influx would requiremore casingto be setto preventlost circulation.Largeinfluxes
alsomakethe well moredifficult to kill.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
24 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

_s@fi.
L Frochre

FormoflonKlcjr
Fte.l. I

Igt

D
LDir

GO

@
EIE@oo
PFtrra h p9

F3.

Dr. M. S. Farahat'
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL t<

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hb

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o lqD zclD rlD @ s (rD

F-r. h P!

tr;tl' t.3

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R-t h PSI

FV' ta

Dr. M. S. Farahat
26 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

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rt{' t'o

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoLoGY oF VELL CONTROL 27

1.3 General procedures for onshore and offshore well control

1.3.I Diverter procedures
l. Procedure
Diverterprocedurewhile drilling
l. Soundthe kick alarm
2. Raisethe kelly abovethe rotary table.

DO NOT STOP THE PUMPS::!

3. (surface stack) open the diverter line valves and close the diverter p."n"ni".
(diverter line valves should open automatically as the diverter preventer-is
closed). (sub sea stack) close the diverter preventer and the shaker line valve
(shakerline valve shouldcloseautomaticallyas the diverterpreventeris closed).
4. Open pump suctionsto the weightedmud in the reservepit if available.When
the weighted mud pit is depleted,continuepumping with mud or seawater.

P['MP AS FAST AS POSSIBLE!!!

Considercirculatingwith all suitablerig prrmps.
Startbuildingheavymudvolumeassoonaspossible..,,

5. Arrangethe diverterline valvesto divertDOWN WIND ONLY.

Posta watchon thewind direction.

6. (sub sea stack) If the riser is equifped- open the mud line dump valves to
allow sea flooding into the annulus while pumping down the drill string at
maximum possiblepump rate.
7. MAKE ALL NECESSARY PREPARATIONS TO ABANDON TI{E RIG OR.
LOCATION.
8. Continue pumping until gas has cleared at surface for at least a bottoms up
circulation.
9. Stop the pumps and check for flow'.
Ifflow is observed:
g Continue pumping at maximuin pump rate until another bubble is
circulated out of the hole and bottoms-upstrokesare again pumped.
n Repeatstep# 9.

10. If no-flow is observed.open the diverter preventerso that circulationcan be

retumed to the pits.
I Begin building a new mud system.

Dr. M. S. Farohat
 28 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONT-ROL

11. Postkill considerations:

n Visually inspect the diverter system for damage'Repair all damage
beforedrilling ahead.
6 If possible.pressuretestthe divertersystem.
I Build a 400 to 500 banel reservevolume of heavy mud approximately
2.0 ppg heavierthandrilling fluid density.
6 Determinethe causeof the kick so that stepscan be taken to avoid
recurrence-

2. Procedure# 2
Diverter procedure while tripping :

l. Soundthe kick alarm.

2. Setthetop
3. Installandclosethe stabbingvalve (full opensafefyvalve)'
4. (surfacestack) open the diverter line valvesand close the diverter preventer
(diverter line valves should open automaticallyas the diverter preventeris
closed).
(sub seastack) closethe diverterpreventerandthe shakerline valve (shakerline
. valveshouldcloseautomaticallyasthe diverterpreventeris closed).

5. Makeup the kelly andstartpumpingassoonaspossible.

6. Openpump suctionsto the weightedmud in the reversepit if available.When
the weightedmud pit is depleted,continuepumpingwith mud or seawater.

PLMP AS FASTAS POSSIBLE!!!

g Considercirculatingall suitablerig pumps.
I Startbuildingadditionalheavymud volumeas soonaspossible-

7. Arrangethe diverterline valvesto divert DOWN WIND ONLY

I Posta watchon the wind direction.

8. (subseastack) If the riser is equipped-openthe mud line dumpvalvesto allow

seaflooding into the annuluswhile pumpingdown the drill string at maximum
possiblepumprate.
9. MAKE ALL NECESSARYPREPARANONSTO ABANDON TtM RIG OR
LOCATION.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL 29

NOTE:
The possibility of regaining primary well control in this situation dependslargely on
the bits distancefrom bonom (the greaterthe distance.the lessthe possibilit-v).

Possibleoptionsto consider:
6 Continue circulating seawater at maximum rate from presentbit depth until
the kick zone depletes itself and primary well control can be restored. If any
componentof the divertersystemfails. the rig or locationmust be abandoned.
0 Sport a healy greasepill from bit depth to surface

Density= (fracppg 0.5ppg).

Viscosity: greaseconsistency.
Volume: 1.5* annulusvolumefrom bit depth.

Pump the gt'easepill in place at maximumpossiblepump rate.

Wen the pit is depletedand gas has cleared at smface. stop the pumps and
checksfor flou'.
'
If v,ell flov has stopped or at least decreasedto a tolerable rate, nt the drill
sn'ing into the hole until v,ellflott' becomesthreatening.
Stop the trip, close the diverter slslem, and continue pumping the heat,iest
availableL'luid at maximumpossible rate.

10. Continue pumping until gas cleared at surface for at least a bottoms up
circulation.
ll. Stopthe pumpsand checkfor flow.

If fow is observed, continue puntping at macimunt pump rate until another

bubble is circulated ou o-fthe hole and/or bottonts up strokes are again pumped
and then repeat step # I I .

t2. Postkill considerations:

Viscosity'inspecl the diverter svstentfor damage. Repair all damage be.fore

'
drilling ahead.
I.fpossible,pressure test the diverter s,stem.
Build a 100 to 500 barrel reset'vetolume of heaw mud approximately 2.0 ppg
heavier than dri II ingfl uid densih:.
Determine the causeof the kick so that sleDscan be taken to atoid recwt'ence.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
30 CH I TECHN0LOGY OF W.ELL CONTROL

Procedure # 3

Riserlessdiverter procedure:
Note:

ln water depths of 500 feet or less,the SAFEST RESPONSEto shallow gas events
is to abandonthe location until the gas zone depletesitself.

l. Soundthe kick alarm.

NOTE: If the drill sf ing is of bottom,return to bottom or as deepas possible, as
safen'v'ill allov'.

2. Open pump suctions to the weighted mud in the reservepit if available. When
the weightedmud pit is depleted,continuepumpingwith mud or seawater.

PUMP AS FAST AS POSSIBLE!!!

Considerpumping v,ith all suitable rig pumps.
Statt building additional heant mud volume as soon as possible.
3. MAKE ALL NECEASSRY PREPARARTIONS TO ABANDON TT{E
LOCATION
4. Continue pumping the heaviest available fluid at maximum allowable rate to
help control gas flow into the wellbore.

In a few hours to a couple of days,the gas sand should eventually deplete itselt and
orimarywell controlwill be restored.

I-fthe kick cannot be conn'olled:

Considerpumping a hea4, gt easepill.
Densin' : (Frac ppg less 0.5ppg1.
Viscosin': gt'easeconsistencr.
Volume= 1.i * hole volunte.
Pump the g'ease pill in place at maxinruntpump rate.

Consider location abandonmentif the situation posesa potential safety threat to the
rig and personnel.

1.3.2. Flow check procedures

Procedure # 4

Dr, M. S. Farahot
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF fr'ELL CONTROL 3l

Flow check procedure while drilling

Note:
If a dritling break occurs, d'ill 2 to 5 feet into the break vhile obsen'ing-for
an increasein return Jlow.
If an increase in return .flot, is detected.sowtd the kick alarnt and slnt in the
well as quicklt' as possible.
Re.ferto shut in procedure x'hile drilling, (procedure6)-

If no-flov, is observedvhile d'illing the 2 to 5 feer, proceed to step # I.

1. Raise the kelly above the rotary table or to a predeterminedheight for proper
spaceout.
2. Stopthe pumps.

Surfoce stack observefor flow at the flow line for 5 to 10 minutes.

Sub sea stack line up the trip tank and monitor trip tank level for 5 to 15 minutes.

3. If flow is detected. sound the kick alarm and initiate shut in procedures as
quickly as possible.
..:;,'.-.,'J
:

Referto shutin procedurewhile drilling (procedure# 6 or 7)

Procedure# 5
FIow checkprocedure while tripping

l. Stopthepipetrippingoperation.
Surfacestack observefor flow at the flow line for 5 to l0 minutes.
Sub sea stack line up the trip tank andmonitortrip tank level for 5 to l5 minutes.

2. If flow is detected.sound the kick alarm and initiate shut in proceduresas

quicklyaspossible.

Refer to shut in procedure v,hile n'ipping (procedure# 8 or 9)

l:3.3 Shut in procedureswhile drilling

Procedure#6 '. r
Surfacestack

l. Soundthekick alarm.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
32 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

2. Raisethe kelly abovethe rotarytable. ,:.

3. Stopthe pumps.
4. Closethe upPerPiPerams.
5. Openthe chokeline valve (HCR valve).
6. Observeshutin pressures.

Record shut in drill pipe and casing pressures every 2 minutes. Three
consecutivepressurerecordingsindicate stabilizedpressure'

If the stabilization ofshut in pressureswas not observedor recorded"use trapped

bleeding procedure(# 11) to check for the pcssibility of trappedpressure'
7. Recordthe pit gain.

Note: lf desired and shut in pressurewill allow,, the annular preventer can be
closedandthe pipe ramsopenedto allow drill stringmovement'

Procedure # 7

(shutin procedure
Subseaslaclt.' while drilline)

1. Soundthekick alarm.
positionfor properspaceout in the BOP
2. Raisethe Kelly to the predetermined
stack.
3. Stopthepumps.
4. Closetheupperannularpreventer.
5. Openthechokeline failsafevalvesbelowtheintendedhang-offrams'
6. Observeshutin pressures-

Record shut in drill pipe and casing pressuresevery 2 minutes. Three

pressurerecordingsindicatestabilizedpressure.
consecutive

wasnot observedor recorded.\se fi'apped

If the stabilizationof shutin pressures
bleedingprocedure(# I I ) to checkfor the possibiliryof trappedpressure'

Adjust annularpreventerclosingpressurerelativeto the observedSICP.

7. Hang-offthedrill string.Referto drill string Hang-offprocedure(# l0).

8. If possible.line up the trip tank to monitor the riser volume during the kill "
operation.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONT-ROL 33

1.3.4 Shutin proceduieswhile tripping

Procedure# I
Surface stack

l. Soundthe kick alarm.

2. Setthe top tool joint on the slips.
3. Install and closethe stabbingvalve (full opensafetyvalve).
4. Close the annular preventer.
5. Openthe chokeline valve (HCR valve).
6. Observeshut in casingpressures.

Record SICP every 2 minutes. Three consecutivepressurerecordings indicate

stabilizedpressure.

Ifthe stabilization of SICP was not observedor recorded. use tapped pressure
bleedingprocedure(# 1l) to checkfor the possibilityoftrapped pressure.
.

Adjust annular preventer closing pressure relative to the observea StCp tsee
annularpreventeroperations,manual)..
7. Maintain the drill string in motion if the wellbore exhibits a differentialpipe
stickingtendencY.

Adjust the annular preventer closing pressureto allow approximately I gallon

per minute leakagefor packinglubrication(maximum= 2 gal/min).

Tie the slip handlestogetherand rotate the pipe slowly. Make up he kelly to
rotate lt necessary.

8. Record the pit gain.

:
Procedure # 9
Subseastac*.'(shutin procedurewhile tripping)
1. Soundthe kick alarm.
2. Setthe top tooljoint on the slips.
3. Install and closethe stabbingvalve (full open safeq'valve).
4- Closethe annularpreventer.
5. Openthe choke line failsafevalve below the intendedhang-offrams
6- Observeshut in casingpressures.

Dr. M. S. Farohat
 34 CH I TECHNoLOGYOFWELLCONTROL

Record SICP every 2 minutes. Three consecutivepressurerecordings indicate

stabilizedpressure.

If the stabilization of SICP was not observedor recorded, use n apped pressure
bleedingprocedn'e (# I l) to check for the possibiliry oftrapped pressure.

Adjust annularpreventerclosing pressurerelative to the observed

7. Maintain the drill string in motion if the wellbore exhibits a differential pipe
sticking tendency.

Tie the slip handlestogetherand rotatethe pipe slowly. Make up he kelly to

rotateif necessary.

Precipitatethe drill stringif rotationis not practical.

7, Recordthepit gain.

Procedure # I0
Drill string hang-off procedure

l. Adjust the annular preventer closing pressurerelative to observed SICP (see

annular preventeroperationsmanual).
2. Position a tooljoint above the hang-off rams with the lower kelly connection
above the rotary table.
''
3. Adjust the drill string compensator(DSC) pressure to set the desired string
weight onto the hang-offrams(30 000 to 50 000 lbs).
4.Reducethehang-offramclosingpreSsureto500to800psi'
5. Closeand lock the hang-offrams.
6. Slowly lower the drill stringuntil the tooljoint contactsthe hang-offrams.
7. Raise the drill string approximately I foot and increasethe hang-offram closing
pressureto 1500psi.
8. Slowly set string weight onto the hang-offrams.
9. Continue lowering the traveling block to position the DSC near mid stroke.

Procedure# II
{
Troppedpressure bleedingprocedures

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF WELL C0NTRoL 35

1. Bleed from the casingsideonly l/4 to ll2 barrelor until the drill pipe pressure
response.
2. Close the chokeandallow time for thepressures to stabilize(2- 3 sec/1000feet
ofdepth).
3. Observethe shut inpressures(useshutincasingpressureifdrillpipepressure
is not available):

{' If the shut in pressuresstabilize at their originalvalues,recordthe shut in

pressures.
{. If thepressuresstabilizeto lower values,repeatthebleedingprocedure.

Procedure# 12
Gasmigration pressure bleedingprocedure
Note:

If gas migration is occurringanddrill pipe pressurecannotbe observeddue

. to a pluggedbit for example,thevolumetrickillprocedure(#28,mustbe
employedto maintainproperwellborepressure.

1. Allow gasmigrationto increaseshutin drill pipe pressure50 to 100psi over the

initial stabilizedshutin valueto includea safetyfactor.

Desire[ DtP pressurevalue = SIDp + SAFETY FACTOR

NOTE:
Ifthe initial stabilizedshutin drill pipe pressureis not known,usetrapped
pressurebleedingprocedures(# i1), to determinethe stabilizedvalue.

2. Continue to hold the chokeclosedandallow gasmigrationto increaseSIDpp

50 to 100psi overthedesiredvalue.
3. Bleed from the casing side only l/4 tol/2 barrel or until drill pipe pressure
responds.
4. Close the chokeandallow time for thepressures to stabilize(2 to 3 sec/1000ft
ofdepth) andobserveSIDPP. I
5. Continueto repeatsteps3.and4 maintaindrill pipe pressureat the desiredvalue
(step# l).

NOTE:

Dr. M. S, Farahat
 36 CH I TECHN0L0GY OF WELL CoNTR0L

If the drill stringis equippedwith a solid float valve,referto SIDPPwith A solid

floatvalvetodeterminethevalueofshutindrillpipepressure(procedure# 13).

6. If or when the migratinggasbubblereachessurface,STOPTHE BLEEDING

OPERATION.

Refer to Dynamic Lubricate and Bleedprocedure(# 29), to safetyremove

the gasfrom the wellbore.

Procedure# 13
Shut in drill pipe pressure with a solidfloat valve

1. Pump one-strokeat a time into the drill pipe while observingshutin drill pipe
pressure.A largerig pumpcanbe slowly rolledby quickly startingandstopping
the pump.

NOTE:
The drill pipe pressure 'wrll inerease quic*ly {l to l0 strokes)as the
fluid abovethe float valveis pressurized.
incompressible

. Once the pressureacrossthe float valve is balanced,the float opensandpump

pressurewill no longerincreaserapidly.

2. Justasthe drill pipe pressureincreaseflattensotrt, stopthe pump.

3. Readshutin drill pipe pressuredirectlyfrom the chokepanelpressuregauge.

NOTE:
Drill pipe pressurecan be bled to zero psi through the fill-up line andthe
procedurerepeatedto confrrmaccuracy.

Procedure# 14
Bing the well on choke

NOTE:
SLP: Staticline pressurefor subseastacks.
CSG: Casingpressurefor surfacestacks.
1. Zero all pump strokecountersto insurea backup counter.
2, Openthe chokeslightly (1/8 to l/4 openposition).

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CHI TECHNOLOGYOFWELLCONTROL 37

3. Slowly increasethe pump speedto the desired kill pump rate (KPR) while
adjustingthe choketo maintainSLP/CSGpressureat its shutin value.
4. With thepump at the desiredspeed,observethe drill pipe pressure.

Hole the PUMP CONSTANT at the kill pump rate;

Adiust the chokefor the PROPERDzuLL PIPE PRESSURE.

Procedure# 15
Takethe well off choke

NOTE:
SLP: Staticline pressurefor subseastacks.
CSG: Casingpressurefor surfacestacks.
1. Recordthe presentcirculatingSLP/CSGpressure.
2. the pump speed.
Slowly decrease
3. Adjust the choke to maintainthe SLP/CSGpressureat he recordedcirculafing
valueasthe pump speedis reduced.
4.' Whenthe pump is shutdown, closethe chokecompletely-

NOTE:
Closea positivesealvalveaheadof thechokeif thechokedesignwill not froma
positive seal.

Procedure # 16
Determine an unknown kiII pump pressure (KPP)

NOTE:
SLP: Staticline pressure for subseastacks.
:
CSG Casingpressurefor surfacestacks.
1. If needed,calculatekill mud weight(KMW) andincreasethe mud weightto kill
density.

+ orig mud wt.

KMW: (SIDPPiTVD*0.052)

If the drill stringis equippedwith a solid float valve,referto SIDPPwith A solid

float valve (procedure# 13)

2. Zero all pump strokecountersto insurea backup counter.

3. Openthechokeslightly(ll8 to ll4 openposition).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 38 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF IYELL CONTROL

4. Slowly increasethe pump speedto the desired kill pump rate(KPR) while
adjustingthe choketo maintainSLP/CSGpressureat its shutin value.
5. With the pump at the desiredkill speed,andthe SLP/CSGpressureadjustedto
its shutin value,allow time for the pressureto stabilize(2 to 3 sec/1000ft depth)
6. The observedcirculating drill pipe pressure is the INITIAL CIRCULATING
PRESSURE (ICP).

NOTE:
If total strokespumpedat this point exceedthe surfacesysfo,mdisplacementstrokes,
the ICP mustbe correctedfor the volumeof KMW that hasenteredthe drill strine.

KMW : (stkspumped-surf sysstks)* bbl/stk * DP ft lbbl

HSP>: (KMW - OMW) * 0.052+ KMW
ICP : observedDP pressure+ HSP>

7. The kill pumppressure(KPP) is equalto:

Procedure# I7
. Changekilt pump rate (KPR) during the kill operation

NOTE:
SLP = Staticline pressurefor subseastacks.
CSG: Casingpressurefor surfacestacks.
1. Recordthe presentcirculatingSLPiCSGpressure.
2. Slowly decreaseor increase KPR to the new desiredspeedwhile adjustingthe
choketo maintainSLP/CSGpressureconstantat the recordedvalue.
3. Allow time for the pressures
to stabilize(2 to 3 sec/I000ft of depth).
4. Read the new circulating drill pipe pressurefor the new KPR directly'from'the
chokepanelpressuregauge.
5. Correctthe drill pipepressureschedulebythevalueofpressurechangeforthe
new KPR.

Example: a KPR increasefrom 30 SPM to'40 SPM increasedthe circulating

pressurefrom 500psi to 700 psi. For the new pump speed,a 200 psi increasewould
be addedto the remainderofthe Dressure schedule.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF W'ELL CONTROL 39

If the pump speed was reducedwas reduced.,the pressuredecreasewould be

subtractedfrom the remainderofthe pressureschedule.

1.3.5Kick killing procedures

Procedure#I8
The circulation kill procedure

1. Checkthe circulatingsystemvalve alignment:

g Fromihe suctionpit to thekill pump;
g Fromthekill pumpto thestandpipeandkelly;
n
g shaleshaker,andbackto'the suctionpit'
Through.thegasbuster,degasser-

2. Zerc all pumpstrokecountersto insurea backup counter'

3. Bring the well on chokepumpingORIGINAL MUD WEIGHT (OMW).
g Slowlyincrease thepumpspeedto thedesiredkill pumprate(KPR)-
. 0 Adjustthe choketo holdthecasingpressure at its shutin value.

Referto bring the well on choke(procedure# !4) for moredetail.

4. With the pumpat kill pumprate(KPR),allow time for pressures to stablize(2

3 sec/l000ft ofdepth)andobservethe drill pipecirculatingpressure.

.NOTE:
g Hold the pumpspeedconstantat KPR;
n Adjustthe chokehold the observedcirculatingpressureconstantthroughthe
remainderof thekill operation.

5. Continue..circulating and casingpressureis .

for at leasta bottomsup Circulation
at or nearzeropsi.
6. Stopthe pump.leavethe chokeopen.andcheckfor flow at the endofthe choke
line.
7. Ifflow is detected.closethechokeandcheckfor shutin pressures.

CAUTION: ObservedSIDPP'.vhenthe pipe is offbottom doesnot illdicatea

needfor mud weieht increase.

The hydrostaticpressureof the mud in the standpipewill be reflectedon drill

pipepressuregauge(20 to 70 psi)

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 .au
CH I TECHNOLOGY OF TYELL CONTROL

g If actual SIDpp is observedwith the pipe on bottom,

refer ro procedure# l l. to
check for trappedpressure.
0 If actual SIDPP is derected,refer to the wait and weight kilr procedure
# 19.
0 If only shut in casing pressureis observed,bring the weil on choke (procedure
# 14,and continuecirculatineuntil:

A second bubble is pumped out;

A light spor of mud is pumped our
Bottom up stt"okesare again pumped.

6 Stop the pump and repearstep# 6.

8. Ifno-flow is detected:
Surface stack clear the rotary table and open the BOp.
Sub sea stack follow procedure # 20 or 2 I to safety
, clear the stack gas from the
BOp stack and then open the lower rams.

9. Checkfor flow at the flow line or shaker:

n If flow is observed.closethe BOp andretumto step# 7.
g lfno-flow is detected:

Circulateandconditionthe mud system.

Pressurecheckand/orviscosiryinspectthe Bop equipment
that wasusedin kirl
operation.
Determinethe causeof the kick so thatstepscanbe taken
to preventrecurrence.

Procedure# 19
The wait and weight kitt procedure

l. Calculatethe kill mud weight (KMW) densityand

relay this data to the mud
pirs.

KMW = (SIDPP/TVD*0.052)
+ OMW

NOTE:

andsuccessful
kill operation.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF VELL CqNTR'L 4l

2- constructa drill pipepressureschedule(pressureversusstrokesto the bit).

NOTE:
If the kill pumppressurevalueis unknown,referto procedure# 16.to determinethe
unknownKPP.
TableI.I
.srlcs PR,ESS
'';". "I
0 15OO : ICP
100 1460
200 1420
STKDTVISIONS
_ (STKSTO 300 1380
400 PRESS
BrTyl0 1 3 4 0
DROP/STKDIV =
500 1300
(rcP-FCP/10)
600 1260
700 t220
800 I180
900 1140
S T K St o b i t : 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0= F C p

3. Checkthe valve alignmentof the circulatingsysrem:

g Fromthe suctionpit to thekill pump;

g Fromthekill pumpto thestandpipeandkelly;
g From the wellheadrhroughthe chokemanifold;
g Throughthe gasbustcr,degasser, shalesha!<er,
andbackto the suctionpit.

4. Zero all pumpstrokecountersto insurea backup counter.

5. With the mud in the pits ar KMW density,bring the well on choke.
g Adjustthechoketo holdthecasingpressure at its shutin value.
g Increase thepumpspeedto thedesiredkill pumprare(KpR).

Referto bringthe well on choke(# 14)for moredetail.

_ ,l
6. with the pump at kill pump rate (KpR). observethe drill pipe circulating
pressure.

NOTE:

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 42 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONI'ROL

Hold the pump speedconstantat KpR;

Adjust the choke to make the drill pipe pressure
foltow the calculated dri'
pressureschedulethrough the remainder r^t,!
of the kill operation.

7' when the KMW reachesthe bit. continue

hording the pump speed constantat
KPR and adjust the choke to maintain
the final circurating pressure(FCp)
constantuntil the influx is pumpedout of
the hore and rurw ir"r"r"-irrg.

8' When fut densiry KIvf returns,stop

the pump, reavethe choke open. and check
.w
for flow at the end ofthe chokeline.

9. If flow is detected close the choke and 'r:.! 'r'1 !

check for shut in pressure.

CAT]TION:

Thehydrostaticpressureof the mud in the

standpipe witt be reflectedon driil pipe
pressure
gauge(20 to 70psi).

actualSIDFp= Observed
SIDpp StdpipeHSp
* If actuarSIDpp
is observed,refer to procedure# l l.
pressure. to check for trapped

If acrualSIDpp is detecte4repeatthis procedure

fiom the beginning.
* If only shut in casing
pressureis observed,bring the welr
on chock (procedure#
14)andcontinuecirculatingwith thesame
mudwe-ieht until:

A Secondbubbleis pumpedout;

A lighr spotof mud is pumpedout;

Bottomsup strokesis againpumped.

10. Ifno-flow is detected:

(SurfaceStack) Clearthe rotarytableandopenthe SOp.

(sub seastack) Frowprocedu

re # 20 0r 2 l, to saferycrearthe stackgas
from the

Dr, M. S. Forohat
 CH I TECHN0L0GY oF VELL C0NTRhL
43

BOP stackandthenopenthe lower rams.

ll. Checkfor flow at the line or shaker:

* Ifflow is observed.closethe BOP andreturn

to step# 9.

* Ifno-flow is detected:

Circulate and condition the mud system.

lncreasethe mud weight to trip margin density.

Pressurecheck and,/orvisually inspectthe Bop equipmentthat was used in

kill
operation.
i 1- :
Re-orderbaritesuppliesif necessary.

Determinethe causeof the kick so-thatstepsqanbe takento preventrecurrence.

1.3.6 Stack Gas Clearing Procedures

Procedure # 20
Stack Gas Under The Hang-olf Rams

l. Closethelowerrams.

2. Closethe lowerchokeline failsafevalves.

3. Openthe upperchokeline fail safevalves.

4. Openthe upperannularpreventer.

5. If originalmud weightwasusedto kill the kick. proceedto step# 6.

* If a mud weight increasewas neededto kill the

kick, circulatedown the choke
line anddisplacetheriserwith kill mudweight.

g Closethe diverterpreventerandopenthe shakerline valve.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNqL0GY oF wELL C,NTRuL

g Hold thepumpspeedconstantwhile displacingtheriser. .,. !

0 If an increasein return flow indicatesgas approachingthe

surface,closethe
shakerline valve to divertthe retumsoverboard.

6. connectthedrilr stringcompensaror
(DSC)air suppryto thechokemanifold.

7. Displace80% of the chokeline with DSC air pressure.

* Measurethe retuming volume

to determinewhen g0 o/oof the choke rine is
displaced
with DSCair.

8. with 80% of the chokeline dispraced,closethe upperchoke

line fail safevarves
andclosetheair supplyvalve.

9. Routethe returningDEC air andstackgasthrough a flare

boom.

10. Line up tfretrip tank to maintainthe riser full of mud.

ll. Openthe lowerchokeline failsafevalves.

12. open the choke completeryto allow rapid bleed off

of the choke line air
pressureandstackgasthroughthe flare boom.

13' Adjustthe DSC pressureto just lift the pipeweight from the
hang-offrams. l
14. when the trip tank indicatesthe riser mud is reakingtluough
the hang_offrams
and/orthe flow rate from has stopped.unlock and op"n ,t
hung_o#rams to
allow the.risermud to U-tubeinto the chokeline. "

15' when the u-tubing flow throughthe flare boom stops,

crosethe lower choke .
line fail safevalves.

16. Openthe lowerrams. ,.

17. Monitor the trip tank for flow. If flow is observed.crose

the lower rams and
again,checkfor flow

olf flow is stirl observ6d,re-circulatemud

through the riser packagewith the

Dr, M. S. Farahal
 CH I TECIINOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL 45

' '
diverter closed and the shakerline valve open and then repeatstep # 17.

NOTE:
Hold the pump speedconstantwhile displacingthe riser. If an increasein return
flow indicatesgas approachingthe surface.close the shakerline valve to divert
returnsoverboard.

* If the observed flow stops when the lower rams are close4 check for shut in
pressures.

18. If no-flow is observed-circulatemud throughthe wellborewith the diverter

closedandthe shakerline valve openfor at leastrisei displacementstrokes

NOTE:
Hold the pump speedconstantwhile displacing.If an increasein retum
flow indicatesgas approachingthe surface.closethe shakerline valve to
divert the retumsoverboard.

19. After pumping riser displacementstrokes,open the diverter and displacethe

chokeandkill lineswith the desiredfluid.

Procedure# 2I
StackGasUnder TheAnnular Preventer

1. Closethe lowerrams.

(DSC) air supplyto the chokemanifold.

2. Connectthe drill stringcompensator

3. Line up the trip tank to rggeiveretumsfrom the kill line.

4. Closethe upperchokeline failsafqvalv-esandQpenthe lo.wer thoke line failsafe .

valves.

5. Displace80% ofthe chokeline with DSC air pressure.

oMeasurethe returning vclume to determinewhen 807o of the choke line is

with DSCair.
displaced

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 46 CH I TECHNoLOGY oF VELL CoNTRoL

6. With 80% of the choke line displaced, close the kill line failsafe valves and
close the air supply valve.

7. Route the retuming DSC air and stack gasthrough a flare boom

8. Open the choke completely to allow rapid bleed off of the choke line air
pressureand stack gas through the flare boom.

9. Line up thetrip tank to maintainthe riser full of mud.

10. When flow throughthe flare boom has stopped,openthe annularpreventerto

allow the risermud to U-tubeinto the chokeline.

ll. When the U-tubing flow through the flare boom stops,close the choke line
failsafevalves.

12. Closethedivertersystemandopenthe shakerlinevalve.

13. If originalmud weightwasusedto kill the kick. proceedto step# 14.

olf kill mud weight was neededto kill the kick, openthe kill line failsafevalves.
Circulatedownthekill line anddisplacetheriserwith kill mudweight.

n Hold thepumpspeedconstantwhile displacingthe riser.

g If an increasein retum flow indicatesgas approachingthe surface.closethe

shakerline valveto divertthe retumsoverboard.

f 4.With the riserdisplacedwith the propermudweight.openthe lowerrams.

l5.Monitor the trip tank for flow. If flow is observe4close the lower rams and
again.checkfor flow.

6 If flow is still observedwith the lower rams closed,circulatemud through

riserpackageandrepeatstep# 15.

D If the observedflow stopswhen the lower ramsare closed,checkfor shut in

pressures.

Dr. M. S. Farohat
 CH I fEcHNoLOGY OF WELL coNTRoL 47

f6. If no-flow is observeddisplacethe chokeand kill lines with the desiredfluid

andresumeoperations.

Procedure# 22
StackGasIhnderThe Blind / Shear Rams

l. Run a stringofopen endeddrill pipeto the upperannularpreventer.

' . ':'r
2. Connectthe drill stringtb the chokemanifdld.

3. Adjust the Drill String Compensator@SC) pressureto just supportthe observed

hockloadPLUS5000to 10.000lbs.

4. Positionthe lowertool joint ruST BELOW the upperannularpreventer.

rReducethe annularpreventerclosingpressureto 600 to 1000psi.

5. Close the upper annularpreventerand slowly strip the drill string UP until the
lowertool joint is underthe annularpreventerpacking.

r lncreasethe annularpreventerclosingpressureto 1500psi.

6. Openthe failsafevalvesof a chokeor kill line BELOW the stackgas.

oOpen the blind.ishearrams.

7. Circulateoriginalmud weight downthe chokeor kill line while returningthe stack

gasandmud throughthe drill stringandchokemanifold.

olncreasethe pump speedto approximatelyI bbl/min and then maintainthe pump

speedconstant.

oAdjustthe choketo maintainthe observedcirculatingpumppressureconstantuntil

the stackgasis circulatedout andmud is retuming.

8. when the stackgasclearsat surface,reducethe annularpreventerclosingpressure

to 800 to 1000psi and slowly pull the tool joint throughthe annularpreventer
packerto removethe remainingportionof stackgas.

Dr, M. S- Farahat
 48 CHI TECHN0L0GYDFVELLCDNTRuL

9. Whenthe tool joint is pulled free of the annularpreventerpacking,rop the purnp

andclosethe blind / shearrams.
:
10. The stack string gas will be U-tubbed to surface through the drill string.
Maintainthe riserfull with the trio tank.

ll. When the U-Tubing flow stops,CARFULLY back off the top drill string
connectionto bleedoffany gasthatmight be trappedat the top ofthe drill string.

12. Open the blind / shearrams and monitor the trip tank for flow. If flow is
observe4 close the blind/shearrams and circulateriser displacementstrokes.
Repeatstep# 12.

.If the observedflow stopswhen the blind/shearramsareclosed-checkfor shutin

casingpressure.

oIftheobservedflowstopswhentheblind/shearclosed.checkforshutincasing
pressure..

olf SICP is observed"a secondkick is migratingthroughto The wellbore.Referto

TheVolumetricKill Procedure.# 28.

13. It no-flow is observeddisplacethe choke and kill with the desiredfluid and
resumeoperations.
, .:
1.3.7Off Bottom Kicks

hocedure # 23
STRIPAND BLEED PROCEDARE

l. Calculatethe maximum allowablecasing pressure(MACP) to avoid formation

fracture.

MACP: (Fracppg Mud ppg)X.052 X TW shoe

2. Calculatethe maximumcasingpressurelimit (MCPL) to determineif and when

the strippingoperationshouldbe suspended anda portionofthe bubblecirculated
out of the wellboreto reducethe shutin casingpressure.

Dr. M. S. Forahat
 CH I TECIINoLOGY oF VELL coNTRoL

(MCPL)=MACP*0-8

NOTE:

If the casing shoe TVD is 33bloor less than the TVD of the well. use (0.6) to
calculateMCPL.
1
3. Calculatethe barrelsof displacement
per standof pipe strippedinto the wellbore
(BBL/Srd). '

BBI"rStd -- (Pipe disp + cap) * avg stand length

4. Constructa chartor graphof standsstrippedversesSICP.

MACP - 1250 psl MCPL - 1000psi BBLs / Std = 2.3 bbls

Stands SICP SrcP BBLs

stripped (Afier bleed) (Afier stipping) Beld
"050000

5. Adjustthe annularpreventerclosingpressurefor thestrippingoperation.

: 1'
(Surface Stack) Slowly decreasethe closing
observed(maximumleakrate,2 gaVmin).

(Sub Sea Stack) Slowly decreasethe closing pressureto the value of pressure
recommended by the manufacturer.Seethe annularpreventer
operationsmanualfor properclosingpressure.

NOTE:

Allow the lubricatingmud volumeto flow into the bleedtank and becomepart of
thetotalvolumemudvolumebledperstandof pipestrippedintothehole.

6. Hold the chokeclosedand slowly strip I standof pipe into the hole. SICP will
increaserelativeto the volumeof pipe strippedinto thewellbore(bbls/std).

7. Allow a 50 to 100psi safetyfactor.

Dr. M. S. Farohat
50 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

olf one standstrippedinto the hole increasesthe SICP ABOVE the desiredvalue
(SICP+ SafetyFactor),bleedmudfrom thewellboreuntil the SICP (Table1.2)
reachesthe desiredvalue. :

olf one standdoesnot procedurethe desiredSICP value, continuestrippingpipe

into thewellboreuntil the desiredvalueis reached.

TableI.X
MACP= 1250psL MCPL: 1000psi BBLs/Std: 2.3bbls

Stands SICP SrcP BBLs

Stripped (After bleed) (Afier stripping) Beld
0s0000
I s50 550 0
2 600 600 0
3 600 650 2.3
4 600 65Q 2.3
5 ,. 600 650 2.3
' 650 2.3
6 600
7 600 650 2.3
8 600 650 2.3

NOTE:

A 100-psisafety factor was maintainedby NOT BLEEDING the 2.3 bbls/std

volumeon standsI and2.

On the next 6 stands.the desiredcasing pressure(600 psi) was maintainedby

bleedingtherequired2.3banelsof mudafterstrippingeachstands.

8. Continuewith the operationof STRIPPINGIn a volumeof pipe and BLEEDING

OUT anequalvolumeof mud.

This processwill maintain a wellbore pressurethat is high enough to prevent

additionalinflux andlou' enoushto preventformationfracture.

NOTE:
Dependingon the increasein casingpressure.one to severalstandsof pipe

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 51

:
canbe strippedbeforeSICp increasessignificantly

Do not allow SICp to becomeexcessive,however. before bleedinethe

requiredvolume.

ExcessiveSICP increasesthe possibility of differential sticking and other

problemsassociated
with excessivewellborepressure.

If the SCIPrerurnsto the desiredvalueafter bleedingthe requiredmud volume.the

bottom hole assembly@HA) is still travelling through mud and IIAS Nor
vet
enteredthe influx.

If the scIP returnsto the desiredvalueBEFoRE the requiredvolume is bled off:

6 Sub Seastack:If the choke line fluid densityis lighter than the mud density.
SCIPwill decreaserelativeto the hydrostaticpressureincreaseas mud displaces
the chokeline fluid duringthe first few stands.
p A seepagelossof mud to the formationmaybe occurring.

If the scIP after bleedingcontinuesto be slighrly higher than the last recorded
value:

0 The FLILL bbls/stdvolumemay not havebeenbled off.

0 Gasmigrationmaybe occurring.

Referto TrappedPressureBleedingprocedures# ll, if the gas migrationpressure

becomes excessive.

If the SCIP after bleedinghas increasedsI{ARpLy from the lasr recordedvalue.

the BIIA enteredthe influx.

9. continue the stripping operationuntil the Maximum casing pressureLimit

(MCPL) is reachedOR the bit is on bottom.

NOTE:

Thebottomholeassembly hasenteredtheinflux on stand# 16,indicatedby

thesharpincrease
in SICpafterbleedingthe2.3bbls.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
52 CH I TECHN0LOGY oF VELL CoNTR0L

The bit is below the influx on stand# 20, indicatedby the decrease
in SCIP
afterbleedingthe2.3 bbls-Table1.3.
.' :

Toble1.3
=
MACP 1250psl MCPL = 1000psi BBLs/Std:2.3 bbls

Stands SICP SrcP BBLs

Stripped (Afier bleed) (Afier stipping) Beld
t4 600 650 2.3
15 600 650 2.3
16 680 730 2.3
17 760 810 2.3
18 830 840 2.3
19 860 870 2.3
20 820 830 2.3
'"'-' : !1r
zl 780 7go 2.3
22 790 800 2.3
23 800 8r_g _ 2.3

If dested. the stripping operationcan be stoppedat stand# 2l and the

influx volume abovethe bit circulatedout of the hole to reduceSCIP and '
possibly,kill thekick.

If a secondinflux is presentfurther down hole, however.it may not be

possibleto completelykilled fiom thisdepth.

10. CAUTION !!! If the maximumcasinsoressure

limit is reachedbeforethe bit is
on bottom:

E Stopthestrippingoperarion.

0 (procedure
Usethecirculationkill procedure # l8).

g Ciiculate the top portion of the influx out of the hole with original mud
weight(OtvIW).

11. After the influx is circulatedout, stop circulatingand coninuestrippinguntil

maximumcasingpressurelimit is againreachedor thebit is on bottom.

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECIINOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL
53

Use the circulationkill procedure(procedure# 18) with original mud weight to

circulatethe remaininginflux out of the wellbore'

Procedure# 24
Off bottom kill procedure l

1. Calculatethe kill mud weight (KlvfW) density'

SF : Safetyfactorof 50 to 100Psi.

I(MW = [(SCIP+ SF)/ (TVD bit * 0.052)]+ Orig Mud Wt'

CAUTION:
If differentialstickinghasoccurredor is likely, usethe mininum safery
factor(50 Psi).

2. Calculatethe surfaceto bit strokes.

DSStks = 1 nrill stringbbls)/ @umpout put bbls/stk)

# 14.
3. Bring the well on chokeusingprocedure
4. NOTE:

SLP= staticline pressurefor sub seastacks'

CSG: casingpressure for surfacestacks' -: .,:

With the pump at the desiredspeed.hold the pump speedconstantand adjustthe

choketo maintainthe SLP/CSGpressureat shut in valueuntil surfaceto bit strokes
arepumped.

5. With the KMW at the bit, hold the pumpspeedconstantand adjustthe choketo
hold the PRESENT drill pipe circulating pressureconstantuntil the KIvflV
refumsto surface.

6. Stopthe pump.leavethe chokeopen,andcheckfor flow at the chokeline.

7. Ifflow is detected.closethe chokeandcheckfor shutin pressures'

CAUTION:

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 54 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF VELL C0NTR0L

The hydrostaticpressureof the mud in the standpipe will be reflectedon the drill
gauge(20 to 70 psi).
pipepressure

Actual SUDPP - ObservedSIDPP stdpipe HSP.

Ifactual SIDPPis observe4referto procedure# 11.checkfor trappedpressure.

If actualSIDPPis detected,repeatthis procedurefrom the beginning. ;

Ifonly shutin casingpressureis observed.bring the well on choke(procedure# 14)

andcontinuecirculatingwith the samemud weightuntil:

A secondbubble is pumped out;

A light spot qf mud is puntped ottt;
Bottoms up stroks (fi'om bit depth\ areagain pumped.

8. Ifno-flow detected:
Surface stack: Clearthe rotary tableand openthe BOP. :
Sub sea stack: Follow procedure# 20 or 21. to safetyclear the stackgas from the
' BOP stack and then open the lower rams.

9. Check for flow at the flow line or shaker:

If flow is observed.
closetheBOPandreturnto step# 7.

10. Install an inside BOP or a wireline retrievabledart sub it the top of the drill
stringanddisplacehe drill stringwith originalmudweight(ON,[W).

ll. Run the drill string into the hole while monitoringthe trip tank or flow line for
well flow.

Continue nmning the drill sn'ing into the hole until:

The well begins to flow as the boftom hole assemblyenters the bubble and
elongatesthe gascolumn height

The bit reachesbottom.

12. lf or when well flow is detected.shut in the well and use the strip and bleed

Dr. M. S, Farahat
 f,5
.. CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

procedure# l2 to stripthe pipeto bottom'

13.withthepipeonbottomusethecirculationkillprocedure#18,withoriginal
mudweightto removethe influx.

Procedure# 25
Riserkill Procedure

l. Calculatethe kill mudweight(KMW) density'

NOTE:

density,the
If the chokeline fluid densiry(cLF ppg) is lessthan the drilling fluid
actualshutin casingpressure(SICPa)mustbe calculated'
* *
HSP> = (mudppg CLF ppg) 0'052 waterdepth
SICPa= obsemedSICP HSP>

(SF)-
calculatethe KMW densityusingSICPaplus 50 to 100psi safetyfactor
*
KIWW= KSCIPa + SF)/ (water depth 0'052)l + Orig Mud WL

NOTE:

IftherequireddensiryofKlvfWexceedsthesafurationdensityoftheweighting
kill cannotbe
materialOR the maximummud weight for the riser design.The riser
employed.

Wt Material Saturation PPg

Barite 2l-0 22'0
Hematite 24'0 26'0

Otherpossibleoptionsto consider:

Drill collar strippingassembly,procedure# 26'

Thevolumetrickill procedure # 28'

blind rams and

2. Run a drilling assemblywit a SoLID FLOAT VAL\E to the
circulatethe KMW throughtheriserpackage'

Dr, M. S. Farahat
56 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF TYELLCONTROL

3. Opentheblind ramsandmonitor the h-iptank or flow line for well flow.

If flow is observed,closethe blind rams:

{. If flow is still observedwhen the blind ramsareclosed,circulatethe riser

packageagainwith the samemud weight.
{. If the flow stopswhenthe blind ramsareclosed,checkfor SICP.

NOTE:
The value of safetyfactor(SF) usedto calculatekill mud weight (KMW, step#
l) will be imposedto the observedSICP.

* If the observedSICPstabilizesto a valueGREATERthan the (initial SICP+

SF),gasmigrationis occurring.Retumto step# l.

4. If no-flow is observed,fill 1/2 of the trip tank with kill mud weight andline up
the trip tank to the riser package.

MARK THE TRIP TANK FLUID LEVEL.

5. Run one itand of pipe into the hole. the trip tank level should increaseby the
displacementPLUS capacity of the stand with the drill string float valve
installed.

BBLs / Std: (Disp + Cap) * Avg Stand Length

6. Bleed original mud weight from the LOWER chokeor kill line tap availableon
the stackandreturn this fluid to the pits.

* Continue bleeding OMW, until the trip tank level hasretumedto the level
markedin steo# 4.

NorE:
.i r:- '' : " " '
I to 3 standscan be tripped into thewellborebeforebleedingthe trip tanklevel
backdown.

7. Stop the trip at frequentstand intervals(5 to 10 stands)to monitor the well for
flow.

Dr. M. S, Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 57

If well flow is detectedbeforethebit reachesbottom,shutin the well andreferto

procedure# 23,to strip thepipe to the influx or to bottom.

8. with the bit into the influx or at bottom,usethe circulationkill procedure# lg,
to circulatethe influx out of the wellbore.

DRILL COLLAR STRIPPING ASSEMBLY

1. calculate the hydraulic force (Hyd lbs) acting to push the drill collars (DC) out
of theBOP:

Hyd Lbs: Drill Collar OD2* 0.7gs4 * SIC1

NOTE:

Sub Sea stack If the chokeline fluid density(cLF ppg) is lessthanmud density,
calculatethe actualshutin casingpressure(SICPa)to determinethe hydraulicforce
(Hyd Lbs).

0.052 * water depth

SICPA

2. Calculatethe minimum feet of drill collars (D

stringinto the wellbore(Min Dc)

Pg = (Hyd Lbs + Fric Lbs) / (DC lbs /ft)

Fric Lbs : The stringweightrequiredto overcomethe frictionalgrip of theannular

preventerpacker.

NOTE:

Surfacestack If Min DC exceeds1 stand,the strippingassemblycannotbe used.

Otherpossibleoptionsto consider:

Thevolumetric kill procedure # 28.

TheDrillable WirelineBridgeplug # 27.
Snubbingoperation

Dn M. S. Farahat
 58 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

3. Make up a bonom hole assembly(BHA) of proper length (wITH OUT

STABILZERS)equippedwithabitandasoliddrillstringfloatvalve.

4. Run the bit to thetop of theblind ramsandfill the drill stringwith mud. :".' :'

5. Closethe annularpreventerand adjustthe closhg pressurerelativeto the shut

in casing pressureand drill collar outside diameter(see preventeroperation
manual).

6. To testthe strippingassemblyfor suffrcientweight:

pump down the drill stringto pressureup betweenthe annularpreventerand

n
blind rams.
I Apply a pressureequalto SICPa(seestep# 1)
jacked out of the BOP with the appliedtest pressure.the
n If the drill string is
weightof the strippingassemblymustbe INCREAESD'

7. If the weight of the strippingassemblyis sufficient, open the blind rams and
refer to the strip and bleed procedure# 23, to strip the drill string into the
wellbore.

- Optiorts:

I The drill string can be strippedto a sufticientdepthto employ an offboftom

kill Procedure # 24.
a depthjustbelow the bubbleandthe influx
0 The drill stringcanbe strippedto
circulatedout with the circulationkill procedureandoriginalmud weight# 18.
I The drill string can be strippedto bottom and the influx circulatedout with
the circulationkill procedureandoriginalmud weight # 18'
:. 4
Procedure# 27

Drilting v,irelinebridgeplug (suryface

stackl

of
1. Obtain a drillable wireline bridge plug and lubricatorto fit the last string
casing.

NOTE:
Orderinga secondbridgeplug asa backup is recommended'

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 59

2. calculate the kill mud weight (KI\,[w) required to control the kick pressure
below the plug andincreasemud density.
,,r.- :
SF = safety Faaor of 50 to 100 psl
I{MIY: KSICP + SF) / (TWtit * 0.052)J + Orig Mud wt

3. Removethe bell nipple and make up thewirelinelubricatortothetopofthe

annular preventer.
Ifnot possible,.usea shooting or perforating nipple.

4. Pressuretestthe lubricatorto at leastshutin casingpressurevalue.

5. Equalize the lubricator pressureto shutin casingpressurevalueand openthe
blind rams.
6. Setthe bridgeplug at the casingshoe.
7. Pressuretestthe bridgeplug:

* Bleedthe SICPdown by l/4 to ll2of its originalvalueandclosethe choke.

:g.If the SICP returnsto its originalvalue,the plug is leaking.Setthe second

plug andrepeatthe testprocedure.

.t' If SICP does not increase,bleed SICp to zeroandobserve

SICp for plug
integdty.

8. Ifthe bridgeplug is secure,openthe chokeand observefor flow.

'f' If flow is detected,closethe chokeandobserveSICp for bridgeplug leaking.

Setthe secondplug if necessary.

9. If no-flow is observed,run a drilling assemblyequippedwith a solid drill string

float valve to the bridgeplug.

10. Circulate the kill mud weight to the bit andback to surface.

tl. CAREFULLY drill through the bridge plug. When the bridge plug is drilled,
raisethe kelly, stopthe pumpsandcheckfor possibleconditions.

. Ifno-flow is detected,proceedto step# 12.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 60 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL

g If well flow is detectedshutin the well andobservedshutin pressures.

6 Checkfor the possibilityof trappedpfessuredueto gasmigrationprocedure

# ll.
I If actualSICPis detecte{ possibleoptioninclude:

n Strip the drill string below the bubble or to bottom. Refer to the strip and
bleedprocedure# 23.
g Refer to the wait and weight kill procedure# 19, to circulatea new KMW
from bit depthto surfaceandthenproceedto step# 12.

n Loss of circulation is indicated An undergroundblowout is in progress.

Referto Tertiarywell controlprocedureasmentionedbefore.

12. If no flow is detectedafter the bridgeplug is drille4 displacethe drill string

with originalmud weight(ON/IW).

the Wel!for flow'

13. Run the drill stringinto holewhile obseqving

Ifwell flow is'detectedclosethe annularpreventerand refer to the strip and bleed

procedure# 23 to strip the drill stnngbelowthe bubbleor to bottom.

'
14. With the bit below the bubble or on bottom. refer to the circulation kill
procedure# 18,to circulatethe kick andkill mud weightout of the hole with
originalmud weight.

Procedure# 28
The volumetric kill procedure

NOTE:
If the gas bubble is ABOVE the bit and shut in drill pipe pressureis
accessible,refer of Gas Migration PressureBleeding Procedure# 12 to
controlwellborepressure.

1. Calculatethe hydrostaticpressurelossper barrelof mud bled from the wellbore

(PSI/BBL).
g If the depth of the bubble is not known, an averagePSVBBL must be
calculated
@SI/BBLs).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHN0L0GY oF VELL CONTROL 6l

BBLs = The total Volume of mud in the areasthe gaswill

migrate through (open hole or annulus).

PSWBLa-- (Mudppg * 0.052* TVD)/BBLs

g If the locationof thebubbleis known,usethe following calculation:

PSABBL-- (PSUfiMud Gradient)/ BBLs/ft at gasdepth

NOTE:

The rate of bubble migration can be estimatedby:

tln = Time required for gas migration to increasecasingpressurefrom SICP I to

SICP2 value.

FIrs= Time requiredfor gas migrationto increasecasingpressurefrom SICP I to

SICP2 value.

, Mig. Rote= (SICP2 SICP I) / (Mud ppg * 0.052* Hrs)

Gasmigrationratethroughmud shouldrangebetween0 and 1000feetper hour.

2. Line up a small calibratedpit to measurethe mud volume bled from the

wellbore.

3. Constructa chartof SICPversesBBLs of mud from thewellbore.

PSI/ BBL: IO PSI SAFETYFACTOR-_IOOPSI

Time SICP SICP BBLs

(After bleed) @efore bleed) Bled
:,

12:00AM 500 500 0

4. If necessary,check for trapped pressure.Use Trapped.PressureBleeding

# 11.
Procedure

5. Hold the choke closed and allow gas migration to increasethe SICP to the
desiredvalue(SICP+ SF).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 62 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL

n A safetyfactor(SF) of 50 to 100psi is recommended'

SAFETYFACTOR: lOOPSI '.

PSI/ BBL.- IO PSI
Time SICP SICP
"1":
Bled
(After bleed) @efore bleed)
12:00AM 500 500 0
600 600 0
3:00

to hold the choke

6. when the desired sICP (Table 1.4) is reached.continue
closecandallowcasingpressuretoincrease20to50psioverthedesired
pressure.

Table1.1
PSI/ BBL: IO PSI SAFETY FACTOR: ]OOPSI
SICP SICP BBLs
- Time
(After bleed) @efore bleed) Bled
500 500 0
12:00AM
3:00 600 600 0
' 620 0'2
3:40 600

value (600 psi),

7. when the SICP has increased20 to 50 psi over the desired
' retuming the
bleed the casingpressureback down to the desiredvalue while
mud to the calibratedPit'

is collectedin the
8. continue to repeatsteps6 and 7 until a l-barrel volume
calibratedPit-

l0 psi of hydrostatic
A lossof I banel of mud from thewellboreripresentsa tossof
pressure(PSI/BBL from the example)'

Tocompensateforthel0psihydrostaticpressureloss,thedesiredSICPu'illbe
by 10psi (in theexample'from 6:20amto 7:20am)'
allowedto increase

NOTE:':'ti:

IfthecalculatedPSI/BBLvalueistoolowtobereadfromtheavailablegauge'
(for example)is collectedin
continueto repeatsteps6 and 7 until a 5 barrelvolume
the calibratedPit.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL 63

Then allow the SICP (table 1.5) to increaseby the PSVBBL value for 5 barrels
(PSI/BBL * 5) before startinganotherbleedinginterval'

Table 1.5
PSI/ BBL: IO Pg SAFETYFACTOR: ]OOPSI
Time SICP SICP BBLS
(After bleed) @efore bleed) Bled
l2:ooAM 5oo 5oo o
3:00 600 600 0
3:40 600 620 0'2
4:20 600 620 0'2
5:00 600 620 0'2
5:40 600 620 0'2
6:20 600 620 0'2 (l)
7:20 610 630 0'2
8:00 610 630 0'2
8:40 610 630 O'2
9:20 610 630 0'2
.
10:00 620 640 0'2 (2)
10:40 620 640 O'2

9. If the well is shut in with the drill stringoff bottom,the kick can be circulated
out of thehole afterthe gasbubblehasmigratedABOVE the bit

when the bubble was migratingbelow the bit, the SICP and SIDPP were both
increasingat an equalvalueandrate.

0 As the bubbtemigratesthroughthe drill collarannulus:

SIDPP afer bleedingremainsconstant'

slCP afier bteedingbeginsto increaseat a FASTERRATE than previously
recorded.
I As the bubblemigratesabovethe bit:

SIDPPafier bleedingcontinuesto remainconstant'

RATE.
srcP after bleedingcontinuesto increasebut at a MUCH SLOWRER

Dn M. S. Farahat
 64 CH I TECHNoLqGY oF IyELL C0NTRoL

The migration rate of the bubblecanalsobe estimated(step# l) to help determine

the bubbles position.

10.withallorthemajorityofthegasabovethebit,thekickcanbekilledby
circulatingthe gasout of the hole with the circulationkill procedure# 18.

If circulation is not possible,continuethis procedureuntil circulation can be started

or the bubble has migrated to the surface.

11. Stopthe bleedingprocedureifand whengashasmigratedto surface.

12. Hold the wellbore closed and allow time for gas to collectat the top of the
wellbore(30 to 30 min).

13. Use Dynamic Lubricate and Bleed procedure # 29 to safetyremovethe gas

while maintainingsufficientwellborepressureto avoidsecondkicks.

Procedure # 29
Dynamic lubricate and bleedprocedure

1. Line up to circulate into the BOP stackthroughthe LOWER most kill or choke
line while returningthroughthe UPPERmostchokeor kill line.
.
Routethe retumingfluid from the chokemanifold:
{. Throughthe gasbuster;
* To an isolatedpit, andbackto the pump.

2. Calculatethe PSI/BBL of the casingor casingannulusif the drill stringis in the

hole.

PSI / BBL = @SAfi Mud Grad)/ (BBLs/fi Csgor Ann).

3. Begin circulatingoriginal mud weight(OMW) acrossthe well head.

.1. Make note of the prsentshut in casingpressure(SICP).

.1. Hold the choke closedandslowly increasethepumpto minimum speed(10
to 20 SPM).
* Just as casing pressure begins to increase,adjustthe choke to maintain the
casingpressureat the recordedshutin value.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECIINoLOGY oF VELL CONTROL 65

n Continue to slowly increasethe pump to a desired speed (l to 2 bbls/min

maximum) while maintaining casingpressureat the recordedshut in value.

4. Hold the pump speed and casing pressureconstant while observing the PIT
LEVEL.

The pit level will begin to decreaseas gas is vented through the gas buster and mud
is pumpedinto the wellbore.

NOTE:
Allow casingpressureto DECREASEby the calculatedcasing or casilg annulus
PSI/BBLvalue(step# 2) perbanel ofpit leveldecrease.

5. Continuecirculating(step# 4) until the pit level stabilizesand casingpressure

is zeropsi or near.

If the pit level stabilizesBEFORE casingpressuredecreases

to the proper
value,stopthe pump,closethe choke,andcheckfor trappedpressure(procedure
# lr).
If no-trapped-pressureis indicated, a second gas bubble is present at same
depth in the wellbore. Refer t\o gas migration pressurebleeding procedure# 12.
to safetycontrolwellborepressureif circulationis not possible.

6. With the pit level stabilizedand casingpressurezero psi or near. stop the pump.
leavethe choke open, and check foe flow at the chokeline or shaker.

I Ifflow is detecte4 close the choke and observethe SICP for indications ofa
secondbubble migrating up the wellbore (a slow and consistentincreasingSICP
and equally increasingSIDDP if available).
g If a second bubble is detecte4 refgr to gas migration pressure bleeding
procedure# 12 to safetycontrol wellbore pressureif circulation is not possible.
;
7. Ifno-flow detected: I

g Surface stack: clear the rotary table and open the BOP.
j SrD sea stack:

If the drill sting is in the BOP, useprocedure # 20 or 21, to clear the stack gas
and then open the lot'rterrams.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 66 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF II.ELL CLNTRqL

If the drill string is NOT in the BOP, useproceriure # 22, to clear the stack gas
and thenopenthe blind/shearrams.
' : lii l ;r\ '''

8. Considerationafter the kill:

{. Retumthe drill stringto bottom.
.l Circulateandcoldition the mud system.
.!. Pressurecheck and./orvisually inspect the BOP equipmentused in kill
operation.
{. Determinethe cause of the kick so that steps can be taken to prevent
recurence.
{. Increasethe trip marginonly if necessary.

Other factorsthat effect swab pressure: .:

Pipepulling speed;
Annular clearance;
Drill'string length;
Mudflow properties.

' Procedure# 30

I. NOTE:

A solution for differential sticking with water basemud only.

Use procedure# 31, to determinetheapproximatedepthofthestuckpipe

'
OR run a fiee point log if available.

2. Calculate the volume of 100% glycol (Gly BBLs) required to cover the
suspectedpermeablezone.

GLY BBLs: Ann bbldft * Zone thickness

If the stuck depth is grcater than 200 ft from bottom, use l.5timesthe
calculatedGLY BBLS to allow for watercontaminationof the glycol. The
Glycol Pill losesits effectiveness
with increasingwatercontamination.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL 67

3 Calculatethe hydrostaticpressgredecrease(HSP <) that will occur when the

9.1 ppg glycol pill occupiesthe drill collar annulus.

*
HSP<-- Mud ppg 9.1) * A052 * GLY BBLS Fo/BBLDC Ann

NOTE:

If the total barrelsof glycol exceedsthe drill collar annulusvolume' the

HSP< for the drill collar annulusand drill pipe annulusmust.becalculated... ,
separatelyandthentheHSP<for eachsectionaddedtogether'

If the loss of hydrostaticpressurethreatena kick, lead the Glycol Pill with heary
mud pill that has suffrcientdensityto compensate the loss of hydroststicpressure
(HSP<).

Thevolumeof the heavymud pill shouldbe EQUAL to the barrelsof glycol used.

The densityof the heavymud pill shouldbe:

Mud Pill pgg = (OMW 9.1) + OMW

4. Calculatethe total strokes(tot stks)requiredto pumpthe TOP of the glycol pill

to the BOTTOM of the stuckdePth.

Ann BBLs = Annulusvolumefrom the bit to the bottomof the stuckdepth(bbls).

Tot Stk- (Drill strinT BBLs+ Ann BBLs) / (bbls/stk)'

5. Pump the Glycol Pill to the stuck depth at MAXIMUM pump rate. I-eadthe
in step# 3.
Glycol Pill with a heavymud pill if determinedto be necessary

6. Justbeforethe total strokes(step# 4) are pumpe4 apply pipe weight (50 000
155+; andpipe torque(if possible)to the stuckpoint.

7. When the total strokes(step# 4) are purnpe{ stop one pump and slow the other
pump down to MINIMUM speed(10 to 20 spm) and zero the pump stroke
counter.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF VELL C0NTR0L

8. Continuepumpingwith ONE pump at minimum speeduntil the bottom of the

Glycol Pill is ABOVE the top of the stuckdepth(allow for hole washout).

SIIk = (GLY BBLS * 0.20)/ (bbls/stk).

NOTE:

Thedrill stringshouldbecomefreeat somepointbetweensteps7 and8.

If the:drill string remainsstuck after the Glycol Pill is abovethe stuckdepth.

the operationwasunsuccessful. Proceedto step# 10.

Otherpossibleoptionsto consider:

0 Repeatthe Glycol Pill procedurewith a largervolumeof glycol.

6 Usecornmerciallyavailablespottingfluids.

9. If the pipe becomes free, maintain the drill string in motion to prevent
recurrenceof differentialstickine.

. 10. lncreasethe pumpspeedandcirculatethe Glycol Pill out of the hole.

Procedure# 3I
Stuck depth calculation procedure

l.
pull the endofthe cablethroughthe rotarytable.

2. Pull l0 000 to 30 000 lbs pull over the stringweight to applytensionto the drill
string.

3. Subseastack:makea referencemark on the cableandthe drill pipe.

Surfacestack: make a referencemark on the drill pipe even with the top of the
rotarytable.

4. Pull l0 000 to 20 000 lbs over the Oro*, hook loadappliedin step# 2.

5. Measurethepipe stretchin inches.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF TYELLCONTROL 69

6. Calculatethe depthof the stuckpipe.

Appliedpull (1000slbs) = 16" overpull appliedin step# 4.

Stuck Depth: (645', DP lbdfi * Pipe Strength) / (Applied pill (1000slbs).

7. Repeat the procedure with a different value of applied Pull to veri$ the stuck
depthcalculation.

8. Refer to electriclog survives(if available)to determineif a permeablezoneexit

at the calculatedstuck depth.

Geolograph and/or drilling time records,can alsobe usedto help veri$r the stuck
depth calculation.A drilling break shouldhaveoccurredat or nearthe calculated
stuck depth.

fiorn:
Differential sticking occursacrossPERMEABLE ZONES ONLY.

9. Factorsthat interferewith the accuracyofthe stuckdepthcalculation:

* A taperedstring of drill pipe;

{. A stringof drill pipe with differentpipe weightsandlorsteelgrades;
.t The stuckpoint occurringbelow the top of the heavyweightdrill pipe;
{. Excessivehole drag.

1.3.8 Tertiary well control procedures

Procedure # 32
i ' '- 16 ''
i 'r' -1r 'r1]'Y. "'": "1
Preparations: '

1. Determinethe formationpressureof thekick zone.

FP kick: Formation pressureof the kick zone.

SIDPPo : highest obsewedSIDPP beforefractur occurred
SIDPPe : TheESTIMATED increasein SIDPP over the observedSIDPP.

Dn M. S. Farahat
 70 CH I TECHNoLqGY oF WELL CqNTRoL

Then:
FP kick = (Mud ppg * 0.052 * TVD kick) + SIDppo + SIDppe

NOTE:

If only a roughestimationof SIDPPeis possible,makea high side guessof

SIDPPe.

Othersourcesof formafionpressureinclude:

* The history of offsetwells drilled in the area.

.1. Abnormal pressure detectionmethodsemployedwhile drilling (d
exponent,NormalizedROP,etc.).
.!. Measurement while drilling (MWD) tools.

2. Determinethe depthof the losszone.

r-Assume.thefractureoccurredat the casingshoe.

{. Assumethe fractureoccurredat someknown weakzonedepth.
.1. Electriclog survey(temperature
log, noiselog, etc.).

NOTE:
'i:it'Ii.:'':

If no other source of informationon the depthof the losszoneis available,

assumethe losszoneoccurredat casingshoedepth.

3. Determinethe wellborepressureat the depthofthe losszone(WBp loss).

. If some value of shut in casing pressureis still observed,the wellbore

pressureat the losszonedepth(WBP loss)canbe calculated.

II'BP loss: (Mud ppe * 0.052* TW losszone)+ SICp

* If the annulusfluid level is falling, pump water into the annulusin an attempt
to refill the hole.Countthe strokesof waterpumped.If the hole fills up, record
the strokes of water pumpedat fill up and continuepumpedat the requiredrate
to keepthe hole full.

If the hole CANNOT be filled with water,proceedto the next

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL 7l

- t t I ir-!'
: : t

If the hole does fill up with water, calculate the wellbore pressure at loss zone
depth.

WBP loss: wellbore pressureat losszone(PSI)

Fill stks: strokespumpedwhen the hole filled up.

COL w : Length of water column in the annulus(feet).

:

COL m: LengXhof mud columnin the annulus(feet).

Then:

COL w - Fill stks* BBLs/stk + ft/bblsCsgAnn

COL m: Losszonedepth COL w

'
WBP loss: ((waterppg * COL w) + (Mud ppg * COL m)) * 0.052

0 If the annuluscannotbe filled with water,the value of wellbore pressureat

the losszonedepthmustbe assumed.

Assumethe wellbore pressureat losszonedepthis equalto the formationpressure

NOTE:

If the loss zoneformationpressureis not known, assumenormal formation

presswe(0.465psi/ft, 9.0 ppg) for coastalandoffshorelocations.

WBP loss= 0.465* TVD losszone

For inland locations,use0.433psi/ft (8.3 ppg) as normalformationpressure

gradient.

4. Calculatethe minimumdensityof the HeavyPill (HP ppg).

TVH = Trueverticalmeasurement
from kick zoneto losszone(ft).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
72 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

HP ppg: (FP kick WBP loss)/ TVD * 0.052

NOTE:

If the densityof the Heavy Pill is 4.0 ppg or greaterthan the original mud weight.
the additionof a Gel Pill is recommended. Refer to the Heaw Pill/Gel Pill
Combination,procedure# 33.

If the heavypill density(HP PPG) exceedsthe saturationdensityof the weighting .

material,thisprocedure will not be successful.

Weightmaterial Saturation Density

Barite 21.0 22.0ppg
Hematite 25.0 26.0

Referto the BaritePIug.procedure

# 34.if saturation
densityis exceeded.

5. Calculatethe requiredvolumeofHeavy Pill (HP bbls).

BBls /ft = Barrelsper foot of openHOLE (not annulus)

OHL: Lengthof openholefrom kick zoneto losszone(feetof measured depth).

EXCESS= Excessfactor to accountfor washouts,gas cutting. etc. (Minimum =
1.5).

Then:

HP bbls: BBIs/fr* OHL * EXCESS

6. Build the heavyPill to the requireddensity(step# 4) andvolume(step# 5) and

storein a suitablepit for lateruse.

7. Preparea volumeof fluid to pumpdownthe annulus.

I If SICP is still observed(casingannulusis full), calculatethe volume of

originalmudweightneededto pumpdownthe annulus(OMW bbls).

OMW bbls= ANN bbldft * LossZone Depth

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF I|,ELL C1NTR,L

{. If total lossof circulationhasoccurred(annulusis

not full). seawel
used.

8. Calculatethe drill stringstrokes(DS stks).

2.S Srfts= (DS BBLS) / (EBLS /STk

9. If necessaryandpossible,removethe bit jets to allow maximum

circulrrr.
throughthe drill string.

1 0 . Line up a rig pump to thedrillpipeanddesigrrate astheDppuntp. ' ._,

tl
pumpsif a third rig pump or a cementingpump is available.

Line up a rig pump or the cementingpump to the annulus

anddesis:;..
Ann Pump.

>> PTIMPINGTHE HEAVY PILL IN PLACE<<

n. Circulate a volume of sea water down the drill string equal

to 2 to 3 ri,
HP bbls(step# 5).

Add 15 to 25 pounds per barrel oflostcirculationmaterialtothr

annulus volume of seawater pumped.
,
CAUTION:

Bit plugging may occur if the jets were not removed

(step #,r. ;,1,
circulationis stoppedwith the LCM i seawaterslurry at the
bit.

12. Chase the LClWsea water slurry with the Heavy pill
and purr
MAXIMUM POSSIBLERATE.

13. Pump original mud weight or seawaterdow:rthe annulus ':'''

as the Hear..;i'::
reaches
thebit.

* If somevalueof SICp is still observed

(casingannulusis full):
Pump original mud weightinto theannulusat MAXIM,M ALL7TABLE ::.,(,
/., i
theHeavyPill reachesthebit.

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 74 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

Continuepumping at muimum allowable rate until the Heav-vPill is in Place.

If the annulusis NOT full:

Pump sea water down the annulw at MAXIMUM allovable rate as the Heat\'
Pill is being pumped dot+,nthe drill string. Continue pumping tmtil the Heaw'
Pill is in place.

If the annulusfills up, close the annuluspreventer and continue pumping at

MA,VMUM allovable rate until the Heaw Pill is in place.

14. Continue pumping until the Heavy Pill pit is depleted.

15. Stop the pumps and allow the U-tube to stabilize.

NOTE:
DO NOT CHASETHE FIEAVY PILL DOWN T}IE DRILL STRING

15. Allow 30 to 60 minutesfor the fluid levelsin theu-tubeto stabilize.

NOTE:

If necessary.slowly ROTATE the drill string to help prevent differential

sticking. Reciprocatingthe drill string may swab in a kick.

17. Calculate the bonom hole hydrostatic pressuregeneratedby the Healiv Pill to
determinethe successof the kill operation.

'
n Run a wireline sinker-bardown the drill sting'to determinethe depthof the
drill stringfluid level.

NOTE:

In high angle holes, this measureddepth must be converted to a True

Vertical depthmeasurement.

n Calculatebonomholehydrostaticpressure.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 75
CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL

*
HSP= (TLD DPJluid levet) * HEAW PILL ppg 0'052

glftheHsPisequaltoorgreaterthantheestimatedformationpressureofthe
was successful'
kick zone (FP kick. step# I )' the heavy Pill operation

0IftheHsPisLEsSthantheestimatedformationpressureofthekickzone.
the Heavy Pill is not likely to control the kick zone'

Wait 30 to 60 minutesand repeat step # l5'

IftheactualdritlstringJluidleveldepthhasnotchanged'thekiltoPerationwas
successful.

Iftheactualdri|Istr,ingfluidleveldepthisfoundatadeeperdepth,thekill
operation 'wasNOT successful'

fnoiselogcanqlsobeusedlodeterminethesttccessofthekillopera|ion.

include:
18. If the Heavy Pill was not successful'possibleoptions

0 Repeatthe HeavyPill procedurewith:

A heavierpill densitY:

-;
Remove the bit jets to allow a fasterpill displacement rate: I , " : '

A Heavy Pill / Gel Pill combination(procedure# 33)'

A barite Plug (Procedure# 34)'

>> REPAIRTHE LOSSZONE<<

ofthe kick zone'

19. Seta cementplug at the bottomofthe holeto insurecontrol

presenceofthe plug'
Tagthe top ofthe plug beforeleavingboftomto verifi the

loss zone can now be

20. with the kick zone under control. the fracture at the
soueezedoff.

Dr. M. S. Forahat
 76 CHI TEcHNoLoGYoF WELLcoNTRoL

To do so,the drill stringmustbe pulledup to the losszoneor out of the the hole
to pick up cementingtools.

CAUTION:

To maintain a completeHeavy Pill column, the hole must befiled with mud
of Heavy Pill density through the drill string.

No surface indication of swabbing is available.

Pull the drill string slowly to prevent swabbing of any shallower permeable
zones.

21. Squeezethe loss zone and perform a leak-off test to determineihc iiacture
gradientofthe openhole (FRAC ppg).

O!, OOt: (Leak-offpsi) / ( TVD shoe* 0.052)+ MUD tlFs

>>STAGEOAT THE N;EW PTLL..

. 22. Calculatethe number of standsthatcanbe nrn into the hole to safetvstaseout

the HeavyPill without re-fracturingthe losszone.

So stds: Numberof standsto run in to safetystageout the Heavypill.

SF: Safetyfactur(1.0ppg)

Avg std: Averagestandlength(ft)

Then:

Frac ppg- Mud ppg - .SF) * TW loss/ (HP ppg - Mud ppg).

Ft/std: (BBLs/fi openhole * avg sttl)/ (BBls/fi CsgAnn). ::

SO Stds= (Max HP) / ( Ft/std).

23. Run the calculatednumber of stageout standsinto the hole andstageout the
heavypill with originalmud weight.

Dr. M, S, Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 77

Continueto repeatstep# 23 until the bit reachesthe top of the cementplug.

24. >> POSSIBLE OPTIONS<<

* setcasingat the deepest possibledepth.

'!' Displace the wellbore with the proper mud weight and drill
ahead with
caution.
'!' Dependingon the mud weight required to controlthepressureof
thekick
zonesversusthe maximummud weightthe wellborecanwithstand(FRAC ppg),
another string of casing may be necessarybefore drilling operationscan
continue.

25. If the decision is to continue drilling, the wellboremustbe displacedwith a

mud weight that will control the pressureof the kick zone before drilling
operationscanproceed.

KMllr ppg : (FP kick) / (TVD kick * 0.052)

NOTE:

A low side guessofformation pr.r.u* ofthe kick zone(SF kick) shouldbe

used to calculatethe kill mud weight if only an ESTIMATED valueis
available9seestep# l).

5. circulate kill mud weight(KMw ppg) throughthe weilboreandconditionthe

mud systembeforecontinuingthe drilling operation.

Procedure # 33
Heavypill/gel combination

NOTE:

Refer to the Heavy pill (procedure# 23) , stepsI through4.

If the minimum density of the Heavy Pill is 4.0 ppg or greaterthanthe

original mud weight,the additionof a Gel Pill is recommended.

Dr, M. S. Farahat
80 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL

g Ifthe annulusstokes (step# 9) is greaterthan the drill stringstrokes(step#

8):

Startthe ANN Pumpandpumpthe Gel Pill at an allowablerate. , :.

ChasetheGel Pill with:

g Original mud weight id SICP is observed(casingannulusis full) and

continuepumpinguntil the HeavyPill is in place.
0 If the arurulusis NOT FULL. pump sea water. If the anaulus
preventerandcontinue pumpingat an allowablerateuntil the HeavyPill is
in place.

When the DP pump start stks (step # 12) have been pumped-start the DP
Pump and pump the Heavy Pill Down the drill string at Maximum
ALLOWABLE RATE.

When the DP Pump speed(SPM) stabilizes.adjustthe ANN Pump speedto

the SAME SPMvalueasthe DP pump.

Hold the DP PumpspeedsEQUAL until theHeavyPill reachesthe bit.

. Justasthe HeavyPill reachesthe bit, reducethe ANN PumpSPM to 30o/oof

the observedDP pumpSPM.

ANN Pump SPM: DP PUMP SPM * 0.3

NOTE:
Maintain the DP Pump SPM at MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE RATE and
proceedto step# 15.

g lfthe drill sfing strokes(step# 8) is greaterthan the annulusstrokestrt"p +

9):

Start the DP Pump and pump the Heavy Pill at MA)flMUM ALLOWABLE
RATE.

When the ANN Pump Start STKS (Step# 12) have beenpumperl.start the Ann
Pumpandpumpthe Gel Pill downthe annulus.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL 8r

Adjust the ANN Pumpspeedto the SAME SPM value asthe DP pump.

Chasethe Gel Pill with:

n If SICP is observed(annulusis full), pump original mud weight . continue

purnpingat maximumallowablerateuntil the heavypill is in place.

D If the annulus is not full, pump sea water. Continue pumping at maximum
allowablerateuntil theHeaw Pill is in place.

0 If the annulusfills up, closethe aruruluspreventerand continuepumpingat

an allowablerateuntil theHeavypil! is in place.

Hold the pumpspeedsEQUAL until HeavyPill reachesthe bit.

Just as the Heavy Pill reachesthe bit. reducethe ANN Pump SPmto 30% of the
qbservedDP PumPSPM:

ANNPump SPM = DP Pimp SPM * 0.3

I
NOTE:

Maintain the DP Pump SPM at MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE RATE.

15. Referto the Heavy Pill (procedure# 32, step# 14) for the remainingstepsof
thekill operation.

Procedure# 34
Barite plug
' ,f
::r.:

>>PRERATRTION<<

l. Calculatethe poundspergallondensityof the weightingmaterial(WM ppg).

Wtmderial (WM) Specificgravig (Sp. Gr) Saturationppg

Bafite 4.2 4.5 21.0 22.0
hematite 4.8 5.2 24.0 26.0

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 82 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

Wmppg: ll/M Sp.Gr. * 8.33

2. Calculatethe total poundsofweighting material(wM lbs) requiredfor a 200 to

500

WM lbs: OH BBLsift * Plug * WM ppg * 42

* Store the required volume ofbarite (wM lbs) in a suitablebulk mud supply
tank for later use. This tank must be capable of supplying the barite to the
cementingunit.

3. calculate the pounds of weighfing materialrequiredperbanelofslurry (wM

ppb) to obtaina desiredplug density(plugppg).Optimumplug density: lg.0 to
24.0ppg.

ll/M ppb: (PIug ppg - 8.301* W1M

ppg * 42) /( tlm 8.3)

4. Calculatethe barrelsof mix waterrequired(waterBBLs).

ll/ater BBLs = (ttM tbs)/ ( WM ppb)

'l Fill a suitablepit with the calculatedmix watervolume (water bbls). This pit
be capableof supplying mix water to the cementingunit.

* Add 0.5 to 0.7 poundsof SAPPper banel of mix water(freshwater).

* If SAPP is not available,add 15poundsoflignosulfonateper barrelofmix

water(freshor seawater).

* If SAPP is used addabout0.25lb/bbl ofcausticsodato adjustthe pH ofthe

mix waterto a rangeof 8 to 10.

* If lignozulfonate is used,add about2 lbs/bbl of causticsodato a-djustthe pH

of themix waterto a rangeof 10.5to 11.5.

5. If some value of shut in casing pressureis still observed,insurea sufficient

volume of original mud weight is availableto pump into the annulusduring the
placementof the barite plug.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 83

' OMIY bbls = BBls/ft csg ann * LossZonesdepth

.t Storethe original mud weightvolumein a suitablepit for lateruse.

6. Calculatethe mud density (chaserppg) andvolume(chaserbbls) requiredto

chasethe waterspacersandthe Bariteplug out of the drill stringandinsuredrill
stringdrainageasthe pipe is pulled.

FP kick: refer to the Heavy Pill (procedure# 32) to estimate

theformation pressurefthe kick zone.
Ii: .' "::
Chaserppg: (FP kick)/ ( TW kick * 0.52)

Chaserbbls = DS bbls/rt * Measureddepth :

.1. Storethe chaserfluid in a suitablepit for lateruse.

7.' Calculatethg pump strg-kes requiredto displacethe drill string(DS bbls)LESS

thevolumeof the trailing waterspacer(WS BBls).

DSSTKS : (DS bbls-WSBBLS) / (BBLs/stk)

8. Line up a rig pump on the drill pipeandhaveavolumeofmudorseawater

ready to displacethe drill string should the cementpump fail. Designatethis
pumpasthe

{. Line up a secondrig pump on the kill line to pumpfluid into the annulus.
Designatethis pump asthe ANN Pump.

9. Make up a circulating headonto the drill string so that pipe pulling operations
canstartimmediatelyafterthebariteplug is in place.

.f. Insure that all preparationsare made to pull 5 to 10 standsIMMEDIATELY

afterthe BaritePlug is in placeto preventbit pluggingandstuckpipe.

10. Use the cementingpump and circulating mixer to blend,weighandpumpthe

BaritePlug in onecontinuousoperation.

>>PI]MPING THE PLAG IN PLACE<<

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 84 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF,YELL CqNTR0L

11. Pump a volumeod seawaterdownthe drill stringequalto 2 to 3 timesthe open

hole annulusvolume(OH Ann bbls).

OH Ann bhls = OH Ann BBls/ft * OH Length

12. Follow the sea water with the Barite plug and pump AT MAXIMUM
POSSIBLERATE to maintainplug agitation.

* with the cementpump,follow thebariteplug with a 20 to 30 barrelseawater

spacer.

13. After the trailing water spaceris pumped,start the Dp pump andchasethe
BaritePlug down the drill stringwith the chaserfluid (step# 6).

14. Whento startthe annuluspump:

..!. If SICPis still observed(the casingannulusis full):

Just before the Barite plug reachesthe bit (200 to 500 strokes), startthe
annulus pump original mud weight into the annulus at maximum
ALLOWABLE rate.Continuepumpinguntil the bariteplug is in place.

' If possible,maintain the annuluspump running at SOME ALLOWABLE

RATE until the drill stringis strippedabovethe top of the Bariteplug.

.l If theannulusis not full (circulationis lost):

. i."r

Start pumping sea water down the annulusat maximum allowable rate when
mixing and pumping of the Bariteplug is startedandcontinuepumpinguntil
the drill stringis pulled abovethe BaritePlug.

If the annulusfills up beforethe BaritePlug reachesthe bit, closethe annulus

preventerand pump sea water into the annulusat maximumALLOWABLE
RATE until the BaritePlus is in Place.

Maintain the annuluspump running at SOMEALLOWABLE rateuntil the

drill stringis strippedabovethe top of the BaritePlug.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL 85

15. Whenthe drill stringstrokesarepumped@S stks,step# 7)' stopthe DP Pump.

NOTE:

' !,., At this point in the operation,all of the Barite Plug is displacedinto the
annuluswith thetrailingwaterspacerstill in the drill string.

16. IMMEDIATELY pull or strip the drill string one stand above the maximum
anticipatedheightof the BaritePlug.

17. Install the kelly and pump 5 to 10 barrelsto insurethe Barite Plug has cleared
the drill string.

If the availablemud volumewill allow, continuecirculatingat soti'teallowable

rateuntil the BaritePlughasformed(30 to 60 minute).

18. Wait 30 to 60 minutesfor theBaritePlugto form.

>>DETERMINE THE SUCCESSOF THE OPERATION<<

'"" lg. Stop the pumps and ru the drill string to the depth of maximum possibleplug
height(TagDepth).

DO NOT CIRCULATEWHILEATTEMPTINGTO TAG THE BAMTE PLUG.

TagDepth: MeasuredDepth Plug heightselected,step# 2.

NOTE:

If the drill string can be retumed to bottom, the Barite Plug was NOT
successful.

Possibleopfions:

Heavierplug density;
Greaterplug height;

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 86 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF VELL CONTROL

Higher plug displacementrate (height displacementpressure,removethe bit

jets,etc.).

6 Tne heavypill/BaritePlug Combination,procedure# 35.

20. If the top of the Barite Plug is tagged,make up the kelly and displacedthe
annuluswith original mud weight.

n If SICP is observedthe annulusshouldbe at leastpartially full of original mud

weight from the losszoneto the surface.

, If possible,bullheadthe wellbore fluids from the kick zone to the loss zone
into the fractureofthe losszone.

Refer to The CirculationKill Procedure# 18, and displacethe wellbore from

the losszoneto surfacewith originalmud weight.

g If circulation is lost, the annulusis not completelyfull and may contain a

varietyof fluid densities.

Displacethe annulusfrom bit depthto the losszonewith originalmud weight.

If circulation should return, continue circulating and conditioning the mud

systemfor at leastonecompletecirculation.

BE AWAREOF POSSIBLEGASLADEN RETURN!!!

If circulationdoesnot rehrn, the loss=onemustbe repaired.

>> REPAIR THT LOSS ZOI{E <<

21. Slowly pull the drill string up to loss zoneor out of the hole if cementingtools
arerequired.

CAUTION:

If the hole is not full, no surfaceindicationof swabbingis available.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF I%ELLCoNTRqL 87

Pull the pipe slowly to avoid swabbingshallowerzone(s).

* Squeezethe loss zone andpressuretest the openhole to determinea leak off

pressure.

* Retum to the top of the Barite plug and circulate andconditionthe mud
svstem.

22. >> POSSIBLE OPTIONS<<

* Setcasingat the deepestpossibledepthbeforedrilling ahead.

'E' If a BaritePlug was requiredto controlthe kick zone,it is highly probable
that
anotherstring ofcasing will be requiredbeforedrilling operationscan continue.
'1 Increasethe mud weight to control the formation pressureofthekickzone.
Drill aheadwith caution.
'f' Depending on the mud weight requiredto control the pressureof
the kick zone
versus the maximum mud weight the wellbore can withstand (FRAC ppg), another
'
stringofcasing may be necessary beforedrilling operationscan continue.
'l' If the decision is to continue drilling, the wellboremustbe
displacedwith a
mud weight that will control the pressure of the kick zone before drilline
operationscan proceed.

KMIV ppg: 1FPkick) / (TVD kick * 0.0s2).

NOTE:

A Low side guessofformationpressureofthe kickzone (Fp kick) should

be used to calculatethe kill mud weight if only an ESTIMATED valueis
available.

Referto theHeavyPill (procedure

# 32,step# l).

Procedure# 35

HEAW PILI./BARITE PLUG COMBINATION

NOTE: 'il'
r.'.!'. ; .i . , . . " . . , - , r. . .,. :

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 E8 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

for high pressure'high flow

The pilVplugcombinationshouldbe considered
rateundergroundblowoutswheretheheavypillorBaritePlugalonewould
not be sufficientto controlthe kick'

TIONS<< (HeouYPill)

l.UsetheMAXII\4UMallowableHeavyPilldensityconsidering:

FracturegradientsintheLowERRportionoftheholeversus'thehydrostatic
pressureoftheHeavyPillPLUGsqueezepressureforthefracturedshoe.

material'
Saturationdensityof the availableweighting

Barite- 21.0to 22'0PPg

=24.0 to26.0PPg
Hematite
- -
Availabilityof theweightingmaterial'

Pill (IIP bbls)'

. 2. Calculatethe requiredvolumeof Heavy

(not annulus)
BBLs/ft: Barrelsper foot of openHOLE

oHL=Lengthofopenholefromkickzonetolosszone(feetofmeasured
dePth).

= Excessfactorto for
account gascutting,etc' (Minimum =
washouts,
EXCESS
1.5).
* *
Then HP bbls= BBLs/fr OHL EXCESS

(step# l) andvolume(step# 2) and

3. Build the HeavyPill to the requireddensity
storein a suitablepit for lateruse'

the anndlusduring the placementof

4. Preparea volume of fluid to pump down
the HeavYPill andBaritePlug'

D l f s l c P i s s t i l l o b s e r v e d ( t h e c a s i n g a n n u l u s i s f u(OMW
l l ) , c a lbbls)'
culatethevolumeof
weight needed to pump down the arurulus
originalmud

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOL0GY oF VELL CoNTRoL 89

, OMW bbls: ANNbbls/fi * LossZone Depth.

Storethis mud in a suitablepit for lateruse. ''. r.,." ..,i' l. '1rl

* If total lossof circulationhasoccurred(annulusis not full), seawaterwill be

used.

5. Calculatethe drill stringstrokes(DS stks).

DS stfts: (DS bbls)/ (BBL*/STb)

6. If necessaryandpossible,removethe bit jets to allow maximumcirculationrate

tlrough the drill string.

7. Line up a rigpump
pumps if a third rig pump or cementingpump is available.
.rig

Line up a rig pump or the cementingpump to the annulusand designateasthe INN

Pump.

(Barite plug preparations)

8. Use the cementing pump and circulating mixer to blend, weigh andpump the
BaritePlug in One continuousoperation.

9. Calculatethe poundsper gallondensityof the weightingmaterial(WM ppg).

Wt material (WM) Specific gravity(Sp. Gr) Saturation ppg

Barite 4.2 4.5 21.0 22.0
Hematite 4.8 5.2 24.0 26.0

WMPPg= WMSPGr. * 8.33

10. Calculatethe total pomds of weightingmaterial(WM lbs) requiredfor a 500

WM lbs 4H BBLs/fi *PIug * IAMppg * 42

Dn M. S. Farahat
 90 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL

{' Store the required volume of barite (wM lbs) in a suitablebuik mud supply
tank for later use. This tank must be capable of supprying the barite to the
cementing unit.

11. calculate the pounds of weightingmaterialrequiredper barrelof slurry (wM

ppb) to eflain a desiredplug density(plug ppg). Optimumplug density: lg.0
to
24.0 ppg.

WMppb = [(pIaS ppg - 8.3) * Wmppg * 42J/ (tm ppg - 8.3).

:
12. Calculatethe barrelsof mix waterrequired(waterBBLs)

WaterBBLs: WM lbs / Wmppb

* Fill a suitable pit with the calculatedmix water volume (water BBLs). This
pit mustbe capableof supplyingmix waterto the cementingunit.

* Add 0.5.to0.7 poundsof SApp barrelofmix water(Freshwater).

If SAPP is not available, add 15 pounds oflignosulfonateperbarrelofmix

water(freshor seawater).

n If SAPP is used,addabout0.25lb/bbl ofcausricsodato adjustthe pH ofthe

mix waterto a rangeof 8 to 10.

If lignosulfonateis used,addabout2 lbs/bblofcaustic sodato adjustthe pH of

the mix waterto a rangeof 10.5to I 1.5

13. calculate the mud density(chaserppG) andvolume(chaserBBLs) requiredto

chase the water spacersandthe Barite Plug out of the drill string and insure drill
string drainageasthe pipe is pulled.

FP kick = Refer to the Eeauy piil (procedure# 32),to estimatethe

formation pressure of the kick zone.

Chaser PPG: FP kick/(TW kick * 0.052)

ChaserBBLs= DS bbls/fr * MeasuredDepth

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNqL0GY oF VELL coNTRoL 9l

* Storethe chasermud in a suitablepit for later use.

14. calculate the pump strokes required to displacethe drill string (DS BBLs)
LESSthe Voiume of the trailing waterspacer(WS BBLs).

: (DS BBLs - tys BBLS) / (BBLv/STk)

D^S.Srks

15. Insure the DP Pump is lined up on the drill pipe andhavea volumeof mud or
sea waterreadyto displacethe drill shing shouldthe cementpump fail. Zero the
DP Pumpstrokecounter.

16. Make up a circulating headonto the drill stringso thatpipe pulling operations
canstartimmediatelyafter the bariteplug is in place.

* Insure that all preparationsare madeto pull 5 to l0 standsIMMEDIATELY

afterthe Barite Plug is in placeto preventbit pluggng andstuckpipe.

>>PaMP THE PILL/PLAG COMBINATION IN pL,,lCE<<

After completingall preparationsfor the Heavy pill andBarite plug, begin pumping
the Heary Pill in place.

17. with the DP pump(s), circulate a volume of sea waterdown the drill string
equalto 2 to 3 timesthe Hp bbls (step# 2).

Add 15 to 25 poundsper barrel of lostcirculationmaterialtothelASTannulus

volumeof seawaterpumped.

CAWION:

Bit plugging may occ'r if the jets were not removed(step# 6) and
circulation is stoppedwith the LCM/sea water slurry at the bit.

18. chase the LClvl/sea water slurry with the Heavy pill and puM<p AT
MNilMUM POSSIBLE RATE.

19. Pump original mud weight or sea water down the annulusas the Heaw pill
reachesthebit.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 92 CH I TECHN0LqGY oF TVELLcoNTRoL

.1. If somevalueof SICp is still observed(casingannulus

is full):

Pump original mud weight into the annulusat maximum ALLOWABLE rate as
'.. the Heary
Pill reachesthe bit.

Continue pumping at maximumallowablerateuntil the Heavypill andBarite

PIugis in place.

* If the annulusis NOT full:

Pump sea water down the annulusat MAXIMUM allowablerate asthe Heavy
Pill is being pumped down the drilr string.continuepumpingunfil the Heavy
Pill andBaritePlug is in place.

If the annulus fills up, close the annular preventer and continuepumping at
LAXIMUM allowablerateuntil the Heavypill andbariteplug is in place.

20. Continugpumpinguntil the Heavy-Pill pit us depleted.Stopthe Dp pump(s)

(pumpthe barite Plug in place)

21. with the cementingpump, pump a 20 to 50 barrelseawaterspacerinto the

drill.

22. Follow the sea water with the Barite plug and pump AT MAXMUM
POSSIBLERATE to maintainplugagitation.

with the cementpump, follow the Barite plug with a2}to3Obanel seawarer
spacer.

23. After the trailing water spacer is pumped, start the Dp pump and chasethe
barite Plug down the drill string with the chaser fluid ( step# l3). Fump at
MAXIMUM POSSIBLERATE.

24. when the drill string strokes are pumped (DS stks, stp # l4), stop the Dp
pump.
' :
NOTE:

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNqL0GY OF WELL CONTR0L 93

At this point in the operation,the HeavyPill, leadingwaterspacer,andtire

Barite Plug has been displacedinto the annuluswith the trailling water
spacerstill in the driil string.

25. IMMEDIATELY pull or strip the drill string one stand above the maximu
anticipatedheightof the BaritePlug.

26. Install the kelly and pump 5 to l0 barrelsto insurethe Barite plug hascleared
the dril string and stopthe pump.

27. Wait 30 to 60 minutesfor the BaritePlug to form.

>>DETERMINE THE SUCCESSOF THE OPERATION<<

28. Return the drill string to the depttr of maximum possible plug height (Tag
depth).

o'o llor ancuLATE while auemptingto tag the Barite Plug.

Tagdepth: Measureddepth: Plug height(500fr)

NOTE:

If the drill string can be returned to bottom, the kill operationwas NOT
successful.

Possibleoptions to consider:

.l. Repeatthe Heavy Pill/Barite Plug procedurewith:

Higher pilVplug displacementrate. Higher displacementpressure,bring in

" anothersuitablepump,removethe bitjets, etc.

Greaterplug height.

Greaterplug density.
.
20. If the top the Barite Plug is tagged,ttrekill operationwas successful.The loss
zonemustnow be repaired.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 94 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF TnELLCLNTRDL

>>REPAIR THE LOSSZONE<<

21. Refer to the Heavy Pill (procedure#32,step# 20) fortheremaining stepsof

the kill oneration.

1.4 Deep |Vater-Well Control techniques

well control problemsassociatedwith deepwaterdrilling can generallybe separated

into those associatedwith drilling shallowsurfacehole andthoseassociated with
drilling below a protective casingstring.Thetwo key problemsarekick detection
andreducedfracturegmdients,both of which fall into both of thesecategories.

1.4.1RICK DETECTION

Two of the early warning sigas of kicks are an increasein flow rateandan
increasein pit volume. These signs are hardto detect,though,wirendrillingin
deepwaterdue to the natureof the drilling vesselandnaturalwavemotion. since
only a floating vesselis presentlycapableof drilling in deepwater(depthsgreater
than 400 ft) , the wave actionkeepsthe drilling vesselin constantmotion which
consequentlycreatesa pit level fluctuation even though the total pit volume
remains constant.(The same is true for the flow rate exiting the well.) These
problems make early kick detectiondifficult, thus complicating overall kill
operafions.

one solution used to minimize the effectof the fluctuatingpit level hasbeento
install a pit volume totalizingtool (PVT) to detectpit gainsratherthanusingthe
conventionalfloating ball tool. As canbe seenin Fig. , the conventionalfloating
ball would show an increaseeventhoughthe total pit volumeremains onstant.
The TVT however would automaticallyaddand subhact it hanges nd eport
true pit volume even though the pit level may changedrastically due to heaveof
the floatingvessel.

Flow rate increase from the well, a basic kick indicator, is misleadingin floating
operations, again due to the upwardand downwardmotion of the vessel.Although
flow rate is generallymonitoredby tools installed in the flow line leading from the
bell nipple to the shaker,a new systemhasbeendevisedto monitor flow rate at the
seafloor. This system, consistingof sophisticatedelectronicequipment,would

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF VELL C,NTR0L 95

detectrelativeflow ratechangesregardless
ofvesselmotionat the surface.

1.4.2FRACTARE GRADIENTS

In well control operationsit is essentialthat the openhole formation exhibit enough

competencyto allow the well to be killed without losingcirculation.This implies
that the fracture radients, s we considerthem,mustbe greaterthanthe equivalent
mud weights exhibited during the kill operations.If they arenot, then the formation
is fracturedandcontrolof the well is lost.

Fracture gradients in deepwater drilling areeffectively reduced o valueslessthan

those on land or shallow water operationsat equivalentdrilling depths.Fracture
gradientsare dependentin part on theamountofoverburdenstressappliedatthe
depthof interest.For example,in Fig. 1.7, at l0 000ftonlandoperations-the
overburdenstresswould be 10,000psi if I psilft is assumedasthe overburdenskess
gradient.However,Fig. 1.8illustratesthatthe overburdenstressat the same10,000-
ft depth of interest would be 8930psi underthe givenassumptions. Therefore,the
effe_clivefracJuregradientat 10,000ft in thewateroperationswould be lessthanthe
fracture radient on the land operationsdueto the smalleramountof overburden
stress. This example, of course,does not encompassall parametersbut does
illustratethe probleminvolved.

Several authors have examined the problem of fracture gradients and the
determinationthereof.However,until recentlytheir work hasbeenconfinedto land
operations.Charts arenow beingmadeavailablehoweverto graphicallydetermine
fracturegradientsin variouswaterdepths.Fig. 1.9illustratesthe useof thesecharts.

1.1.3SURFACE HOLE KICKS

The most severewell control problemswhile drilling in deepwater is that of a kick

when no protective casing is set,i.e.,whendrilling surfacehole.At theseshallow
depths the formation fracture gradientis very low andgenerallywill not withstand
shut-in pressures,thus resulting in an underwaterblowout. kicks of this t)?e present
severalunique problemsnot generallyassociatedwith kicks that occurwJrena
protectivecasingstringis set.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
96 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF VELL CONTROL

xodtttt uf rr rri:,I'it dnl N ortrl'unlrr' 'rt?d

-j/k,r,.

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 cH I TECHNoLqGYoF VELL coNTRoL 97

n&lur{ 6irdtlr. aorvrurl ruoitr6rr ?r0

l]x l:llR-i,l srltrrl.,'rh 'n natl!tu ra.lt{'t
n?.t.? .,sa"i,r. :

, , 1L ' l :.''i :,'ii

*"-
!il.;./A:.:.:-:fi-
'::"J"":.

*lffil"
1J U m,*X

fiy'r-f d n-u'!rnrt
s"*.r r*..r aq.r,,r,- .r
rrrrr.,lr!lrr.

P{tirl l.- !l bultdc, in .4ltJ \ rr...

fiF./.tt
Dr. M. S. Farahat
 98 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF II'ELL CONTROL

The mostdangerousof theseproblemsis thatof the lossof buoyancyof the drilling

vessel.If an underwaterblowout does occur, the gaswill be expelle.lto the sea
directly beneaththe vessel.This will in turn aeratethe water and reduce the
effective buoyancy supportingthe ship. If the reduction is severe anduniform
throughoutthe hull areathe vesselwill simply sink. If the aerationis isolatedto one
end of the ship thenthe vesselwould havethetendencyto tip over in that direction.
Figs.l.l0 and1.11illustratebothoftheseocculrences.

If kicks do occur in this situationit hasbeenobservedthat the mud in the riser pipe
conduit from the seafloorto the ship is quickly evacuatedandreplacedwith lower
density gas. The collapse resistance ofthe riserpipe,lessened
by pipe tensionand
bending,may thus fall below the seawaterhydrostaticpressureactingon the outer
diameterof the riser.If this occursthe riserpipe will collapse.Fig. l.12 illustrates
this problem.

1.4.4 RESERVOIR DE SCRIPTIO N

I

The kicking zone is generally assumedto be normally pressured.Naturally

occurring abnormal pressuresrequire a pressureentrapmentstrata immediately
' abovethe reservoir.Sincethis type of stratais not foundat theseshallowdepths,the
pressure n he eservoir s hus ssumedo e ormal or ts espective epth. his
oflcourse does not hold true for zones that are pressurecharged as a resultof
underground blowoutsin the immediatearea.

The volume of the reservoirhasbeengenerallyobservedto be small. Unfortunately,

though, it is usually sufficient to burn a vesselor sink the vessel bv reduced
buoyancy.

Detectionof thesezones,until recently,hasbeenby trial and error. Early seismic

anomalies that represent the kicking zones itr the known blowout ases.
Exhapolation of this knowledge into future work shouldtend to minimize these
blind hial and error methods.
l_
I

1.4.5 WELL CONTROL MEASURES

since the well cannot be shut in with conventional procedures for fear of an
uncontrolledor divertedblowoutis thebestsolution.Feasibilityofthis is basedon
the premise that the kicking reservoirvolume is smallandwill depletewithin a
 cH I TECHNoL0GY oF TT.ELLC,NTR,L 99

reasonablyshorttime. This methodhasbeensuccessfullyappliednumerous

times.

Surfacediverter systemsare illustratedin Fig.l.r2.Basisofthesystemisaflow

diverting mechanism,and annularpreventer r iverter ag, nd wo arge
iameter
diverter lines placed at 180 deg angresfrom each other. (The rines
areplaced
opposite each other to take advantageofwind directionanddivertthe
kick away
from the rig.) The divefer lines shouldbe aslargeaspossiblewith 6-in,
diameter
lines being consideredminimum. Valvesconfrollingtheselinesshould
be operated
simultaneouslywith the closingof the diverterbag or annularpreventer.

Subseadiversion has been offered as a solutionasopposedto surfacediversion.

This would eliminate the possibilityof riser collapsesincethe riser would
remain
full of fluid. subsea diversion, however, would expel gas immediately
below a
floating vessel andpresentthe possibilifyofbuoyancyreduction. his
s specially
true if the underwatercurrentis not suflicientto displacethe gasaway from
the rig.

Another solution to the problem that has been successfullyapplied

is to spota
ialculated density slug of mud on the bottomimmediatslyupondetection-ofthe
kick. This is donein orderto kill the kick, but avoidexceedingthe fracturegradient.
This techniquehas beenappliedmanytimeson land operations.However,
in deep
water while drilling at shallow depths,the parameters involvedmay becometoo
complicatedto accuratelycalculate.For instance,the fracture gradient
mustbe
readjustedfor each calculation.Also, pumping of the slug to bottom
must occur
simultaneouslywith the kick detection.The complexitiesinvolvedwith this
method
may makeit impracticalon a universalbasis.

Inflatable drilling packershave been usedto enclosethe kick at the flowing

zone
itself. Thesepackersaregenerallyplacedon the lowermostsectionof the
drill string
and are designedto expandandsealthe boreholein the eventofa kick. This
would
prevent uncontrolled fluid flow without fracturing the shallow,
incompetent
formations.

Dri[ing packers have two major disadvantages though.First, the packersmust be

inflated through conventional means which of course allows the well to flow
simultaneously with inflation. second at shallow drilling depthshole washoutmay
be severeand preclude packerseal-offof the formation.Thesetwo disadvantages
may outweighthe possiblebenefitsof downholepackers.

Drilling a smatldiameterpilot hole hasbeenusedas a preventivetype of technique.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
100 cH I TECHNoLqGYoF VELL coNTRoL

It has been theorized that if formationsarenormally pressuredthen the blowouts

must occurasa resultof largequantitiesof core-volume,gas-cutmud at the surface
which effectively reducesthe hydrostaticpressureenoughto allow formafionfluid
flow. This is deemedvalid dueto the largediameterholesdrilled (26 to 36in.) and
the amountsof gasthat would be present.I solutionto this problemis to drill small
diameterpilot holes at low drilling ratesto detectandminimize this gas-cutmud
phenomenon.After thepilot hole is completed,the hole diameteris increasedwith a
reaming

1.4.6KICKS BELOW PROTECTIVE CASING

If protective casing is set deep enough to achievefracturegradientsin excessof

kick causedequivalentmud weights,thenthekick canbe killed usingconventional
procedures.There are minor proceduredifferences,though, that can play an
importantrole in this type of operation.

shut-in proceduresin deepwaterdrilling aresomewhatdifferentthanthe procedures

used with stationaryrigs such as jack-ups or land rigs. In deepwaterdrilling, a
floating drilling vessel s sed hich oves n ertical irections ccording o ave
motion. This ship motion also moves the drill string up and down which will
eventually wear out stationarysubseapreventersduring a kick. (The use of a motion
compensatordoes not prohibit completepipe movement,but ratheronly minimizes
it.) Therefore,a procedurehas been developedin which a setofpipe ramsare
closed and a drill string tool joint is allowedto rest on the rams.Theseramswill
support the full weight of the drill stringandstill hold fuIl testpressuresappliedto
the rams.This procedureallowsthe drill stringto remainmotionless,resultingin no
damageto the preventerswhile the killing operationis in progress.

Basic blowout preventer designlogic hasbeenextendedto subsea reventers ith

severalprecautionary)componentsadded.Thebasicblowoutpreventerstack(Fig.
l.l4) includes two annular preventersrather than theconventionalsolitaryunit.
Also, primary as well as secondarychoke lines are used.Shearrams are placed on
the bottom of the stack should it become necessary o hear he rill tring nd
move the drilling vessel from the locationintheeventof animpendingblowout.
The bottommost pipe rams are used should the choke lines or flanges
fail which would result in the needto closein the well with out necessarilyshearing
the drill string.

Choke line length hasbecomea critical considerationin deep-water drilling dueto

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF II'ELL CONTROL t0l

its associatedfriction pressure.This friction pressuremay rangein the hundredsof

pounds resulting in an increasedpossibilityof formationfracture.In orderto avoid
this event, the proper procedureis to record the kill rate prior to the kick by
pumping through the drill string, annulus and riser while the annularpreventeris
open.This methodaccountsfor the chokeline friction pressure.

Mud displacementin the chokeline asaresultofgas beingpumpedfromthewell

has causedgreatconcern.Fig. 1.15illustratesthe problem.prior to the gasentering
the choke line, a casingpressureof 1000psi is noted.However,within threeThin.
(6 bbl volume of the chokeline dividedby a kill rateof 2 bbvmin) it will become
necessaryto increase the casingpressureto 2560psi, if gashydrostaticpressureis
neglected,in orderto resolvethe differenceofthe displacedmud.

Fig. I . 16 demonstratesanotherproblem inherentwith deepwaterdrilling. After the

well is theoreticallydead,the annularpreventercannotbeopenedbecauseofthe
original density mud in the riser. Therefore,it becomesnecessaryto closethe
bottom set of rams andreversecirculatekill densitymud down the chokeline and
up the riser in orderto completelykill the well. If this procedurewerenot follc.red
the well would flow upon openingthe annularpreventer.

1.4.7BARITE PLUGS

Barite plugs have been used over the years as a possible solution to killing
undergroundblowouts.The techniqueemployedis to attemptto seal.akicking zone
by forming a non-permeablebarite bridge abovethe zone.If successful,his ill
allow remedial proceduresto be carried out above the barite plug without the
immediateproblemof controllingthe kick.

A barite plug consistsof essentiallywater and barite.since clearwaterwill not

support the barite in a static condition, the baritewill settleout onceit hasbeen
spotted in the borehole. Small amounts of ahighlyactivephosphatethinner(and
caustic) may be addedto the mixture in an effort to insurethat the barite will settle
shouldthe plug becomemixed with any viscousmud in the annulus.If the thinneris
not added, the viscous mud - plug mixture may supportthe barite andprevent he
formationof the plug.

Dr, M. S. Farahat
r02 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

'.
Sqrfer nirrnrr.tiltn'.

E? /.t3
Suls:r bluwuut pr!vtntd ttr(t

trt.7.t /4

ll6r. r,rtpt-ttrtE.1
{dtxr(.lull'.\ *b li!,rnut,

l-t O -t./ Z

i,

Dn M. S. Farahat
CH I TECHNoLoGy oF W.ELLCqNTRoL 103

I |[Ar lrr don.lbt'lN{'Hrt trtr{r hr, vdutu - ri bt,t,t{n|l,nt|l

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't n'r ln.aaldfu nnl'l' rrlt lilr Ih" r.Ir'

tr,".f 116

L!..r . -.- ,'. - ,

Dr. M, S, Farahat
104 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

The densityof the plug shouldrange from 18 -22ppg. Amixtureformulafora

barrelof the 22-ppgslurry is asfollows:

750poundsofbarite
2I gallonsoffresh water
1/2pound SAPP
I/4 poundcausticsoda

Although some circumstancesmay necessitateusing a 22 ppg, experiencehas

shown that the l8 ppg densityplug hasbettersettlingcharacteristics.
The reasonfor
this anomaly is that an increasedmud densityhasthe characteristicof partialself-
support of thebarite.This haslong beenobservedin drilling mud engineeringwhen
increasingthe mud weight did not meanalsoincreasingthe yield point to suppoft
thebarite.

The total slurry volume should be sufficientto cover500verticalfeetin the open

hole (as a rninimum).This volumeshouldprovidea plug of sufficientsizeto effect
a bridgeacrossthe zoneofinterest-

To mix the plug, use barite fed to pneumaticbulk storagetanks to hopperof

cementingunit. Mix anddisplacewith cementingunit to ensuretime will not be lost
changingpimps, and that an accuratevolumerecordcanbe kept of displacement.
Any delays in changingpumpscouldcausethe slurryto solidify in the drill string.
Spotthe drill pipe oppositethe lower activezone.

A mixing rate of 6 BPM of waterwill preventbaritesettlingHowever,this means

approximately78 sacks of barite per minutewhich is probablymore than canbe
achieved.A more realistic mixing rate wouldbe 2ll2bblswaterperminute with
approximately33 sacks barite per minute, resulting in a slurryvolume of 4l/2
BPM.

NOTE:

(A) Do not pump the barite slurry into ttre drill pipe until the mix is consistentat 21

weigh slurry as a checkdwing mixing.)A by-passline shouldbe riggedup to

the seaor to a wastepit.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNqL0GY oF WELL CqNTRqL 105

(b) The bariteplug is designedto let the baritefall completelyout of suspension in

approximately15 minuteswhen circulation is stopped.Therefore, oncethe
barite slurry has starteddown the drill pipe DO NOT stoppumping.Always
maintain a nominal pressureat thetop of the drill pipe.Do not let plug fall on
vacuum.

As the barite plug is pumpeddownthe drill pipe,bleedoff the equivalentvolume

from the annulus.This is donethroughthe surfacechokemanifold, throughthe mud
gas separatorto the mud tanks.A simpleprocedureis to keepthe annuluspressure
constantat the samepressurein effectprior to startingthebariteplug.

Displace the bariteplug at a minimumrateof 6 3PM andpreferably 2 pM, using

cementingunit tanks for accuratevolume measurementand, if available,cross-
check using a barrel counter.Be prepared.to switchto rig pumpsimmediatelyif
cementunit malfunctions.

NOTE:

(c) The selected pumpingrate displacementshouldbe kept constantandthe initial

pumpingdrill pipe pressurenoted(whenstartingto mix bariteslurry)so thatthe
annuluschokecanbe adjustedat this constantpumpingpressureif a gasbubble
happensto be circulatedto ttresurfaceduring,displacement
of the bariteplug.

(d) It is preferable to displace the slurry with a mud of sufficient weight as

calculated from the initial shut-in drill pipe pressureto keepthe drill pipe under
controlwhenthe slurryhasbeendisplaced.

Pump the slurry out of the drill pipe but under displace,leaving about2 bbls of
slurry in the drill pipe.

Break connectionsat surfaceandpull up onestandasrapidly aspossible.continue

out of hole until lower end of drill string is abovetop of plug. wait for barite to
bridge andplug (eight hours), holding back pressureto preventfurther gasinflow.

when theplug hasformed proceedwith the necessary

remedialstepsto re-establish
circulation.

1.4.8 AC CT]MUI,,/ITORSYSTEMS

Dr. M. S. Farahat
106 CHI TECHNoL0GYoF wELL coNTRoL

The purpose of the accumulatorsystems(asshownin Fig. 1.17)to provideclosing

energy to all members of the blowoutpreventerstack.This is usuallydonewith a
hydraulic systemdesignedandbuilt to provideclosingpowerto the equipmentin S
secondsor lessandto maintainthe requiredpressuresasdesired.

The working mechanismof the accumulatoris a functionof hydraulicoil stored

under a compressedinert gas, usually nitrogen. As hydraulicoil is forcedinto a
vessel (bottle) by a small volume output, high pressurepump, the nitrogen is
compressedand stores potential energy. When the preventers are actuated, the
pressuredoil is releasedand opensor closesthe preventers.Hydraulic pumps
replenish the accumulatoramount of fluid as was used to work the preventers.
Figure 1.17 shows an accumulatorwhich includes the bottles, pumps, a1d n
hydraulicoil tank.

A precharge pressure is generally applied to the nitrogen to assurethat all the oil
can be forcedfrom the bottlewhennecessary. The precharges may rangefrom 500
psi to 3000psi with the desiredprecharged pressurebeingdependenton the service
couditions during fluid drawdown.Figure l.l8 is a draw-downcurvefor 3 different
prechargepressuresand is used to size preventerswith respect to accurnulator
pressure.An example roblem s ollowing sectionswell explainthe useof these
curves.

The accumulatormustbe equippedwith severalpressureregulating evices o hat

different stagesof pressurecan be maintainedwith the unit. As an example,an
accumulatorpressureof 3000 psi is recommended in most casesbut the pressure
must be regulatedto provide 1500 psi tothesphericalpreventersincethis isthe
maximum recommendedclosing pressurefor most spherical.Accordingly,other
stack membersmay require different perating ressures.(Recommendedoperating
pressuresare listed in the manual) A bypassvalve is built into the accumulator
should it become necessaryto use the full pressureto close the preventersin
emergency conditions.

Another purpose of this hydraulic system is to maintain constant ressures hen

stripping pipe through the spherical preventer.Astooljointsarestrippedthrough
the packing element,the accumulatormust allow tJreexcessfluid pressureto move
from the annular closing chamber.When the tool joint passesthrough the packing
element, the accumulator must force additionzil fluid back into the spherical
preventerto maintain a constantpressure.

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNqL^GY oF WELL
C,NTR,L t07

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
 30
ACCUMULATORDR,AWDOWNCURVES
29
LEGEND-
- 3000 Psl ACC_UMULATOQ
WtrH toOO PSI PR.CHARGE
28 -----' ?ooo Psl ACCUTTTULATOR
WttH tooo PSI PRE.CHARG
-- tsoo Pst ACCUMULA|ORWITH 75O Pst PRE-CHARGE
27

?4

?3

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10 60 80 loo
GALLONS OF FLUID WITHORAWN
Figure /^ tg
Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TEcHNoLoGY oF IqELL ChNTRhL
109

1.4.8.1 DESIGN PROCEDARE

The accumulatorshouldbe of a sufficientcapacityto meet

the following minimum
requirements.

l. Ability to closea minimum of threemembersof the stack,one

of which mustbe
the spherical' without having to rechargethe accumulator.(Many
operators
requirethatthe accumulatorcloseall membersof the stack
without rectrarging.)

2' A total of 50%o

of the original fluid shouldremainasa reserveafter accumulator
activafion.

3. A minimumpressureof 1200psi is requiredto insure

thatthe preventersremain
close.

Example I:

wrrat worrta be the minimum requirementsfor an accumulator

if the fblowing
elementsarein use.Usethe preventerinformationin the manual.

Example1: (Continued)

ELEMENT No. TYPE sIzE PRESSURE TING

Spherical I Hydril GK II 10,000psi
Rams 2 CameronI I II 10,000psi
Valves 4 CameronF 3 10,000psi
(3 l/8 in Bore)
SOLUTION:
I i:
"i

Part l: VolumetricRequirement
ELEMENT GALS. TO OPEN GALS. TO CLOSE
Spherical(1) 18.87 25.r0
Rams(2) 6.40 6.72
Valves(4) t.t2 l.t2
26.39 32.94

TOTAI 26.39+ 32.94= 59.33Gallons

Dn M. S. Farahal
 ll0 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

5 9 . 3 3x 2 : 1 1 8 . 6 6 G a l l o n s

The accumulatorsystemshouldhavea minimumvolumetriccapacityof I 18.66(or

120)gallons.

Part 2: PressureRequirement

Using the drawdown curves shown in Figure 12, several options are available.
Someof theseoptionsareasfollows:

l. 120gallonsaccumulatoror greaterwith a 300Qpsi charge.

2. 200 gallonsaccumulatoror greaterwith a 2000psi charge.

1.4.9FLAID DENSITY CONTROL

The primary well controltool availableto the drilling supervisors he ydrostatic

pressureof.the drilling fluid in the well. The drilling fluid, or mud, is usedto
preventa well from kicking andshoulda kick ocour,themud is usedto kill the kick
and regain control of the well. Controlof the drilling fluid density,therefore,is a
prime concernto the drilling Supervisor.

Hydrostaticpressureis definedasthe pressureexertedby a columnof fluid. In the

drilling industry, the fluid is generallyconsidered
to be mud, but could alsobe gas,
air, foam, or water. The formula to calculatehydrostaticpressuresis as follows:

Hydrostatic Pressure: .052 * Mud Weight x Depth, Eq. 1.1

Where:

(l) Hydrostaticpressureis in poundsper squareinch,

(2) .052psi/fooVppgis a constant,
(3) Mud Weight is in poundsper gallon,and
(a) Depth is true vertical depthin feet.

Example 2:

Calculatethe hydrostaticpressures
for eachof the following systems.
(a) 10,000 feetof 12.0 ppg,mud

Dn M, S. Farahat
 CH I TECHN0L^GY oF nELL coNTRoL
lIl

(b) 12,000 feetof 10.5 ppg,mud

(") 15,000 feetof 15.0 ppg,mud
Solution:

Hydrostaticpressure: .052 xMud

Weightx Depth

(a) HydrostaticPressure:.052
x 12.0ppgx 10,000feet: 6,240psi

(b) Hydrostaticpressure= .052

x 10.5ppg x 12,000feet= 6,552psi

(c) HydrostaticPressure
= .052 x 15.0ppgx 15,000feet: t 1,700psi

A mud gradientcan alsobe.usedto

calculatehydrostaticpressures.
A mud gradient
pressure
fo. foot
||"t;:fiT,'f,';Hfi*""tic "u"h ormua,
andiscal;ted using

'
Mud Gradient =.052 x Mud lVeight,
Eq. 1.2
Where
q] Mud Gradientis in psi/foot,
(2).052psilfoot/ppgis a constant.
and
(3) Mud Weightis in poundsper gallon.

The hydrostaticpressurewould be
written as:

Hydrostaticpressure= Mud Gradient

x Depth,Eq. 1.3

It shouldbe obviousthat Eq. Ll is a

combinationof Eq. L2 and

Example j.. illustrates the usageof

the mud gradient.

Example 3:

use mud gradientsto calculatethehydrostaticprcssureexertedby

15.0ppgmud. 15,000feetof

Solation:

Dn M. S. Farahat
t12 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

(1) UsingEq.l.2,

Mud Gradient=.052 x Mud lTeight

= .052x15.0ppg
: .780psi/ft . i!

(2) UsingEq.1.3,

Hydrostatic Pressare= Mud Gradientx Depth

: .780psi/footx 15,000feet
: 1 1 , 7 0p0s i

The drilling fluid density is controlledby varying the concentrationof high specific
gravity solids within the fluid. The fluid densityis increased
by addingthesesolids
while the donsityisdecreasedby eitherremovingthe solidsor addinga low density
fluid to dilute the concentrationof the solids. Table 1.7 lists someofthemore
commonmaterialsusedto increasefluid densitv.

Barite is the most commonly used density control material in the industry.Its
relatively high specific gravity and inert propertiesmakeit idealfor usagein the
mud system.Poorquality confrolin someof theseminesmay yield a productthatis
mixed with hydratableclays,andwhenintroducedinto the mud system,will cause
increased mud viscosityproperties.

Galena, lead sulfide, will occasionally be used for density control in special
applications. It is specific gravity of 6.8 will generatemud weights that will attain
high hydrostaticpressures overrelativelyshortcolumnsof fluid. the usageofgalena
muds has been confined to specialwell control applicationsthough due to the
inherent problem of suspensionof the high specific gravity solids in the mud
system.

Proper well planmng requires that a zufficient quantity ofbarite be maintainedon

the drilling locationto safelykill a one(1.0)poundper gallonsafetymeasurewhich
meansthat barite volumes will be maintainedat a level sufficientto increasethe
present mud density by one pound per gallon. (This safety margin is basedon
statistics from a professional well killing companywhich showedthat an average

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF II'ELL CONTROL 113

kick would requireone-harf(0.5)poundper gallon increasein mud weight,

or less.
The one pound per gallon marginthusincorporatesasafety factorof2rerativeto
the averagekick). The following equationcanbe usedto calculate
requiredbarite
volumes:
Pounds/Barret= (1490(ty2_W1)/ (35.4_ty2)Eq. 1.4

Where
(1)Pounds/Banelis the numberof poundsof bariterequiredto increase
the densitv
of onebarrelof mud.

(2) 1490is the densityofone barrelofbarite

(3) W2is the final mud weight,

(4) Wl is the originalmud weight,and

(5) 35.4is the densityof onegallonof barite.

Example4: will illustratethe usageof Eq.l.4.

Example 4:

A well is being drilled with 13.0poundsper gallonmud. The hole volume g50
is
barrel sand the surfacepit volumeis 350barrels.How many sacks
of bariteshould
be maintained on the drilling location?(Assumethat onesackcontains
r00 pounds
of barite.)
Solution:
( l ) U s i n gE q l . 4 ,

Pounds/Bawet= (1490(W2-Wt) / (35.4_W2)

W1: 15.0ppg

W2:Wl - t.0ppg
W2: 16.0ppg
Pounds/Barrel= (1490(16.0 _ IS.0)/ (j5.4 - 16.0)
:76.8 pounds/ bamel
(2) (850+ 350) Banels * 76.8pounds/barrel
:92t60 poundsofBarite
(3) 92160pounds/ (100pound/ sack): 921.6Sacks

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 tt4 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL

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Dn M, S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF I"ELL CONTROL
115

1.4.10WSCOSITV

The viscosityof a dr'ling fluid hasmany effectson the drilling process.

The fluid is
expectedto havea sufficientviscosity to carry the cuttingsfrom
the hole yet havea
minimum necessaryviscosityto minimize swabandsurgepressures
dueto vertical
pipemovement.

The viscosity of a mud system(basedon clay asa suspension

agent)is dependant
on two fluid properties.The first properfyis that of the size,
shape,andnumberof
particles in the system.Muds with a high percentage of solidswiir generallyhavea
viscosity higherthan a mud with a rowerpercentage of sclids.An exampleof this is
the relative viscosity of an lg.0 ppg mud versusa 12.0ppg
mud. one of the most
useful tools availablefor easein attainingan estimationof
the solidscharacteristics
of the mud systemis theplasticviscositymeasurement takenby the mud engineer.
This value can be compared with a typicalprasticviscosiry
frlm Tabler.g.As an
example,of a 14.0 ppgmud hada plasticviscosityof 4g
c.p.thesolidscontentor
alrangementin the mud is not optimum.

controlling viscosity causedby the size, shape,and number

of particlesin the
suspensioncan only be doneby removingthe solidsor diluting
the mud to a point
where the solidsfalr within he cceptabreange.In somecases,
soridsremovalcan
be accomplishedwith conventionalsorids control equipment
such as desilters,
desanders,and centrifuges.Solidscontrorby dilution is generally
expensiveandnot
thepreferablemethod.

The other fluid property controlling viscosityis the internal

attractionof the mud
particles for each other. This is a chemicalreaction
andis commonlytermedthe
yield point of the mud. Sincethis is a chemicalreaction,
mud additivescanbe used
to control viscosity by creating a chemical enyironment
that will causemud
thinning to occur' This is usually done with thinner and
disparatessuch as
phosphates,lignosulfonates,or lignites. A listing of some
common thinners is
presentedin Tablel.g alongwith a few companytradenames.
Table r.g canbe used
for yield point control aspreviouslydescribedfor plasticviscosity
contol.

control of the yield point during kicks is important becausekick

fluids such as
saltwater tend to cause the mud solids to athact each other
and thus increase
viscosity. This abnormal viscosity increasewill creategreater
lost circulation
tendencies by increasingthe friction pressureof the mud.

Dn M. S. Farahat
 lr6 CH I TECHNDL0GY oF InELL C0NTRDL

rABLE 1,8

C
PLASTI YEILD
1{I. s0Ll0s POINT
#/cal. % VOLUHE vlscoslTY
| 0 . 0 -| 2 . 0 | 3 . 0 - l7 . 5 x-5.5
I0.0 x-8.0
l0.5 l 2 , 0 -1 4 . 0 r5 . 0 - 1 9 , 5
13.5-15.5 t 7 . 0 - 2 1. 5 x-l1.0
I1.0 x-12.5
It.5 l5,o-17.0 t9.o-23.5
|7.0-l9.0 2l .o-25.O 4 , 5- r4 . 0
I2.O 6,5-15-o
20.0-22.O 23.0-28.0
22.O-24 ,O 25.o-3o,5 8.0-r5,5
It.> 24.0-25.0 2 7. 5 - 3 3 . o 9.5-17.5
,0.o-35.0 I o . 5 -| 8 . 0
tA.0 25.9-27.5 I t.5-19,0
14.5 77.O-29.O 32.0-38,0
t 4 . 5 - 4 1. o l2.o-19.0
|5.0 28.5-)o.5 13.0-19.5
I5.5 lo.0-32.0 I7.0-l|ll.0
4 0 .o - r { 7 . 5 | 3 , 5- 2 0 . 0
|5 . 0 3l,5-33.0 14.0-20.0
12.5-t\.o 4 2 , 5 - 5.10
Io.>
45.0-55.5 1 4 .0- 20 . 0
|7.0 34.0-35.5
17.5 t5.0-)6.5 4 9 . 5- 6 0 ; 0 t4.5-20,0
|4,5-20.0
l 8.0 3 6 . 0- 37 . 5 51.0-56.0

rABLEI ,9

Descriprron Earoid M ag c ob a r Milwhite P r i m a r yA p p l i c a l i o n

S,rdium IIICO- Ph.rs.-,.,. Bi rrfos.....,..... : U a S c , r p h o s . . . . . .O r l l o s . . . , - - . . Thinner for loq.pll lrcsh $.:rrcr

Ttraphosphar? (STP} muds.
S , , . l r u mA c i d . . . . . , . . . . . . sAPP _--^-___-_---- s A P P, . . , . . . - . . . . -S. A D P sApp For trcating cemenl ront:lhrinrtioo.
P! rophosDhrte

Qucbrrcho Exrr:ct ... IIlCO-Qu?brlc ho. Quebtacho........ ItC Qleblacho.. J i l Thinher lor fresh {'!tcr and li c
(90-t0) QuelrrachJ ntuils.

Quebracho Ittco-QBT ........ T a n n e x. . . . . . . . . . , . Q X - Q u e b r a c h o .T. a n c o . . . . . . . . - - . Thrnnc.r lor fresh later and lime
Compound rrruds.

Causlicired -........... rllCO-T:r .....-... H!{lrotan ..... ... Alk5rrn llil-:\rTrn..... l-2 rrtio causl ic - Quebrrc ho lor
Quebrrcho thinning lou pH fresh lrlater |rr!ds-

H e m l a r c tE r t i a c t . . . . , . lllCO- Fln ......... RaItlo ......,..... R-rttlo R - r J l l 6 , . . . . . . . . . Thinnli for lresh u':ler muds and
in ftrrds containinF salt (10.000 ro
r 5.000 pFm).

M i n ? d L i E n i l c . . . . . . - . . . lllcO- LiB..,...-.. Crrbonox Tlnn.\1hi0 ....--. L i g c o . . . . , . . . . - . , Disl)erserd emulsiaier and supple-

mentar-y additlre lor tluid lgss
conl tol.

Crusaiclzed Lignitc,.. tNCO-Thin cc-t6 -..-...,...-

Enrulsile.,.....-. Sutcr Ligro.- l - 6 retio (eustic-liFntle disl)ers!nl,
enlulsilier and supplemenlir)- {luic
!oss idditive.

C.lciom lllCO-Crl- Lignox ......,-.. ,icirbrc.Ji -. --- -. KenrbreaJi-..-. Thinncr tor SCR and litne rnuds.
Llcnosulfonate
Nodrf ied L\tco $c-t0 -...-. Q- Broitn -.-. sllcrstnc ...--... t:nt-CaL-.---.. D.ispersint :nd ll!id logs cont!-r,l
Lt!nosult.rn.lc rtldili!e lor $atrr tlasi nruds.

Blendcd LiSnosul-..... t : \ r c oR D - 1 t t . . . . . Distlcrsant. lluid loss ngcnt tnd

loirl" Cornpound iohit itor {or RD- I I t mud s}.sr.nrs.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CHI TECHNoL0GYoF VELL coNTRoL tr7

1.4.11FLUID LOSS

one of the primary functionsof a drilling fluid is that of controllingthe amountof

fluid lost from the mud to the formation.Lossof fluid (usuallywater)from the mud
into the formation only occurswhenthe permeabilityis suchthat it will allow the
passageof fluid betweenthe pore openings.Ifthe openingsare largeenough,the
first effect is a mud spurtthat enterstheseopeningsat the faceof the well bore.As
additional fluid is lost, a build up of the mudsolids(wall cake)is formedon the
wall face.

The two instrumentsused to measurethe fluid lossarethe ApI waterloss cell and
the High Temperature-HighPressure(HTHP) cell. The ApI cell uses 100 psi,
differential pressureand atrnospherictemperaturefor filtration while the HTHP cell
usesmore realistic downholeconditionsof 500 psi and250 - 350 F. Tablel.l0
comparesthe API andHTHP valuesof certainmudsandshowsthat the ApI water
lo,ssin not alwaysa goodmeasurement of acfualconditions.

Control of the fluid loss of the mud is generallydoneby addingchemicalsto the

systemthat eithereffectthe solidswithin the mud to form a lower permeabilitycake
or that will lower the fluid lossasa resultof the natureof the additive.Table 1.1I
lists someof the commonmud fluid lossadditives.

1. 4.12SALINITY

The salinity of the mud system is dependentupon the number of salt ions in
solution. The salinity may be a mezrsure of the chlorideions or a measureof total
salt. control of the salts in the mud systemcanbe achievedonly by chemically
treating all other mud solids particles or by dilution of the salt concentrations.
Although salinity changes have often beenproposedto detectabnormalpressures,
they arepoor indications and are quite unreliablein many instances.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 llE CH I TECHNoLqGY oF WELL CqNTRoL

--,---,
TABLE ==J;='=f==
ComParlson=,
or rpi;;axtFp;;i;;
loss valule |tom acluallield muds'
HTHPWaterLoss
N0. 0eplh walff (ccl30min
00 Loss at 300degF & 500)
(ccl30nin) Psi
'I 10.180 3.2 r2.0
2 o aal 3.2 10.0
1 10.798 3.2 9.8
1 9.550 3.2 15.0
t rr.270 2.5 12n
6 9690 3.0 12.0
16.127 69 12.0
8 17.859 6.0 12.0
9 13.872 3.0 r2o
l0 8.0m 27.0 24.2
tduls 'tret no' 9'| lo
tir. ln G..at lio: 1{, tlt ^P| Yrh,.s r!.t 32 ccll) |lin rl$t! lh' lflflP
l5.0arl:! lnn
lron 25 to 6 lE/tr ti'
i &-ii iS. tt mlP tJ'o r.r! t20 lrrL il, ^PI tn.l b53's 't{ed
l5 t0 ts in.raslt9 a tirt l|t tflltP vdu' tG loalr lh" lh' AE tn'r los'
G8a

TABLE l, tl

Description Baroid Mag Milwhite Application

FLUID LOSSREDUCERS
SodiurnCarboxyl- .... Iiuco:cnc..... Mil$hitc Cluc. For lluid loss control in Eyp. sca
methylC.llulos. Tcch. Grade Tech- Grade Tech. Grede rrxter ind lresh wirtcr muds.

Polt.nionic Crlluloslc D r i s p a c . . . . . . . . . . . D r i s p r c . . . . . . . . . D . i s p a c . . . . . . . . .For (luid loss control rnd f is-

Poltmcr cosi[ier in srlt muds.

Sodlum Cypan........... C y p a n . . . . . . . . . For

. lluid loss control in calcium
frce lor^ solids nruds.
I ' r c F t l . t i n i z e d . . . ' . . . . - . IirlCO- L.rid ..... l m p e r m c x. . . . . . . . Conlr,rls loss in salut:rtd
Staich s a l t N a l a a . l i r n e a n ( lS C R m u d s .

l i o n . l e r F e n t i n g . . . . . . . . S l a b i l o r d . . . . . . . . . . . D e \ tr i d . . . . . . . . . . . . P e r m ! 4 l a r c h . - Cnntr,ts fluid loss in sei $alct!

Sirrch br:rckish tNitcr ind (r(.sh uiater
nruds.

S o d i u i nC a r b t x l l - ' . . . . I u c o - c r l c . . . . . .C c l l c r . . . . . . - . . . :\l:rr,,-Cllc ,. lltlnhile Cllc F,rr fluid lrss conltol and baril.
m.lhtl C('l lulose R.!:..: la r R(FUlar Rer'\ll er Rri.:uli r srrspensi,,oin satcr hasc nruds.

S.rd'uhrC.rbortl- ..... t : \ t c o - c l : c- . . . . . . C e l l e x , . . . . . . . , - . ' . 1 ; r ' : c - ' - C l ' 1 C . . llrlwhilc Cltlc F.'r tltrtdltss contr.,llnd tis( usilr
rnr.thtl Ccllulose Hr.\'i s- Hr-Vis. Hr.vls. H t - \'rs. brrild||r.;in lou snlids nru.ls.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TEcHNoLoGY oF VELL CDNTRhL I19

1.4.13 GASCOANTING
(BackGroundand Connection)

Another procedure that is customarilyemployedin abnormalpressuredetection

is
counting or measuringthe amountof gasin the mud stream.A detectoris placed
at
some point in the flow line with a measuringinstrumentand alarmplaced
on therig
floor or in a loggingunit. The gascontentis reportedasunits of methane
sasin the
mud. (It is interestingto note that oneunit of gashasnot beendefined.)

There are severalproblemsc.ssociated with gascounting.The gasdetectorsarenot

reliablein service.Also, sincemanydetectorsreportonly methaneconcentrations
in
the mud, it is conceivablethat an ethaneblowout could occurthatwould
not be
reportedby the gasdetector.The majorproblemwith gascountingis
that thereare
12 possiblesourcesfor the reportedgasto enterthe mud streamand none
may be as
a resultof abnormalpressures.

1.,,4.
I 4 SPECIAL OPERATIONS
1.4.14.1STRIPPINGAND SNABBING

when a kick occurs during a trip or whenthe pipe is out of the hole,well
conkol
operations become more difficult because it is impossibleto circurate
mud
throughout the entire well. In this event,the initial procedureto implement
is to get
the pipe backto bottom(with thepreventersclosedto preventadditional
in fluid. If
the pipe mustbe forcedinto the well asa resultof a lack of sufficientpipe
weightto
overcome well pressures, the procedureis termedsnuhbing.If enoughpipe is in the
hole to allow the pipe to slackoffby itself, the procedureis calledstripping.
The
kill procedureto be employed in this type of situationis to get the pip"
to bottom
and circulate original mud at that point.

1.4.14.2 VOLUMETRIC METHOD

The volumetric method is one way to run the pipe in the hole in a controlled
m4nner. The methodis basedon allowingan equalvolumeof mud to leavethewell
as that volume of drill pipe enterinj the well. The major problem with this
procedureis that only relatively small volumesare involved in the procedureand,in
most cases,more mud will be allowedto escapefrom the well than is necessary.
When this occurs, additionalkick fluids will enterthe well andcausethe Dressures

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 120 CH I TECHNDL0GY oF InELL CqNTRqL

to increaseon the annulus.

1.4.14.3PRESSARE
METHOD

The pressuremethodis consideredsuperiorto thevolumetricmethodbecause

it
usesa differentprincipalto moveaccurately,controlthe volumeof fluid leavingthe
well. In the pressuremethod,a cementingpumpis connectedto the chokeline and
is used to pump through the choke at a pressureslightly greater thanthe well
pressure.The choke line valve at the stackis openedandstripping(or snubbing)
operationsbegin. Since the choke is holding a pressureslightly greaterthanthe
initial well pressure,no additionalkick influx occurs.The influx from the chokeis
returned to the cementingpump mixing (suction) tank and can accuratelybe
monitoredto insure that the volumeincreaseis equalto the volumeof steelbeing
run into the well.

when the influx bubble is enteredby the drill string, an abnormalvolume increase
will be notedin the tanksdueto a chokepressureunderbalance asa resultof influx
verticalheightincrease.At this time, the influx canbe circulatedfrom the well.

1.4.14.4PLUGGED DRILL PIPE

occasionally the drill pipe will becomeplugged duringa well killing operation.
when this occursthe plug mustbe removedor an alternatecirculationpathmustbe
created by perforatingthe deepestunpluggedinterval of pipe. The perforating
techniqueis usually employed becauseit will generallynot be possibleto remove
theplug within a reasonableamountof time.

care should be given to the interval ofdrill pipe that isperforated.Inorderto

generatethe hydrostatic pressuresrequiredto kill the well withoutusingexcessive
mud densities,the perforationsshould be asdeepaspossible.If the intervalto be
perforatedis opposite a casedsection,theperforationchargeshouldbe minimized
to avoidperforatingthe casingandcreatinga possiblelost circulationproblem.

1.4.14.5HOLE IN DRILL PIPE

If a hole is developed in the drill pipe while killing a kick, stepsmustbe takento
circumvent the problem and allow for the continued implementation of the
conventionalkill procedures.If actionsarenot immediatelyexecutedit will not be
possibleto circulatekill mud to thebit. Also, it is conceivablethata washoutcould

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH I TECHN}LDGY oF VELL CqNTR,L t2l

causethe drill stringto be droppedin the hole.

The techniquemost often employedin pluggingthe hole is that pumping

of a piece
of rope down the drill pipe. Sincethe ropewill folow the path
of fluid flow, it will
go directly to the hore and brock that passage.counting
pump strokeswhile
pumpingthe rope andnoting any pumppressurebuildups
will denotethe probabledepthof the hole.

If the rope technique is not successful, it will becomenecessary to isolatethe hole

by running I ll/2 in tubinginsidethe drill pipe with a pack-off assemblyon
the
bottom. when in position below the hole, the pack-off asisembly
is setandthe
circulationof kill mud is continued.

1.4.14.6EXCESSIVE CASING PRESSURE

designedcasing string problem. If a stringof casingis designed

usingthe proper
techniques,the problemofexcessivecasingpressurewill never
be incurred.At any
rate, if casing burst is the consideration,it is usually
better to continuethe
operationsasplannedfor the following reasons:

(l) Publishedcasingburstdatais alwayslower thanthe

true averageburst.

(2) Casinghungin tensionhasan increasedburstlimit.

(3) No alternatekill proceduresare better than the conventional

kill procedure
during the problem. If the e*cessivecasingpressrzreis reduced,
additional influx
will feedinto the wellboreandnecessitate
evenhigherpressures to kill the welr.

consideredto be. In almostall applications,the most severefracture

dangeris when
the well is initially shut-in. After this, the down-hole stresses
are lower andthe
excessivecasingpressureis no longera problem.

1.1.14.7 UNDERGROAND
BLOWOIJTS

Undergroundblowouts occur as a resultofsimultaneouslostcirculationandkick

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 t22 CH I TECHNoL0GY oF WELL CoNTRoL

problems.This type of kick problem is difficult to controldueto the inability to

applyconventionalkill procedures.

' Indicators:

There are a numberof indicatorsor warningsignsfor undergroundblowouts,some

of thesearelistedbelow:

1. Casing pressurebuildup when the well is initially shut-in andasubsequent

reductionin pressureif the formationfractures.

2. Fluctuatingcasingpressures
asa resultof the fractureattemptingto heal.

3. Drill pipe pressureshigher thanthecasingpressureasaresultofinfluxfluids

enteringthe drill pipe dueto the lost circulation.

4. Drill pipe on a vacuum as a result of the reductionin effectivebottomhole ,

pressureson the annulus.

PossibleRemedies:
'
1. Barite Pills may be usedto form a bridgeat the hole-bottom.

2. Heavy slugsof mud may be spottedat the hole bottomin orderto generatelarge
hydrostaticpressures
andkill thekick.

3. Lost circulationmaterialsmay be usedto plug the fracture.

4. Time is often successfulas a kill techniqueasa resultof allowing the hole to

bridge.

ZoneDetectionTechniques
:

Many kill proceduresare dependentupon an exactdeterminationof the location of

the fractured zone. Some of the more cornmon detection techniques are listed
below:
.
,,

l. Temperaturesurveysareprobably the most bommontool presently in use.The

survey can be taken with drill pipe in thehole andcanbe usedto detectthe

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF WELL CONTROL 123

zone if flow has ceased.

2. Radioactive tracers have been used in cased holes with some success.A
radioactive material is pumped down the well and a radiation tool is usedto
trace its path.

3. The history of the well may indicatethe locationthe lost circulationzone.The

well may have a known lost circulation zone or have a weak formation
exposedto the wellbore.

1.5Jield Practicefor well Control Problem and Their Solutions, and ll/orksheet

WEIL CONTROL PBOBLEMS

l. Reduction in BHP by not Jiiling up on trips.

PEOBLEM:

A. talculate the reductionin pressure by pulling l0 standsof 14 ll2 in, 16.6#lft.,

drill pipe. Extra hole tool joints havingan outsidediameterof 6 ll4in O.D. and3
l/4 in I.D., withoutfilling theannulus.Displacement is 0.00563bbls/ft. or l5l
feet per barrel. The hoie diameteris 8 ll2 inches,andannulusvolumeis 20 feet
per barrel of .05 bbl. per foot. The capacityof the drill pipe is .0142bbVft.The ,
mud weight is i6.8 lb/gal. andwell depthis 10,000feet.A standlengthif 93 ft.

Solution:

l0 standsx 93 930 feet

--
930feetx .00663bbls/ft. 6.166bblsdisplacement
6.166bbls4 / .0642:96.04feet
96.04feetx .872psi/ft.: 83.74psi
83.74pulling l0 standswithout filling the casingannulus

PPOBLEM:

B. Calculatethe reduction inpressurebypulling,astandofcollarswithoutfilling

up the hole. The collarsare7 in O.D. by 2.5 in ID. In an 8 ll2inhole. The mud
weight is 16.8ppC.A standlengthis 93 feet.Collar displacement is .0390bbyft
and the collar capacityis .0080bbVft.The 7in x 8 l/2in annularcapacityis .0226
bbl/ft.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
124 CH I TECHNqLqGY oF VELL C0NTR0L

PROBLEM:

C. Calculate the number of 93 standspulled without filling up so that the

hydrostaticpressureis reducedby .3 lb/gal.equivalentmud weight.

Solution:

16.8# mud-10,000ft. depthx .872pst{ft.: 8720psi

16.5# mud-10,000ft. depthx .857psilft.: 8570psi

Differencein hydrostaticpressure: 150psi

93 00663bbls/ft.: .6166bbls.
0.6155bbls/ 0.0642bbyft. : 9.604feet
9.604ft. x .872psiift.: 8.375psi
150psi / 8.375psi : 17.91stands

2.GasKick Back PressureCurve(usingFig. 1.19-1.21)

PROBLEM:

A. Calculateandplot casingbackpressure
curve,pit level

2. GasKick PackPressureCurve(continued)

A. Curve, andoriginal SIDP & SICSGpressuresfor a 15,000ft. well. 8 l/2in hole x

4 ll2in 16.6#lft. DP. I 5.0ppg mudkickedto 16.0ppg for:

(l) l0 001gain
(2) 20 bbl gain
(3) 50 bbl gain

PROBLEM:

B. Calculateandplot backpressurcurvefor I 5,000ft. well. 6in hole x 3 ll2in 13.3

#/ft. DP. 20 bbl gain, 15.0ppg mud kickedto:

(l) 16.0ppg
(2) 17.0ppg

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOFIYELLCONTROL 125

(3) 18.0ppg

PROBLEM:

C. Write up observations:

(l) Influx size(Al, A2,& A3)

(2) Annulusto drill pipe volumeratio (A2 & Bl)
(3) Mud weight increase(Bl, B2, & 83)

Effectrequiredback pressurecurves.

PROBLEM: '

D.Calculateequivalentmd weight@ 1,000,2,500,7,500,10,000; and 12,500and

15,000 , at initial shutin drill pipe displacement
andeachcalculatedincrement
-after
for problem(A-2). - -
D.P. displacement,

PROBLEM:

E. Calculateand plot back pressurecurveasin (A-2) but circulategasout without

increasingmud weight. Calculate equivalentmud weightsas in (D). Write up a
comparisonof the two methodswith respectto which you believeto be best.

PROBLEM:

F. Calculateand plot backpressurecuryeasin (A-2) but circulate17.0ppg mud to

kill. Calculateequivalentmud weightsasin (D).

3. SaltwaterKick Back PressureCurve

PROBLEM:

A.Calculateand plot backpressurecurvefor,' 15,000 8 1/2inhole,14l/2in,

16.5#/ft. UP, 15.0ppgkickedto 16.0ppg for a 50 bbl gain.

PROBLEM:

Dr. M. S. Farahat
t26 CH I TECHN0L0GY oF WELL CqNTRDL

B. Calculateand plot back pressurecurveasin (A) but circulateinflux out without

increasingthe mud weight.

4. with the Ben EatonFractureGradientchart, calculatethe fracturegradientusing

the followinedata:

Depth,fi Formation pressure,ppg Fracture gradient, ppg

6000 Normal
9000 Normal
14000 12.7
12500 t4.2
]-.
11800 9.8
3000 9.0
1000 9.0
18000 t6.7
15200 17.1

1 .:
..

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 127

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
 t28 CE I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL t29

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 130 CH I TECHN,L^GY oF VELL C,NTR,L

l.sl. spncLalwELLcoNTRoL
pnoircrus

l. calculate initial drill pipe pressure,initial casingpressure,

pit level changesdue
to gasinflux andexpansion,andincrementalcasingpressurefor a gaskick taken
15,000ft. with 15.0ppgmud,a 16.0ppgformation,with4I/2 16.6#lft.D.p. to
15,000ft. in an 8 l/2in hole.For:

a. l0 bbl. gain
b. 20 bbl.gain
c. 30 bbl. gain

Also, calculateequivalentmud weightsfor ISI, DpD,5l3bbls.pumped,and

GTSat 1,000ft., 3,000ft., 5,000ft., l0 000ft. and15.000ft.

2. calculateinitial drill pipe pressure,

initial casingpressurend ncrementalasing
pressures,for a 20 bbl. gas kick takenat 15,000ft. with 15.0ppg mud,a 16.0
ppg fonnationwith 14,090 ft. of 4l/2in, 16.6#lftDpand9l0 ft. of 6in X 2in
DC in an 8 ll2in hole-Also, carculateequivarentmud weightsfor 1SI,DpD, 450
bbls.pumpedandGTS,at 1,000ft and5,000ft.

3. calculate initial drill pipe pressure,initial casingpressurend ncrementalasing

pressuresfor a 20 bbl. gaskick takenat 15,000ft. with 15.0ppg mud, 15,000
ft.
of 3Il2 13.3#lft, drill pipein a 6in hole.For:

a. 16.0ppgFormation
b. 18.0ppgFormation

4. calculate initial drill pipe preszure,initial casingpressureandincrementalcasing

pressuresfor a 20 bbl. gas kick takenat 15,000ft. with 15.0ppgmud, from a
16.0ppg formationpressure,with 15,000 ft.of 4ll2in, 16.6#lft..drillpipeinan
8 ll2in hole.Circulatewell usins:

a. 15.0ppg mud @rillers Method)

b. 17.0ppgmud(Overkill)

Also, calculateEMW @ 513BBLS pumpedfor a., and@ DpD for b.

2. calculate initial drill pipepressure,initial casingpressureandincrementalcasing

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF WELL CONTROL 131

pressuresfor a 20 bbl kick takenat 15,000ft. with 15.0ppg mud from a 16.0
ppg formation pressurewith 15,000 ft. of 4 ll2in, 16.6#/ft. drill pipe in an 8
l/2in bole using 16.0 ppgmud to kill thewell with.Theinflux fluid is 9.0-ppg
saltwater.

1.5.2 IYORKSHEET PROCEDURE

1.5.2.1HOW TO CALCULATEIYELLKILLING PROBLEMS

BBLS l. Cumulativetotal ofkill weightmud pumped.

BBLS 2. Number of barrelsof the originalmud thathaspassedthroughthe bit

and into the annulus.(Maximum amount canonly be the amountof
barrelsin drill pipe.)

FEET 3. Multiply thenumberof barrelsin No.2 by the annularcapacityin feet

per barrel to get linear feetof originalmud in the annulusbelow the
sasbubble.

PSI 4. Multiply No. 3 by the mud gradient(15 ppg: .780psi/ft) to getthe

pressureof the original mud column thathaspassedthroughthebit
into annulusspace.

BBLS annulus
5. Barrelsof kill weight mud that has passedthroughbitinto
(Total barrelspumpedminusdrill pipe volume)

FEET 6. Multiply No. 5 (barrels)by annular capacityper barrel to getthe

numberof feetof kill mud in annulus.

PSI 7. Multiply Na 6 (feetof kill weightmud in annulus)by kill weightmud

gradient (16 ppg .832psi/ft) to get the pressureof the kill weightmud
columnin the annulus.

FEET 8. Add No. 3 to No. 6togetttietotallengthofmudcolumninannulus

below sasbubble.

PSI 9. Add No. 4 to No. 7 to getthetotal pressureof the mud columnin the
annulusbelow the gasbubble.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
132 CH I TECHNoLoGy oF II.ELL C'NTRDL

PSI 10. Hydrostatic pressureof gas equalsbarrels of mud gained ( l 0 barrels)

in mud tank when well is shut in, times the annularcapacityper
banel (20 feetper barrel)timesthe gradient(.12) of the gas.
Example: l0 barrels x20 feet/banel:200 feet
200 feetx .12 psi/ft. :24psiGas Hydrostaticpressure

PSI 11. Mid point pressureof gas is formationfluid pressure12495psia

l0 (Hydrostaticof gas)minusNo. 9 (totalpressure
ofmud belowgasbubble)
'
i i. I
12. Temperatureat bottom of gas.Find depth of bottom of gas by
substractingNo. 8 (feet of mud belowgas)from 15,000,Multiply
this by .016 0Fper foot, andadd 70%o
to getdegreesfarenheit.
Example:

15,000feer- 2,000feet: 13,000 feet

13.000feetx .016F/ft.+ 70 = 208+ 70:278F

TEMP 13.Add 4600to No. 12to getRankinetemperature

in degrees.

14. Supercompressibility Factor (Z) look on pages14_15_16

usins
pressureof No. I I andtemperaturesof No. 12.

15.Feetof GasColumn

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH I TECHNOLOGYOF IYELL CONTROL 133

At Pumpingconditions

Vz: New Lengthof gasbubble

pressureof gas
P2: New mid point average
T2 : New Rankinetemp.@ bottomof gas
factorof gas
22: New Supercompre'ssibility

At Shutin Conditions

Vl: Originallengthof gasbubble

Pr: Originalaveragepressureofgas
T1 : OriginalRankinetemp.of gas
factorof gas
Zl: oiginal supercoinpressibility

Plvl
trz = xz2T2
ZITI P2

FEET 16. Original mud in feetabovegasbubbleFrom 15,000(Dep*r of Well)

subtract the lengthofthe gasbubble(No. 15)andsubtractthe length
of mud columnbelow gasbubble(Na 8).

PSI 17. Multiply No. 16 (length of mud column above gas bubble) by
gradient of thatmud (15 ppg - .780psi/ft.)to get hydrostaticpressure
ofNo. 16.
PSI 18.Add Na. 17, No.10 andNO.9.

PSI 19. SubtractNo. 18 from the BLIP (bottomhole pressuregage)to getthe

requiredcasingpressure.

1.5.2.2 ll/ell Control ll/orksheet

Thesesheetsaregivenin Table 1.12,1.13.Also kill sheetis shownin Table 1.14.

Dr. M. S, Farahat
 134 CH I TECHNOLOGY OF WELL CONTROL

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 CH II oFFSHoRE DRILLING TECHN0L0GY 137

CnaprEn II
OTnSHoRE DRILLING
TncnxoLocy

2.1 Introduction and scopefor offshore oil and gas drilling technology

Exploration is now going or off the coast ofalmost all countries,and over forty
countries now have production facilities in place or undergoingconstruction.
loduy, offshore production accountsfor about 20o/ooftheworld oil production.
Qnly -ten years ago, less than 3o/oof theworld oil productionwasobtainedfrom
offshore installations.With offshoreoil reservesconservatively
estimatedat some
160,000 million barrels, and some 490 trillion cubic feet of gas reserves,this
exploration, still at the frontierof man s knowledgeandcapabilities,andlessthan a
generationold, will clearly revolutionizethe relationshipsofpeople andnations
aroundthe world in the next decade.

Looking largely at the continentalshelfregion,overhalfofthe total provenoil and

gas reservesarefound in the Gulf regionof the Middle East,with Lake Maracaibo,
Venezuelahavingby far the next largestreserves,estimatedat about33,000million
barrels. About 60% of the US, reserves,estimatedto be I 1,000million barrels,are
found in the Gulf of Mexico, The North Sea, themajor finding of the pastfour
years,with somel0o%of the world s reserves,is ampletestirnonyto the fact that vre
can expectnew findings and surprisingeventsto continueto alter the world picture.

In Asia, Indonesia,Malaysia, Taiwan and the Philippines,Australia,Colombia,

Brazil andGreece,new oil finds haverecentlybeenreported.In SoutheastAsia and
particularly in the Gulf of ThailandBasin,over25 rigs wereactiveanda numberof
significant discoverieswere reported.outsideof theuS. SouthAmericahasscme

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 138 CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

25 rigs in operation, with major findings reported off the

caribbean coast of
Venezuela,in Colombiaandsomesuccess by petrobrasoff Brazil.

rn 1972 some 500 rigs were operatingoffshoreandover 1,600

wells weredrilled.
Some80 rigs are currentlybeing built, averaging$16 millionperrigforatotal
rnvestmentof over Si -3 billion, cost per rig vary widely-about
$9 million for the
Gulf of Mexico,andasmuch as$30million for usein theNorth
sea,It is estimated
that spendingon all offshoreexplorationandp..oductionreached
$4 billion in 1972.
A united Nationsstudypredictsthat this will rise to billion per
$g yearby the Late
seventies.

The scope of the North sea ventureis indicative of the impact

of the discoveryof
offshore oil. The first oil was discoveredthereonly four years
agoandtodaysome
30 mobile rigs are active and the operators havesome50
more on order. Today
Britain, Norway and others operate13 separate oil fields and5 major gasfields in
the North'sea area.It is estimatedthatNorwayaronewill invest
over $ 11.5bilion
dollars in oil productionbetweennow and r9g0 in her sector
of the North sea.The
North Sea project alone accountedfor overone-thirdof
the industrys worldwide
expenditures for offshoredrilling in the pastyear.

To locate and move the urtimate reservesof oil from the

oceansto the consumer
will obviously requireconsiderable
time,moneyandthe very bestin technoroeical
skills anddevelopments

2.1.1DRILLING

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSHOREDRILLING TECHNOLOGY 139

The world s first mobile offshoredrilling platformoperatedin the Gulf of Mexico.

This mobile unit, developed some twenty years ago by Ocean Drilling and

260 mobile platforms now in operationaroundthe world. It is interestingthatthis

early equipment,now consideredas marking the birth of specifically designed
mobile platforms, found an oil field with its very first drilling. In the shortspaceof
twenty years,mammothrigs havebeendesignedto operateat depthsof up to 3,000
in excessof
feet. cost some $30 million to produce,andhaveoperatingexpenseF
$50,000per day.
:
To continue to extend this explorationfor oil to all cornersofthe globe andprobe
deeperand deeperinto the vast expanseoftheoceans, asizeablefleetofdrilling
vesselsis required. These vesselsmust be able to operatein someof themost
extreme climatic conditions at increasinglygreatdistancesfrom land.At this time,
some 160mobile drilling platformsareon orderandit is expectedthat some500to
600 marine drilling platform will be requiredoverthe next decade.The platforms
now on ordermay be brokendown into the following categories.

Semi-submersibles 75
jackup units
Self-elevating, 50
Drillships 36

As the searchfor oil leads to explorationin deeperwatersandrougherseas,the

semi-submersibles, some with displacementsof over 30000tons,arerequiredand
fewer jackup units will be used.In recentyears,drillshipswhich aredynamically
positionedwithout the useof anchorshavebecomeincreasinglypopularastheycan
carry large quantitiesof suppliesandtravel to remoteregionsof the seaswith little
difficulw.

The use of semi-submersiblesastemporaryproductionplatforms in the North Sea

affords the opportunity to quickly earn$ l0 to $ 12perbarrelassoonasthewells
are drilled and connectedto singlepointmooringbuoysandtankers.Thesesemi-
submersibles, first used in 1961,are now beingdesignedwithship-shapedbulls

Dr. M. S. Farahat
140 CH II 0FFSHqRE DRILLING TECHNoLoGy

submergedmore than 75 feetbelow the surfacewhile supportedby steelcolumns.

These are adaptableto deepwaterdrilling in depths down to l,000feetandare
capableof operatingundermuchmoresevereclimatic conditionsthandrillships.

Drilting costs increasedrasticallywith water depth. For example,the following

estimated costsprevailedin l97l for offshoredrilling.

Drilling Depth,feet Average Costper lAeil, I

o-4999 273000
5000-9999 386000
10000-14989 731000
15000-19999 1210000
>20000 2913000

Thus, technologyand skills arenow dearlyavailableto drill for oil at considerably

greaterdepths than is currently being done, but the cost factors increasein an
exponentialfashion. The National ScienceFoundation,usinga conventionalship
fitted with a drilling rig penetratedsome3300feet into the seabedin a waterdeoth
of20000feet.

2.1.2PLATFORMS

The size, design and complexityof the latestplatformsbeinginstalledin offshore

locations is, to saythe very least,staggering.A platformbeingdesignedfor usein
the North Sea will standin 530 feetof water,andthe steeljacket alonewill weigh
in excessof 37,000 tons. with an overallheightof 1000feet it will be possibleto
drill 60 wells from the platform, some of which will be drilled throughthe four
support legs. These leg sections,havingdouble-diaphragm diagonalbaseplates40
feet in diameter,arefabricatedfrom lll2 inchplateandweigh 750tons.The overall
size of thesenew platforms being installed in the North sea dwarfssuchwell-
known historical buildings as St. Pauls cathedralandBig Ben andthe Housesof
Parliamentin London.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSHOREDRILLING TECHNOLOGY l4l

Many types of structuresarevying for this vastconstructionmarketanda number

of studiesareunderway aroundthe world to rationalizeplatform construction.The
steel, concrete and hybrid platforrns are most common and each have merit
dependingon the environment,natureof the sea-bedandotherproductionvariables.
These systems,as designedtoday, can all be used in most Situationsif special
installation techniques are used for piling in the case of steel structuresand
grouting,ballasting,evacuationand airblastinginthecaseofconcreteandhybrid
platforms.

The problems are formidable when designinga structurewith a minimum fatigue

life of 50 years.Corrosion,fatigue,corrosionfatigue,thebuildup of marinelife and
many other factors weigh heavily upon the designerofsteel structures.Concrete
andhybrid platformsrequirevery rigorouscontroldueto the extremephysicalloads
which they rust bear duringviolent stormsandthe differencesin the load-bearing
capabilityof the seabedfrom onelocationto the next.

Obviously one serious catastrophicfailure with a major platform would have

worldwide underminethe tnrly remarkableprogressnow beingmadein offshore
platformtechnology

2. H SABSEATECHNOLOGY

As wells are located at greater depths, the possibility of locating some of the
production process equipment on the seabedbecomesincreasingly attractive. The
design of equipment for subseause placesa high priority en reliability and easeof
replacement Valves, gas separation, ater reatment nd ther omplex nits nd
processes required to produce oil and gas all must be specifically designed.
Maintenance, commonly conductedby divers at normal depths,must be conducted
using highly sophisticatedequipment for deep-watersystems.

Single well completion systemslargelydesignedto avoidmannedaccesscannow

be made by dividing the wellhead betweenequipmentthat only seldom reeds
servicing andproduction ontrol quipment hich s n ore ontinuoususe.Thus,

Dr, M. S. Farahat
142 CH II OFFSHOREDRILLING TECHNOLOGY

the production control equipment hasbeenintegratedinto a singleunit which can

be removed and replaced from the surfaceusingspeciallydesignedhandlingand
guiding systems.To work on thepartsin the otherunit, a mannedaccesssystemis
lowered to the wellheadandthe maintenance
men canwork within the enclosurein
shirt-sleeveconditions

Other manned accesssystemshave beendesignedto be usedwith well manifold-

production stations.A ccntrol p reductionfacility handlesseveralwells, flow lines
and carries out the initial separationincluding the requiredpumpingandcontrol
operations.The entiresubseafacility is enclosedandcanbe remotelyoperatedfrom
the surface.The personneltransferbell is readilymaneuverable,
hasa completelife
supportsystem,andis operablein waterdepthsup to 1,500feet.

Subseawell head systems,for near term, will likely be usedin conjunctionwith

fixed production latforms r ension egged latforms or eeper ater owever,
as increasingly efficient and safe means are found to further these deep-sea
developmentscompleteproductionfacilitieswill be placedon the seabed

Drilling andproductionoperationsin shallowwaterareseriouslyhamperedin many

placesbecauseof hostile environmentsthat impose severelimitationson diving
operations.Deepwatertechnologywas developedto providesolutionsto problems
associated with the inaccessibility of on-bottom seafloor equipment, poor
underwatervisibility, nd he hysical imitations f ivers.This technology, hich
includes currently available equipment, design principles, and operations
procedures,can be judiciously pplied o hallow-water perations o ealize
substantialsavingsin rig time by expeditingcompletionof predrilling wells through
templatesfor earlyproduction.

In the southernNorth Sea,Amoco (U.K.) ExplorationCo. andAmoco Netherlands

Petroleum Co. have been predrilling wells through templatessupportedon
exploratorywells in shallowwater.Well protectorjacketsare subsequently
installed
and the wells tied back. This developmental rilling rogram as eriously
hamperedinitially by persistentstormsandseverecurrents.

Dr. M. S. Faralut
 CH II oFFSH0RE DRILLING TEcHNoLoGY 143

The hard sandy seafloorrequiredthejackup rigs to be positionedpreciselyin their

original deep fo_oprints,createdduring the exploratory drilling, to provide rig
stability and to avoid possibly disastrouslateral loads on the legs. precise rig
positioning was also required to reach all the template well slots. The current
conditions of 3 to 5 knots [1.5 to 2.6 m/s] were sc severethatthe rigs couldnot be
towed onto location while simultaneouslymaintaining the proper headingthat
would ensurespud-canfootprintcoincidenceand avoiddamagingthe existingwell.

Installation of the drilling templatewas alsohamperedby the severecurrents.Sand

and silt entrainedin the waterreducedunderwatervisibility for standardsubseaTV
camerasand divers to near zero. Diver on-bottomtime is limited to about I hr/D
during the tide changes,andanythingloweredinto the wateris pushedofftarget by
the strongcurrent.The footingsofbottom-foundedtemplates xperienced xcessive
scaur,resultingin unacceptable
tilting.

Running 30-in [76-cm] casing was anothermajor problem ecause f arge

current-induceddeflections,zero visibility, andlack of diver assistance.
Deflections
of 8 to l0 ft[2.4 to 3m] at theendof the 30-in.[76-cm]casingfrequentlyprevented
the casing from being stabbedthrough its well slot in the template.Early in the
program, the derrick wasoccasionallyunableto skid far enoughto compensate for
the deflectionin the casingduringperiodsofhigh tidal currents.

Disconnecting the 30-in. [76-cm] casing at the mud line welihead after its
installation was anothermajor problem.Snap-typecasingconnectorswereinitially
used for this purpose.Theseconnectorsrequirea seriesofbolts on the peripheryof
the connectorto be tightenedsequentiallyby diversto effectrelease.This operation
can be performed y ivers only during a 30-minuteintervalof slacktide, which
occurs every 6 hours. Frequently,this operation as mproperly erformed ecause
of the complete lack of visibility andtime constraints.Thus failuresresultedn t
least a 6-hour waiting interval until the next slack tide

The processof stabbing a stringofcasing throughthe templateandsubsequently

Dr, M. S. Farahat
t44 CH II oFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHNoLoGy

releasing it initially required about 12 hours of rig time. The marine spreadrate was
about $55,000 per day, which resulted in a cost of $ 27,500 each time these
operationswere performed.

Deepwater drilling and production systems have been developed by extending

technology from land operationsinto ever increasingwater depths.The progression
has moved from land, to marshes,to protected hallow water, then to the open seas.
and finally to hostile deepwaterareas,such as offshore Canada.

The plot in Figure 2.1, Deepwater Drilling and production capabitity,presents the
history of this development.The first offshore wells were drilled in the late I 940s.
The first wells were drilled front bottom foundedrigs that subsequentlyhave been
extended to water depths of about 350 ft. depending on soils and weather
conditions. Floating drilling rigs, moored in place, were first used in the early
1950s. Drilling capabilityhad movedto 600 ft by 1965.with the awardof leasesin
the Santa Barbarachannel in 1968,drilling experience uickly oved o
,5000-ft
water depth by 1970. The increaseddemandfor oil led to a greaterinterestin deep
water areas in the early 1970s, and exploratory drilling operationshad moved to
2,500 ft of water offshore Australia by l975.Interestin deepwaterhasprogres-
sively continued with drilling water depth moving to 3,400 ft offshore urinam n
1976, about4,400 ft offshoreAfrica in 1978,and about4,900 ft offshorecanadain
1979.

commercial production systems, moreover, have moved into deeper water

following the exploration drilling. Fixed platforms were usedin the late 1940sin
water depth of 20 ft. Platformswere usedin 100 ft by 1955,200 ft by 1959,340 ft
in1962,373 ftby 1970,850 ft.in1976,andfinally 1,025ft in 1978.

The dashed lines in Figure 3.1 indicate my assessment of the progress f echnical
development. The basis for projecting the drilling capabilify is that currently
available rigs are equipped to drill to 6,000-ft water depths. one drillship is
reportedly being designed to drill in 9,000-ft water depths.In the National Science
Deep Sea Drilling Program, the Clomar Challenger has drilled in

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
 CH II OFFSHOREDRILLING TECHNOLOGY 145

water depths to 20,000 ft to explorethe geologyof the earths crust.That work in

the deep ocean has been done without a riser or blowoutpreventer(Bop). In the
next phase of that work, the oceanMargin Drilling Programhasplannedto drill
with a riser and BoP. That program, also sponsoredby the National Science
Foundation (NSF) and funded by NSF and severaloil companies,has been
developing capabilityandplanningto convertthe GlomarExplorerto drill in water
depthsto 13,000ft in 1984.

As shown,drilling capabilityconsistingofdesigncapabilityandtestedprotorype
equipmenthas precededdemonstratedcapability by only a shorttime. Interestin
explorationdrilling has pushed technologyin this area,anddrilling capabilityhas
been used commercially almost urssoon as the oil company managementis
convincedthat the technologyis safe.Productionsystemavailabilityhasbeenbased
on prototype testing of diverless,deepwater,seafloor well systems, asdetailed
engineeringandequipmentdevelopmenthavebeenextendingthosesystems.

Production technology normally lags behind drilling five to sevenyears.This is

logicalbecausedrilling in frontierareashastraditionallyrequiredthat long to define
hydrocarbonreserves suffrcientlyto justify a startof commercialdevelopmentof a
field. Research resources are usually allocatedto keep the lag in production
technologywithin the five to sevenyearspread.The spreadbetweencapabilityand
commercialuse of production systemsis an indication of the willingnessof oil
companiesand manufacturersto initiate developmentof long leadtechnologyin
anticipation of deepwater discoveries and their expectationof availability of
deepwateracreage.But the unusually long lag indicatesthe lack ofsuccessin the
deepwaterexplorationup to 1981, largely dueto the unavailabilityofdeepwater
acreagecaused by political activities in several parts ofthe world, including the
United States.

2.2Drilling andproduction
2.2.1 Floating System
The term deepwaterusedheremeanswaterdepthsof 600ft andmore.Thus,only
floatingdrillingcapabilitywill be analyzed.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
146 CH II 0FFSHoRE DRILLING TECHNuLDGY

:t

6! 6t 6' i -7t17t9!r!!!5
YEARS
2' ' l
Fitur DeepWater Drilling and ProductionCaPability'

LOWER FISER PACKAGE

TE CONTROLSYSTEM)

AOP STACK(WELL CONIROL SYSTEM)

BASE

\'*aa|.r,.^o
ANoc^slNG

f igureZZMajor Componentsof a SubseaDrilling6ystem.

 CH II 0FFSHqRE DRILLING TECHN0L0GY 147

A general floating drilling systemis shownschematicallyin Figure2.2. Asurface

floating vessel,equippedwith a drilling rig andthe necessarysupportfacilities,is

controlledthrusters.The computersusepositionsensorsto detectthe positionof the

vesselrelative to the hole and control the thrusters to keepthe vesselwithin an
acceptableexcursion from the hole. A drilling riser extendsbetween he urface
vessel andthe seafloor.This providesa conduitto guidethe drill into the hole and
a
flow path for drilling mud used to contror subsurfaceformation pressureand
lubricateand cleanthe hole,The riser is latchedto a structuralwellheadandbaseon
the seafloor nd eld to an acceptableshapeby tensionersmountedon the vessel.A
blowout preventer(BoP) is located at the base of the riser.This unit is a setof
remotely controlled valvescapableof sealingaroundthe drillpipe or well casingor
shearingtubularsin an emergency.

For deepwaterrigs, the BoP is operatedby multiplex electrohydrauhic

controlfrom
the surfacethroughan umbilical to controlmodulesmountedon the riserbase.

Ship-shapeddrilling rigs are common.The ship shapeprovidesamplespacefor the

ng andsupplies,lendsitself well to dynamicpositioning, nd an e oved round
the world easily and quickly. The Discoverer seven ,Seas,for example, is a
dynamicallypositioned rig that hasdrilled 14 wells in.,vaterdepthsfrom 362
ftto
about 4,900 ft since November 1976. The 4,900-ft water depth well offshore
canada is the deepestto date. This vesselis capableofdrilling in 6,000-ftwater
depth.

semisubmersibleshaped rigs (see Elective courseof'Drilling Equipmentand

Machinery) have beendevelopedfor usein roughweatherareas.Improvedmotion
behavior is gained at a lossof load capacityandmobility. The SEDCO709 is the
only dynamicallypositionedsemisubmersible usedtoday.It wasusedto dril a well
offshorecanada in a water depth of 3,500 ftandin lggl wasoperatingn eep
water in the North Sea. It canbe equippedto drill in waterdepthsof 6,000ft and

Dr. M. S, Farahat
148 CH II OFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

operateyear-roundwith little downtimein areassuchasthe eastcoastof Canada.

The 709 can alsobe reportedly odified o xtendits capabilityto waterdepthsof
8,000ft.

As notedearlier,thesefloating drilling systemshavebeendevelopedsincethe early

1950s.During each of the five years from 1975 to 1980, there were 60 to 70
exploratorywells drilled in u'ater depths beyond600 ft. In mid-1980,therewere
112 drilling rigs designed andequippedto drill in waterdepthsbeyond600 ft. As
shown in Figure 2.3 of theserigs were capableof drilling in waterdepthsbeyond
2,000 ft. Severaladditionalrigs in 1981werebeingbuilt or equippedfor deepwater
drilling.

2.2.2 Platform llell Production System

Wells are drilled and completedabove water whenevertechnicallypossibleand

where fixed structures, designed to withstand nvironmental orces, re ot

practical, compliantplatformsI thatswaywith largewavesareused.And in deeper
water,floatingplatformswill be used.

2.2.3 Conventional Platforms

As noted earlier, conventional bottom-founded fixed platforms have been used

since the mid-1940s. In this system, shownin Figne2.4,the platform is built on
shore, floated or barged to location, and installed on the seafloor.The decks are
then installed. Drilling begins from the deck while production facilities are added.
Production is startedwhen the first wells are completedand the facilities are ready.
When a market exists on shore, and the distanceis not too far, oil and gas is taken to
market by seafloorpipelines. In deeperwater, the oil is flowed through the pipelines
to a single point mooring and loaded on tankersfor transporto market. When the oil
is carried in tankers, the gas is usually reinjected or burned. Oil storagecan be
provided in the platform base, or in a moored floating storage to smooth he
operations when tankers are used.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II 0FFSH0RE DNLLING TECHNoLoGy 149

l0-

,0-

a0-

50-

IOTAL OF ITI UNIIS

z
lo-

20-
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It
Il
___l
L__J
tl
tl
tl
O OF E E T I O O OF E T I'OO FEET IOOO FEET
ro To TO TO
t000 FET l50OFEEI r O O OF E E T 5 0 0 0t E E T

riglre 2.1 capabilitv of DeeDwater

Drilline Fleet-

t+4-

Figure2-{ ConventionrlPlatform Systems'

Dr. M. S. Faralrut
150 CH II OFFSHoRE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

The Cognacplatform was installedin 1978 in theGulfofMexicotosupport65

wells. The Cognac platforms was installed in three sections which weremated
underwater.Driiline is still underway.

The Cognacplatform demonstrates that technologyis availableto designthe fixed

structures for both static and dynamic environmental forces. Methods for
installationwere also demon:trated.There is no doubtthat evenbiggerplatforms
are technically feasible and could be built andinstalled;however,the costis very
high. It is generally acceptedthat with presentoil pricesandcosts,conventional
fixed platforms will not be economicallyathactivefor waterdepthsmuchbeyond
1200-1500
ft.

2.2.4 Compliant Towers

The guyedtbwer is shownin Figure2.5.A relativelyslenderstructuralcolumnrests

in the sanemannerastall
on the seafloor and is held uprightby a spread'mooring
communicationtowers on land. The guy wires arecableswhich extendfrom the
tower below the water line to clump weights on the seafloorandfrom thereto
mooring piles or anchors.In calm weather,the toweris held nearverticalby the
relatively taut mooring.In severeweather,the clumpweightsarepickedup off the
seafloor,the mooring becomessofter and the toweris allowedto swayup to two
degreeswith largewaves.

Wells are drilled from the platform deck through conductors that penetratethe
seafloor. The well conductorsaredesignedto absorbthe swaymotionsof the tower
withoutdamage.
I
Tests of *ris system,developedprimarily by Exiron,were conductedin the Gulf of
Mexico from l975"to 1978.A l/5-scaledesignof a 1,500-ftwaterdepthwastested.
Costs of this offshore test were sharedby a numberof companies.Resultsof the
testsprovedthe designandverifiedthe designprocedures. Designshavebeenmade
for several locationsincludingoneunit for usein 1,150-ftwaterdepthin theNorth

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 151

Sea. Exxon announced plans in 1981to install the first commercial unit in about
a
1,000-ft water depth in the Lena Field in the Mississippicanyon Block 2g0
in the
Gulf of Mexico during 1983.

The slender guyed tower being supportedon the seaflooris more sensitive
to deck
load than conventional platforms, but is less sensitive han latforms upported
y
buoyancy. It can be used in water depths from about 600 ft to about 2,000
ft,
depending on weather criteria. In deeperwater depths,rhe structurewould have
to
be much larger to withstand environmental forces or avoid dynamic
motion.
diminishing economic advantages.

The buoyant tower shown in Figure 2.6, is also a relatively slendertower.

It is
anchored through a universal joint to the seafloorand held upright by buoyancy
built into the tower. The more buoyancy that is built into the tower, the less
the
tqwer moves with the waves. There are,however,practical and economic limits
on
the amount of buoyancy that can be provided. Thus, the buoyancy tower will
probably be drilled from the deck, but completedat the seafloor base and
tied back
through a flexiblejoint to the treeson the deck.

No buoyancy tower had been built up to l9g2 to supportproduction facilities.

Elf
installed an ocean prototype in 320 foot water depth in the Gulf of Gascogne
offshore France in 1968. since then, EMH, a French contractorhas installed
flare
towers in the Bernt and Frigg Fields and shuttle tanker niooring in the Beryl Fields
in the North Sea.The single anchor leg mooring (SALM) that was installed in 19gI
to hold a large storagetanker in the Fulmar Field in the North sea was also a form
of a buoyancy tower. Thus, while buoyant tower technologyis not as guyed tower
technology,the buoyant tower structurecan be consideredproven and available.

Design of the well completion and its tie-back as well as the flowline connections
for use with the buoyancy tower have received much less attention than such
designs for other types of platforms. Thus, additional developmentwork is needed
before a buoyant tower can be usedas a production-processingplatform.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
152 CH II oFFSHoRE DuILLING TECHN)L7GY

2-5
Figur: . CuyedTower ProductionSystem.

DRILLINGDECK
PRODUCTION

WELL CONDUCTORS

LATTICESTRUCTURE

,U'
JOINT

-tBuoy"nt Drilling hoduction Tower.

Fig.."

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II qFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHN,LDGY 153

The buoyant tower is much more sensitive to deck load, but, being in tension,it
does not have the technical water depth limit of a guyed tower. preliminary designs
have been done for water depthsto 3000 ft. one study indicated that a deck load of
5,400 tons may be the economic limit for a water -depth of 1,350 ft. For deeper
depths,the allowabledeck load will decrease.

2.2.5Jackup rig positioning systems

The first problemaddressed

was the needto positionthe rig overtheexisting
exploratory wellhead within an accuracy of 2 ft [0.6 m]. This is required to place
the jackup leg spud cans in their original footprints and to avoid damagingthe
wellhead. Becausedivers could be used for only short time intervals during each6-
hour tide period, position relative to both the well position often took 12 hours to
cgmplete.Severalof thesemeasurementswere required to position the rig properly.

The existing medium-frequencyradio positioning systemon the rig was capableof

precisely positioning the rig relative to severalshore -basedstations,but this sysrem
was not accurate enough to position the rig within the required distancefiom the
wellhead. In addition, this systemcould not provide a direct relative measurement
betweenthe rig and the wellhead.

Sonar has been used for years to land guidlineless blowout preventerstackson
deepwater wellheads in areaswith poor underwatervisibility. For this reason,it was

the jack rig legs and the wellhead. Horizontal and vertical sonarrig legs and the
wellhead. Horizontal and vertical sonar heads wereplacedonthejackupriglegs
(see Fig. 2.7). The sonar signals were routed to a display consolein the control
room of the rig for the tow mastersuse in directing the rig move. sector-scanning
sonar provides an approximate real-time scaled shadowpicture of the seafloor in
either plan or side views. The distanceand azimuth of the wellhead from the known
position of the sonar head,mounted on the leg of the jackup rig, can be determined
by taking physical measurementdirectly off the plan view on the cRT screenwith a

Dr, M. S. Farahat
154 CH II oFFSH0RE DRILLING TECTIN0LqGY

ruler and protractor.

The horizontal sonar head, which produces the plan view, will also show the old
footprints quite clearly. The vertical sonar head is used to verifo the wellhead
identity ifit located on a highly irregular seafloor.

The coarsenessof the sonar picture introduces an uncertainty bout he xact

wellhead location when one is concerned with accuracy of a lbw feet. That the
wellhead can be physically seen, however, provides a comfortableverification of
the rig position relative to both the well headand the old spud can footprints.

A short baselineacousticpositioning systemwas usedin conjunction with the sonar

to provide the precise location of the wellhead relative to the rig. The acoustic
positioning system provides a very accurate determinationof the wellhead range
and azimut! relative to the rig. Sonar was generally able to locate the wellhead
*itttin 3 ft of its true location relative to the rig, but the acousticpositioning system
gave accuracywithin I ft.

In practice,the radio positioning systemwas usedto position the rig within 150 ft of
the wellhead location, and the sonarand short baselineacousticsystemswere used
as final positioning devices.The final position was ensuredby lowering an sIT low-
lightJevel subsea TV camera on the drillstring suspendedfrom the cantilevered
derrick to observethe wellhead suspendedfrom location

The SIT camerais an invaluable tool for operationsin deepor siltladen water. This
device collects ambient light from the surroundingenvironmentand magnifies it
many thousands times. It is therefore able to see clearly in virtually complete
darkness. As a result, little or no illumination is required. The resultant glare
associatedwith back-scattering of light fiom particles suspendedin the water is
eliminated or reduced.SIT camerascan often seeclearly where divers and standard
subseaTV systemsare virtually blind.

Obviously, no optical systemsare capableof seeingthrough opaquematter. During

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH II oFFSHDRE DMLLING TECHN1LTGY
155

sfrong tides, the concentrationof sediment

occasionaflyreducedvisibility to near
zero evenwith the SIT camera.This situation
existedonly during the worstpenods
of winter peaktidesandlastedfor aboutI hour
severaltimesper day.

In perpetrationfor these operations,transponders

for both the sonar (500 000
cycles/sea)were installed on the stern regs
of the rig with speciaily designed
brackets.A transponderanda sonarreflector
werepreinstalledon the wellheadby
diversusinga di.ringsupportvessel.

2.2.5.1Final RigMove

The rig was towed to the site with four tug/anchor-handring

vessers.Rig position
was monitored continuouslyby the syledis
system.when the rig was 1,500ft from
location,it was orientedin the approximatefinal
headingandtowedto within 150ft
[+]6inl of the final location.The jackup legs were
lowereduntiltheywerejust
picking up weight, as indicated on the
electricalcurrentmetersin the ng control
room' The port and star-boardsternanchors
weredeproyedto oppositesidesofthe
wellhead(seeFig. 2.8),while thebow anchor
was,deployedforward.

Under the strong wind and currentconditions,

it is not possibleto positionthe rig
precisely while maintaining the correct
heading.The rig must be walked into
position by sequentialrotation on selected
legswhile the rig positionis monitored
continuouslywith sonarandacousticpositioning.

A graphictechniquewasdevelopedto determine
the requiredsteps(seeFig. 2.9) to
move the rig onto its final location.A scale
drawingwasdevelopedshowingthe
existing wellhead, the requiredheadingofthe
rig, andthe final positionofthe bow
leg all relativeto the existingrig location.Final positioning
shouldrequireno more
thanthreesteps.

To determinethese threesteps,a circreis drawn

aroundthe final bowJeg position
of radius r, equal to the distancebetweenthe
bow leg and either the port or
starboardlegs.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
156 CH II qFFSHoRE DRILLING TECHNoLoGy

VEFTICAL ANO
HOFI2ONT
SONAR HEa o s

REFLECfOF

- Z-A,lacXup ri9 instrumentation.

-Typlcal anchor deployment scheme.

Dn M, S. Faralrut
 CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 157

The rig is rotated about the bow leg through the smallestangle until either the port
or starboard leg lies on the circle. The rig is then rotatedabout the leg lying on the
circle until the bow leg lies at its final position. The last step requiresthe rig to be
rotated about the bow leg until it is in its proper headingand location. The rig is
then preloadedarid the derrick is skidded out over the wellhead.

To ensure that the derrick is centeredover the Wellhead an SIT camerais lowered
on drillpipe to observe the wellhead location relative to the rotary table. This
operation must be performed at slack tide to ensure that the drillpipe is truly
vertical.

2.2.5.2 Casing-Supported Templates

Special, inexpensive, casing supported templates(seeFig. 2.10) were designedto

avoid excessive tidal scour and to accommodatethe need for diverlessinstallation
techniques. These templates were supported on the 30-in. casing ofpreviously
drilled exploratory wells to avoid problems associatedwith scour around the
footings of bottom founded structuresin this high current environment.

2.2.5.3 Template I nstallation

The templateswererun on drillpipe with a simpleJ-tool,which engageslifting dogs

large, open J-slots that loosely engage the template lifting dogs so that it can e
easily releasedfrom the rig floor after the template is landed.

A camera/gyro/inclinometer(CGI) module was designedto monitor template

orientation during installation.The CGI modulecontainsan SIT camerato observe
the landingoperation,a gyro compassto controlorientation,andan inclinometerto
measurethe final level of the template.This moduleengagesa keyedwell slot on
the template.The subseaSIT camera,mounted on a panandtilt mechanismand
fastenedto the bottomof the CGI module,hangsbelowthe templateto observethe

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
158 CH II OFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHNLL0GY

template when the wellhead is engaged. A north seeking gyro compass and
inclinometer module is mounted in the top of the CGI module. This allowed
accurate orientation of the templatejust before it landed on the wellhead. A special
mechanical device located on the inside of the template center slot provided
antirotation once the template was set on the wellhead.

once the template was installed, the cGI module was retrieved by hauling in the
SIT cameraumbilical.

Another module was landed in a center slot of the templateto provide indirect
lighting during night operations. This module suspendedthree 150 w underwater
floodlights beneaththe template to facilitate slot identification when the casing was
stabbed at night. An umbilical provided electricalpower and a meansof retrieving
the module. This inexpensivesystemwas left on the oceanfloor during the running
of all the 30 in. casing and savedmany hours of rig time during night operatrons.

All the 30 in casing strings were driven in a single operation to reduce costs
normally associatedwith handling large pipe and rnobilization of equipment.

2.2.4.5 ConductorCasingInstallation

stabbing the casing into the templatewell slots was simplified by providing giant
entry cones on the well slots similar to thoseused guidelinelesssubseapermanent
guide bases. These entry cones provided enough target areafor the casing to be
stabbedunder any current conditions.

A special camerarunningtool wasdesignedto al{owthe SIT camerato be lowered

down the 30-in. [76-cm] casingwhile it wasstabbedthroughthe template(seeFig.
2.11). The tool is also a protective
cage for the camera.
chains, coupledwith large6-in. [15-cm]diameteir.ollers,fastenedthe runnins tool
to the casing and allowed it to ride over externallyupset casingconnectors.

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY r59

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
 160 CH II oFFSH)RE DRILLING TEcHNoLoGY

The camera was run to the end of the casingjust before the casing was
stabbed
through the template.Then the camerawas usedto cirect skidding of the
derrick in
order to stab the casing through the proper well slot. Numbers were painted
on the
inside of the template entry conesto designateeachwell slot. In addition.
arrows
were painted alongsidethe numbersto indicate compassdirection.

2.2.5.5Diverlessreleasablecasingconnectcrs

when conductor casing is installed from a jackup rig with mudline suspension
systems, the conductor must be disconnected everal eet bove he mudline.
Disconnection can be achieved by cutting the casing (which requires about 4 to
6
hours of rig time) or divers can releasethe conventionalconnector(while, may take
I to 6 hours,dependingon tidal conditionsand water depth).

Frequently,.when divers are used,the connectorfails to disconnectbecauseeither

the releasemechanismis operatedimproperly or current-inducedbending moments
causethe connectorto bind.

when the casing is cut thereis no commerciallyavairabreeconnect evice o

e-
enterthe well.

several remote mechanical and hydraulic releaseconnectorsare available, but they

are expensive and in all cases require ancillary equipmentto effect their release.
This requirementintroduceshandling problems and protractstanning time, resulting
in a significantloss of rig time.

Figs 2.12 through 2.14 show a remotely releasable,derivable connector that was
designed to avoid the handling problem and to minimize lost rig time. This new
connector is released by raising the,conductorseveralinches and rotating several
degreestorque. The connectorpin (see Fig. 2.12) consistsof a thick body that
incorporatesfour locking dogs and appropriatesealing surfaces.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSHOREDKILLING TECHNOLOGY r6l

z tt -^"i"9,
I ffl srb"""
""r".

30 INCH CASING

CONNEC'OF PIN

li:r o tocKrxG ooSs

30 tNcHc^slrrc
irl
-r.il

I de-z ' /L assembring. I

Dr. M. S. Farahat
t62

6 R A S S S H E A R8 0 L T

RTAI|'IERTAA

S T E E LA O L T

Fig -Remolely releasable, drivable casing connector.

Dr. M. S, Farahat
 CH II OFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHNqL0GY 163

The connectorbox is made with Z-shapedengagement

slotsanda sealbore.Four
retaining tabs on each Z slot lock the pin and box togetherduringrunningand
driving.The sealboreprovidesmultiple dovetailgroovesfor large0 rings.

The box is placed over the pin that engagesthe locking dogsin the Z slots.The
retaining tabs are then boltedin place.A steelbolt securesthe lower endof the tab
and,a brassshearstud securesthe top end,

Duringdrilling,theconnectoris heldin antirotation

by theloclong
the trpperend of the Z slot. In the runningmode,the casingis supportedby the four
dogs that rest at, the horizontalsurfaceo heZ slot.Accidental eleases revented
by thepresenceof the retainingtabs.

A guide skirt is boltedto the connectorbox for usewhenthe conductorshavebeen

batch-drivenarid requirere-entry.

These connectorswere used on 13 wells in the southernNorth Sea.They performed

without failure, and their use was credited with saving severalhundred thousand
dollarsin ris time.

2.2.6FloatingPlatfurms

Tension leg platform (TLP) is the generic term for floating, drilling, and/or
production facilities that are anchoredto the seafloor by meansof highly tensioned,
vertically aligned mooring legs (Figure 2.15). The floating platforms are typically
steel structures configured much like a semisubmersible drilling rig. Vertical
columns support the production ecks afely bove he plash one nd xtend
down to large underwater hull sections.Considerablebuoyancy is required in the
hull to adequately support the production equipment, in-process fluids, and the
servicefacilities as well as to preload the risers and tension legs adequately.

Dr. M. S. Faralrut
164 CH II OFFSHDREDRLLLING TECHNOLOGY

2-tt
Tension Leg Plrtform Production System.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II oFFSH0RE DRILLING TECHNoL0GY 165

Dependingon the systemconcept,wells canbe drilled andcompletedfrom the deck

of the TLP, drilled andcompletedthroughsea-floortemplatesbeneaththe TLp, or
extended for completion on the platform deck.Productionwould flow directly from
the wells or through a productionriser from the seafloorwells to processfacilities
on the TLP. oil would then flow downthe risersto theseafloorpipelineto shoreor
to a separateoil storageand shippingterminal.

up to 1982, no commercialTIP hadbeenbuilttosupportproductionperations.

However, a largeamountof engineeringdevelopment
hasbeendone.Development
work to datehasincludeda considerable
amountof computersimulationof motion
behavior and mooring forces. A number of modeltestshavebeenundertakento
build confidenceas well as a databasefor predictingTLp forcesandmotions.In
addition, numerouspreliminary designshave been done, and several of those
designshave included detailed defrnition of system components.This work has
resultedin a numbsrof TI-? config:uratioriS
beingdeveloped.

Deep oil rech,nology (Dor) was oneof thepioneersin developmentof the TLp.
Dors platform configuration was triangular with wire rope tension members
extendingdown in threeclustersto gravity anchorsfrom eachcomercolumn.This
systemwould utilize a centrally ocated, ultiwell, subseadrilling templatewith
either mudline suspensiontie-hackto the platformtreesor a subseacompletion.A
l/3 scaleprototypeof this unit was installedoff california in the early 1970s.

conoco announcedin 3980that a TIP would be usedto developthe Hutton Field in

the North Seawherethe waterdepthis about500 feet.A detaileddesignof that unit
is in progress,and installationwas scheduledfor 1983.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
t66 CH II qFFSH0RE DRILLING TECHNoLoGy

The TLP vessel is about the sizeor slightlylargerthana largesemi-submersible

drilling rig. The system is sensitiveto deck load andmooringforceswhich are
related to weather criteria. The system is theoreticallyapplicableto water depths
from a few hundredfeet to a few thousand,andsomeproponentsfeel the TIP could
be usedto 6,000-ftwaterdepths.

2.2.7 Seafloor lVell Production System

Wells completedon the seafloorur" aritt"a from floatingdrilling rigs andconnected

by flowlines to platforms or floating vessels. Seafloorwells areusedto develop
outlying areasof fields that cannotbe fully developedby directionaldrilling from a
platform,for locationsbeyondthe waterdepthcapabilityof platforrns,andfor fields
too small to justiff a full-sizedplafformor floatingproductionfacility.

Seafloor well technologyhas also been developingsince the 1940s.However,

developmentof equipmentintendedfor use in deepwaterwasstartedonly in the
'Figure
mid-1950s. 2.16presents
a plot ofthe numberofseafloorwellsversusyears
from 1960. The number of seafloorcompletionswaslessthan l0 per year during
the sixties and early seventies.Many of the early treeswerediver installedand
operated by hydraulicremotecontrols.Many wereexperimental. By themid-l960s
and later, more of the wells wereequippedfor electro-hydraulic
controlandmany
were consideredcommercial as opposedto experimental.In the midl 970sthe
numberof seafloorwells being installedincreased.Inl9T9,therewere2l wells
completed on the seafloorby nine oil operators.While the numberof treesinstalled
in 1980 appearsto be lessthanpreviousyears,this is not actuallythe case,asthose
shown are only for the first half of the year.Another34 treeswere completedand
ready for installation at that time. Additionally,34 treeswereon orderas of July
1980.'

Another interestingtrend is the numberof companiesthat havehad experiencewith

seafloorwells. Figure 2.16 showsa plotofthe cumulativenumberofcompanies
that have installed at leastoneseafloorwell. Corresponding
io this trendis the list
ofmanufacturerssupplyingsubseatrees.They are:

Dr, M, S. Farahat
 C:H1I OFI.-SHOR,EDRILLING TECHNOLOGY 167

z
o20

:
z

t9t0
YEARS
. A N O J H E R ! . T R E E S' E R E
E U I L T A N D R E A D YF O R I N S T A L L A T I O X
AS OF JULY I9tO.

SUBSEAWELLS INSTALLEDPER YEAR

2l

|^l0
g
z
a l6
=
E l2

rr
=
z

r tt70
YEARS

otL COMPANIESINVOLVEDSUBSEA
(CUMULATIVE)
2- t6
Figu.e SubseaWells Installed and Companies Involved.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
168 CH II oFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHNqL0GY

Cameron FMC/OCT
Lockheed McEvoy
National Regan
Vetco WKM

Subsea well technology provides the capability to completewells on the seafloor in

virtually any water depth. The trees can be simple valve blocks equippedwith
hydraulic-actuated connectors, as shown in Figare 2.17. For more complex
apphcations, a capability to use tolls pumped from the surfaceinto the'*'ell for
downhole maintenance can also be incorporated.Flowline connection can be made
by divers or it can be installed by remotely controlled tools. The control system an
be a simple direct hydraulic control for one well, with one hydraulic control line per
subsea valve, or it can be a multiplex elechohydraulic systemcontrolling many
wells. Reliability techniques developed in the space program have been
incorporated to provide remote controls that work for a long period without
maintenance' and can have backup controls that insure safety in the event of failure.
The systems can be installed and maintained on guidelines, or guidelineless
methodscan be used.

Seafloor wells had been installed by 1982 only up to 600-ft water depths.However,
they have been designedand installed using diverlessmethods,that makestheir use
possible in water depths up to severalthousandfeet.

2.2.8SemisubmersibleProductionSvstem

The system shownin Figure2.18 consistsof satellitewells connectedby flowlines

to seafloorbaselocateddirectly underthe semisubmersible.

The semisubmersiblewould be a converteddrilling rig or possiblya speciallybuilt

vessel,kept on stationby a conventionalchainandwire ropespreadmooring.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II oFFSH,RE DRILLING TEcHNoLoGY
169

T R E E C A PCO N T R O LP O D

CONNECTOR

FLOWLINE GUIOEBASE

2-i7
Figurc . Came.onPlainJaneTreeNo. TFL

SIlUITLE TAI{

SII{CIE POINT MOOFING

tioancno itsEF TAI{

2-t8
Figure SemisubmelsibleproductionSystem.

Dr. M, S. Faralnt
170 CH II OFFSHOREDRILLING TECHNOLOGY

The production riser will carry fluids betweenthe seafloor mainfold and the
semisubmersiblevessel. All seafloor equipmentis controlled from the surface.
Processand injection facilitieswill be locatedon the deckof the semisubmersible.
Separatedoil wilt be flowed down the riser througha seafloorpipeline.The pipeline
could go to shore or to a single point mooring for a shuttletankerfor periodic
transportto market. Producedgaswould be usedfor fuel andput into a pipelineto
shore, reinjectedunderground,or glared. Producedwater would be cleanedand
discharged
overboard.

The system shownprovidesall the capabilityof platformsystemsandis applicable

for small fields requiring few wells whereno storageis justified. For largerfields
requiring more wells, a seafloor manifoldwould be usedto reducethe numberof
flowlines up the riser. A pipeline to shore or separatestoragein the field would
probably be justified to minimize the need to shut-in production. Use of the
semisubmersiblesystem would probably be limited to reservesthat produceless
than 100,000barrelsper day andto waterdepthsofabout 1,200ft or lessdueto the
limited deck load capability of drilling rig size vessels.Larger vesselswould "1
probablymakethis systemlessatffactivethanalternativesystems.

Hamilton Brothers used the system to developthe Argyll Field in the North Sea,
which wasthe first commercialuseof the'systemfor an entirefield. Productionwas
startedin 1975,andthe systemhasoperatedsatisfactorilysincethat time.

A variation of this systemis shownin Figure2.19. Amultiwell templateis located

below the submersible.Wells are drilled through the template.Subseatreesare
installedon the wells andconnectedto piping on the templatewhich connectsto the
production riser.Satellitewells can alsob.edrilled andconnectedto the template,as
shown.This systemis now beinginstalledoffshoreBrazil.

2.2.9OneAtmosphere
System

The one-atmosphericchamberproduction system is shown in Figure2.20 Wells

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II oFFSHqRE DRILLING TECHN1L^GY
17l

would be drilled in a conventionalmannerandcompleted

with the treesinsidea
chamber kept at one atmospherepressure.The welrs
would be connectedby
flowlines to manifolds, which would also be
enclosedin a chamberar one
atmospherepressure.The manifolds are connected
by pipelines to the baseof a
single point mooring production riser which transports
the fluids betweenthe
seafloor andproductionfacilitiesmountedon a tanker.
All subseaequipmentwould
be confrolled from the surface. on board the tanker,
oil would be separated,
stabilized, and stored. The oil wourd then be transported
to market by shuttre
tankersthat dock periodically with the storagetank.
Gaswould be recompressed
and injected undergroundproduced water would be
treatedand disposedofor
combinedwith treatedseawaterandinjectedto maintain
reservoirpressure.

If the field wereneara market,the oil andgaswould

be transportedby piperineto
shore' In that case, storagein the field would not be
requiredandanothertype of
vessel,but not a tanker,might be chosento supportprocess
facilities.

Seafloor equipmentmaintenancewould be done by

menworking in the chamber
The men and materials would be transportedto site in
a tetheredmannedtransfer
bell. The wells can be maintained by TEL servicing
or by verticalreentrvfrom a
floatingdrilling rig.

Several enclosedseafloor wells and a prototype enclosed

manifold have been
installedduringthe last few yearsin the Gulf of Mexico
by Shelloil. That manifold
was operatedfor abouttwo years.The first completefield
developmentsystemwas
installed in the Garoupafield offshoreBrazil. That system
hasbeenoperatingsince
1978. can-ocean Resources,the successorto Lockheedpetroleum
Services,has
been operating two service vesselsequippedto transport
men to the seafloor
chamberfor maintenance.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
t72 CH II OFFSHOREDRTLLING TECHNOLOGY

R O C E S SF A C I L I T I E S

2-t3
Figure PetrobaeEnchovaFieldDevelopment.

VESSEL
STOBAdEPAOOUCTION

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH II qFFSHDRE DRILLING
TEcHNoLoGY
173

2.2.10SubseaAtmosphericSystem
(SAS)

The productionsystemshownin
Figure2.2lis a hybridsystemdeveloped
o'' The wells are drilled through by Mobir
a basetemplateandcompletedwith
subseatrees. Thesetreesareconnected specialwet
to manifoldsandremotecontrors
a large chamber,which is installed housedin
on the I
lower
manifold
section
of thechamo".,r
rr:; ;;T:T:"ff;il::Hil:T
breathableair is maintainedat
one atmospherein the upper
control and entry
section' Men are transportedto
the chamberin a tetheredbell or
submarineto do
maintenanceon the maniford and
controls. Thewells canbe maintained
servicing from inside the chamber by TEL
or by verticalreentrymethods
drilling rig. from a floating

The sAS units are connectedby

pipeline to an enclosedatmospheric
center which also servesas a t;;"';ce manifold
base for the productionnr"..
supportrng processfacility is the vessel
turret-mooredor dyramically positioned
connectedto the top ofthe production and
riserby flexibrepipe.The connection
submergedbelow the wavezone.pipes point is
arealsoprovrdedto supplynitrogen
to the SAS.power andcommunications andair
aresuppliedby electriccable.

work to developthis systembegan

in the mid-1960sandredto the installation
prototypeof the SAS offshore of a
in the Gulf of Mexico. Tests
duringlg72_1g74
demonstratedthe feasibility of
the conceptfor waterdepthsof
1,500ft. The SAS
has not yet beenusedcommercially,
lthoughwork to extendthe system
waterhascontinued. to deeper
2.2.11 Subseaproduction System(SpS)
The subseaproductionsystemdeveloped
by Exxonis shownin Figure2.22.
system,wells aredrilled througha rnthis
seafloortemplate.The wers arecompleted
specialsubseatreesthat connectto with
a manifoldcircling *" *"tii"ru."u.rrr"
manifolds are connectedto production
riser by pipeline.productionfacilities
located onboarda floatingproduction are
vessel.Seafloorequipmentis controlled
the surface. from

Dn M. S. Farahat
174 CH II OFFSHqREDRILLING TECIINOLOGY

SURFACE
SUPPORT
vssEL

IIAN TRA!{SFER
VEHt CLE
PRODUCTION
SI93A9E

PRODUCTION RISER

WELL
TEMPLATE
i

2t
rrgor"Z slsY,oductionsystem'

2.22
F8ure - SubsaPrcductionSystem(SPS).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II oFFSHoRE DRILLING TECHN,L^GY 175

wells are maintainedby TEL servicing from the surface station

or by vertical
reentry from a floating drilling rig. Seafloorequipmentis
maintainedby a special-
purposemanipulator shown in Figure 2.23 The manipulator
is operatedfrom a
surface vessel to land on a track on the seafloortemplate.
The unmanned
manipulator is then controlled from the surface to replace
control modules or
valves.

Developmentof this system startedin 196gandconcludedwith

the operationof a
three-well prototype in the Gulf of Mexico during 1974to 197g.
The testincluded
the seafloor template, wells, diverlessflowrine and piperine
connections,and
production riser. The maintenancemanipulatorwas also
fully tested,That test
demonstratedcapabilityof the Sps to waterdepthsof 2,000ft and
beyond.A proto-
type of a deeperwater version of the productionriser was
installedby Exxon in
1981in theSantaBarbaraChannel.

Technology developed in the SpS program hasbeen combined

with sateilite weil
technology by Shell and Exxon for a commercial application
in the Cormorant Field
in the North Sea. A nine-well system for that field,
showninFigure z.24,was
undergoing testing near Rotterdam,Netherlandsfor installation
in 19g2.

2.2.12Flowlines and pipelines

Installation of flowlinesandpiperinescanbe doneusinga conventional

lay barge,a
reel barge,or a tow method.Frowlinesandsmalr-diameter pipelinescanalsobe run
verticalfrom a drilling rig andlaid on the seafloorby movingthe
rig.

The conventionallay barge,shownin Figure2.25is actuallya floating

lant here
pipe is broughtonboard,weldedto the line, inspected,fed
offthe backof the barge,
and lowered to the seafloor.During laying operations,the pipe shape
is controled
by holdingtensionin the pipe to avoid bucklingattheseafloorandbyuseofa
ramp (stinger)to controlbendingasthepipe leavesthevessel.Most existing
barges
areheld in placeby spreadmooringsystemsandmovedforwardby movingthe

Dn M. S. Farahat
176 CH II OFFSHOREDMLLING TECHNOLOGY

2.23
Fiqure SPSMaintenanceManlPulator'

'r I t
,

center'
*'nifold center oil Production
"'1\or^or,n

Dr. M. S, Faraltat
 CH II oFFSHDRE DMLLING
TECHN,L^GY r77

anchors' ThesebargesareIimited
by theirmooringsystemto watcr depthsof
l'000 ft' Thepipe tensionersare about
capableof handling 2'-inchpipe in water
depthsof
l'500 ft and smaller size pipe
in deeperwater. The castoro Sei is also
semisubmersible a
lay barge. It is equippedto stay
on stationby spreadmooringor
dynamic positioning. The castoro
sei recentlylaid three20-inchpipesacross
Mediterranean the
Seamwaterdepthsup to 2,0.00ft. The
vesserreportedlymaintaineda
rate ofabout 5,000feetper day in
alr waterdepths.calculationsreportedry
thatthis vesselis capableof operating indicate
in w4terlepths of g,000ft.

A reel barge can lay pipe fasterthan

a conventionalbarge.The Apache,shown
Figure 2'26 is a new dynamicallypositioned in
reel barge.n this approach,thepipe is
welded and inspectedon land
andspool-ed onto a largereelonboarda barge.The
barge then movesthe siteandreels
the pipe off. Theshapeof thepipe is controred
with tensionasbefore,but the pipe
leavesthebargein a verticalorientationso
minimum-sizedstingeris required. thata
Therayingoperation is fast,whichreduces
nee'dto staypreciseryon stationfor the
long periodsandmakesdynamicpositioning
the bargepractical.The Apacheis of
capableoflaying up to r6-inchpipe at
reportedlytwo knots in water depths speedsof
up to 3,000ft. Thevesselrecentlylaid
inch line in theNinian field in the a 10_
North Seaat a reportedrateof 1,3g3ft/hour.

Tow methodsare shown in Figure

2.27. rnthis methodthepipe is againmade
and assembledon shorr up
the surrace ornear the ;;:::T,#I;#llilif "J:.ff:::ffj]:.T3il:
bottom kept by chains dragging along the seafloor.pipe lengthsfor the
tow to deep-
water will probably be rimited to
about r0,000 ft to permit a reasonable
use of two
tugs and to alrow control of the
pipe. For longer lines, murtiple
tows wit be
required,and the ends will have to
be dockedand connectedat the site.

Dr.M.s.Fiffit
178 CH II OFFSHOKEDRILLING TECHNOLOGY

L'ybatge sem'c I '

o*n "'" .t",^*bmersible

,gon7'26 r*t*.,Plpc LsvingReelshiP'

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSHOREDRILLING TECHNOLOGY 179

i
o
F
3
o
F
UJ

I o >

u- F
E

I
=
a)
F
3 !- z;

o o

P
J rr,16
, IJJ
d)
5

\\ z
?
6
o I I
I
i
F

,I ----r--- 5
I

iqt, I
-[s
td
to
3
,f
=

D \l

#N
9-

i:

trl
z lll I
=
o F

ifi I F

ifi | UJ
o F
F

frs I t!
cE co
(r
Efl b
:)
(t)
uJ
z
5t F
i{l o
I

Dn M. S. Farahat
180 CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

Tow techniques have been used for many lines installed in shallow water. A near-
bottom tow for the installation of satellitewell flowline bundleswas completedin
1980 in the Murchison Field in the North Sea.A near-surfacetow systemdesigned
for deep water was testedby installation of a 2,000 ft satellitewell flowline bundle
in the Gulf of Mexico during 1980.A 2,000-ft sectionof 30-inch pipe was towed
across the Norwegian Trench to prove the feasibility of the method. Thus, although
this method has not yet been used in deepwater, it is feasibleand design inethods
havebeen demonstrated.

Laying pipe from a drilling rig is slow. The pipe must be connectedby mechanical
connectors or welding while hung vertically in the derrick. (Screwedconnectorsfor
large-diameter lines have not been accepted for pipelines.) Pipe must also be
brought to the rig in relatively small quantities because of the limited onboard
storage capabitity. A small stinger must be addedto the rig to control the shapeof
the pipe when it leaves the rig during rig movements. This method has been
considered in several instances and the design work has been done, but no
significant lines hadbeen installed from a drilling rig up to 1982.

The connection of pipelines in deep water must be done by remote controlled

equipment. There are three steps.First, the pipe must be laid in the vicinity, then it
must be aligned and positioned, then it can be connected and a seal made.The
major technical problems are with positioning and aligning the pipe. Connectorsare
availableto seal the pipe reliably by remotecontrol once it is in place'

Connection of flowlines in deep water can be accomplished by upgrading the

systems that have been developed. Diverless systems to connect flowlines or
bundles of a few flowlines up to 6-inch in diameter have been developed by
cameron, vetco, Regan,McEvoy, and FMC. Each of thesesystemsinvolve laying
the flowlines beside the connectionpoint and pulling them in, u-"ingcablesrouted
through sheaveson the baseplate at the connectionpoint. The Cameron,Vetco, and
Regan systems can be used confidently in depthsto 3,000 ft and beyond wherever
zuidelinesand/or drawdown lines can be used.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY
l8l

In locations where only one end of the line

needs to be on the seafloorin deep
water, existing,proven,verticarinitiationmethods
canbe usedwith conventronar or
reel barge installation methods.By this method,
thepipe is loweredvertrcailyon
guidelinesfrom a drilling rig and landed
on the seafloor base.The line is then
passedto a lay bargeandlaid away.The connecting
systema'ows the pipe to pivot
at the seafloor so that the line will lower from
verticarto horizontalasthe raying
operationproceedsaway from the connectionpoint.
The connectionis madeusing
tools lowered from the drilring rig. cameron
has equipment that hasbeenused
efficiently for verticalinitiationpipe laying.

Connection of the larger lines in deeper water

or where both ends are on the
seafloor will require additional technical development.
The cameronandRegan
systemsfor connecting flowlinescanprobably
be scaledup to connectlinesin the
l0 to l2-inch range.Methodsproposedfor connecting
largerlinesusespoorpieces,
which areinstalled y sing arge, emotely ontrolled
anipulators,t .r" yrt"r,
areonly conceptsandhavenot yet beenproven.

2.2.13 Single Point Tqnker Mooring System

concepts for mooringa shuttleor storagetanker

areshownin Figure2.2g.Eachof
these systemscan be used to moor a tankerpermanenrly
Jdprovidestoragein the
field' The .ALM and a SALM with hawser
mooringcanbe usedfor temporar'y
mooring shuttle tankers.In general,the catenary
chainsystemwill be attractivefor
shallow water andcalm weatherareas.The structural
riserwilr be betterfor deeoer
waterandrougherweatherlocations.

Each of the concepts,with the exceptionof the

turretanduRI mooring,hasbeen
used commerciallyin many locationsandaretherefore
proven.The largestunit is
the SALM, which wasbeinginstaled in rggr in the
FulmarField in theNorth sea
to moor a 200,000dwt tankerpermanently.

The deepestwater in which a systemhasbeeninstalled

is about500 ft. However.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
182 CH II OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

extensive research has been done to develop systems for deeper water. Such
resealch has included sophisticated computer analysis and model testing.
Preliminary designshave been made for Single Anchor Leg Mooring (SALM) type
systems for water depths to 6,000 ft for tankersas large as 250,000dwt and for
North Sea weather conditions. Exxon has installed a prototype of their deep-water
SALM in the Hondo Field in the SantaBarbaraChannel.Basedon the experience
with shallow water systemsand the developmentwork that hasbeen done on deeper
water systems,coupled with the fact that a tanker storageand loading systemcould
be located in shallow water away from the field, it can be assumedthat technology
for tanker mooring is available for deepwaterproduction systems.

Dynamic positioning can also be used to hold a production-storagevessel on

station. Dynamic positioning would probably be usedfor locationswhere the water
depth, weather, ice, or other factors would make a permanent mooring either
impractical or very expensive.The technologyand equipmentin use for deepwater
drilling rig'siould be used to control the larger thrustersthat would be required.

2.2.14MannedMaintenanceSystems

Although the systems that have been describedwill be installedin deepwater by

diverless techniques, there will probably be occasions when manned subsea
maintenance systems will be the most economical method for some of the
installation steps or for the maintenanceof the subseaequipment.For that purpose,
manned manipulator systems, as shown in Figure 2.29, havebeen developedby
OceaneeringCompany as a backup to diverlessrunning tools. The JIM systemis
a diving suit wom by a man. This unit is lowered from the surfaceand lands on
decks built onto the subsea equipment.The suit is equippedwith life supportand
special tools to allow a man to do pre-plannedjobs. JIM can be usedin water depths
of 1,500 ft to untangle cables, operate hand valves, or attachcables.The latest
template designed by VETCO for Petrobras (Figure 2.29) designedso that JIM
could be equippedwith special tools for replacingfailed valves'

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 cHII oFFSH2RE DRILLING TECHNoLoGy
183

gPFEAO MOORING
BOW TURRET
ARRANGEMENT MO O RI N G CALM SYSTEM C A L M R I Gt O A R M
SYSTEM (SBS)

ARTICULATED
TOWER SALM SYSTEM SALS SYSTEM U F I M O O R I N GS Y S T E V
pigrr,Z47Nt ^ tivesingtepoinaMootirgsystems.

a) JIM

'.."

c) ARMS3000
2-29
Figure MannedMaintenanceSystems.

Dr. lV. S. Farahai

184 CH II OFFSHORE DR]LLING TECHNOLOGY

The WASP is a small swimmingsubmersible worn by a man.This unit hasabout

the same capabilityasJIM, exceptthat it swimsratherthanwalks,andthe unit has
been designedfor use in 2,000-ft water depths.Developmentwork is alsobeing
done to extendthe operatingcapabilityof thewASP to muchdeeperwaterdepths.
Again, several special tasks can be performedby wASP. The tasksareprobably
more specializedthanwithJIM, but lesspreparationduringdesignis required.

The ARMS system is a mannedtetheredbell equippedwith a very sophisticated

arm anda grabberarm.The unit is loweredto the seafloor ite nd anded. he nit
is equipped with an anchorandhassomepropulsioncapabilityto allow thepilot to
hover off the bottom to do his work. The arm includesshoulder,elbow,andwrist
action and is equippedwith position and force feedback.This meansthat the
operatorcan place his hand in a controlgrip, movehis hand,andactuallyfeel the
force being exertedby the arm. This allows the man in the bell to do rather
tasks,suchasreplacinga hydraulichoseor threadinga nut onto a bolt.
sophisticatgd
Existing ARMS bells aredesignedandprovenfor waterdepthsof 3,000ft. Designs
have been made for depths of 4,500 ft, andthe bell designcouldbe extendedto
virtually any depth.A unit has actuallybeen used in supportoftheBenocean
Lancerin 2,860-ftwaterdePth.

2.2.15SafetyAnd ReliabilitY r

Each system hasbeendesignedto be safe,to protectthe environment,thereserves,

and the investment.During design, engineershaveidentifiedproblemsthat could
occur and havedesignedin reliability to avoidproblems,with backupor redundant
equipment or allow the systemto fail-safe and to provide recovery Iiom any
failures.

The oil companiesinvested considerablemoney and manpowerin eachof these

systemsfor about10 yearsbeforethey werereadyfor use.Only provencomponents
have been used in offshore production systems,even moreso than on land.The
equipmentis built big and heavy, and it is testedextensivelybeforeandduring
installation.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH II OFFSH}RE DRILLING TECHNoLoGy 185

The systems have been designed to resist damage.Platforms and surfacevessels

have been designed to withstand 1O0-yearstorms without damage.Seafloorwells
have been designedto withstand being caught and lifted by fishing gear or anchors
from fishing boats or serviceboats. Template wells have been encasedin massive
structures that will withstand any dragged object and most dropped objects.
Flowline connections have been designed to withstand the pulling of flowlines or
pipelines without damageto the well or template structure.

Finally, the gasand oil industry,after some20 yearsof technicaldevelopments,as

the capabiliryto exploit hydrocarbonresources
beneathwaterseveralthousandfeet
deep. A numberof companieshavebeenengagedin this researchandengineering,
which hasresultedin hardware omponents nd rocedureshat an e usedto form
the productionsystemthat bestmeetstherequirements
of a specificfield.

These developments are and complete, for there are still many areas where
improvementsin equipmentare needed.However, most of the future work for
deepwaterdrilling and production systems will be aimedat improvingefficiency
andreducingcostsratherthandevelopinga basiccapability.

Thus, the author s messageis that the gasandoil industrymustthink beyondthe

way thinking are donetoday to be able to capturethe opportunity that the deepwater
Gulf of Mexico,Pacific Oceanand any deepwaterelse-whereshouldoffer.

,r. :" - i' .ir'l !1 '

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 186 Cn III Dnnunc pnoDNoSIS& aNDERBALANCED

CHIpTER III
D Tr,UNG PRoGNoSISAND
INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING
UNDERBALANCE
1,- -.tr ,-:_.'

3.1 Drilling Prognosis

oilfield work is rich in its own terminology.understandingthe languageis a major

part of the battle of learningpetroleumtechnology.It is thereforeimportantthat the
-'student
study the glossaryand becomefamiliar with the terms peculiar to the
oilfield.

By using examples and pictures, this sectionwill explainhow to drill a well. The
examplewell will be drilled to a total depthof 9,200ft.

Most wells in the world are drilled by drilling consultantsbecausemost oil

companies do not have a staff trained to handle the job themselves.The Oil
Company, or simply, the operator,is the personor companywho has the rights to
drill for andproducepetroleumproductson a particularsite.The operatormay be a
major company or an independent.Most drilling in the United Statesis doneby
small independents.
The companywill normally seek a number of investorsto
finance the drilling. Once financingis secured,a drilling consultantis hired to take
over. The consultant works from a drilling prognosis prepared by the company
engineer. The drilling proqnosis is simply a plan hy which to drill the well.

The drilling prognosis is given to the consultantprior to his arriving on location,

andwill containthe following items:

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH III DMLLING PR0DN0SIS & UNDERBAI.IINCED I87

1. Leaseand well name

2. Directionsto the location
3. Companyinvolved as operator(consultants boss)
4. Drilling contractorto be used
5. Mud servicecompanyto be usedand the mud program
6. Servicesto be used (calledvendor s list)
7. Mud loggersto be used
8. The drilling proceduresand practices
9. Companyofficials to be called in caseof emergency
10. Bit recordsin location area
11. The drilling contractor s contract with the company,including an inventory of
items furnishedby contractorand operator
12. Drilling permit issuedby stateor federalauthorities
13. The locationlayout Figures3.1 and3.2)
14. (H) The directionalandMWD companiesto be used
15. (H) The PWD equipmentto be used
16. (H) The frac tanksto rent for location

Items 1 through 4 are self-explanatory

Item 5: The mud programwill list mud reportsof other wells that havebeendrilled
around the location. It will tell you what hasbeensuccessfuland will furnish a list
of weightsand viscositiesto use at certaindepths.It will also detail what chemicals
needto be addedat eachdepth.

Depth lleight Viscosity

(fr) Qb/sat)
0-3,000 8.9 40-45
3,000-5,000 9.0 40
5,000-7,500 9.3 38-40
7,500-9,200 9.5 38-40

Dr. M. S. Farahat
r88 Cn III DRTLLINGpRoolosts & qNDERBALANCED

TOOI ruSHEFs tn^ltEi

oiaw woiKs taoroiS

COXSUITAXTS TRAILEN

XUO PI'TP3

'.4
F;;;l 1,.."",

Figured'i Verticalwell locationlayout.

"mL
H
,f;t
l**|
t-t
@N5IJ(TA'{TE

l"^''"1
& t_J
. qAEiW^lS'
q't w6soE

BESERVE PII

3'
Figrr". 4lori.ontal*ett locationtayoutfora singleseparator
tank.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CUIII DrutuNe pnootvosts& qNDERBALANCED 189

ftems 6 and 7 areself-explanatory.

Item 8: The following is an exampledrilling procedurelisting in sequentialorder
the actionsto be taken.

1. Rig up rig.
2. Hammer l6-in, conductorpipe to 120hits per ft.
3. Cut conductorand nipple up flow lines to pits.
4. Spudin.
5. Drill + 3,000 ft with 143/4-in,bit, run survey every 500 ft.
6. Run + 3,000 ft with r0314-in. 40.5 lb per ft K-55 casingwith guide shoe,float
collar, six centralizers,and one cement basket.Install three centralizersevery
other collar' Install cement basket in conductorwith two centralizersaboveon
collar or lock ring.
7. Cementwith2,200 sacks(sk) ClassH cementwithzo6 CaCl.
8. WOC (wait on cement).
9. If no cementrefurns,one-inchthe hole.
10. Cut casing.Weld on l0-in. 1500seriescasinghead.
11. Testcasingheadto 1,000psi for l5 minutes.
12. Nipple up BOPs, annularpreventer,chokemanifold, and superchoke.
13. TestBoPs 5,000psi, annularpreventer2,500psi, chokemanifold5,000psi.
14. Make up the bottom hole assembly,and 9
15. Trip in hole andtag cement,test 1,500psi.
16. Drill out float collar,testcasing,1,500psi.
17. Drill out guide shoe and lO-ft formation,test to l3.5EMW(equivalentmud
weight).
18. Drill with 97l8-in, bit until it wearsout. Surveyevery 500 ft.
19. Trip out of hole and pick tip stabilizers.
20. Drill + 9,200ft.
21. Onedegreedeviation per 1,000ft not to exceed7
22. condition hole and run logs, ISF-cNL-FDC-Dipmeter,andRFT tool. and core
guns40 shots.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 190 C n III II R; 1..,
;"i ti 6 litt{)i};\?,:}$ il: :; i"t't; :l i :,!:, +i.. 1ii i' ij :}

23. Plug and abandonor rL:i r:.-:i:r.

24. Run + 9,200 feet wi,ir I,ir:. .ll :'L:," ,1 j j ..,,.,:::..::.:.:r:li,i. ,,1:,i .t;:.il:t,.:.r.:::.i
t,l
centralizers.
25. Cement 280 sks Classl{ ',tit"'::?:..1:
{..:.1i.
26.76 Cut casing nipple down, .,lci icier;i;:, i ig,.

The horizontalWell prr:rl:riii:

1. Drill rat hole,mouseheic, ar:Csr;:-"1 :.;,.;i.:.

2 . R i g u p r i g s o f l a r e l i : l c r g ( : r : . : , ' : i . . . . -., ,,. ',.. .i : _ . . : - . , . , : . , . , .; r: . . ; : . 1 . . . ; . i . :i" l
locationso theflarelinc is i:r;r.r:.;'.,
;.,,::.:;,-';:.
'..
3 . P i c k u p a u s e d 1 2 1 1 4 - i ; ,J i i , : r , ; | ; i ,r i l , i - r , r i. i. r " " - . ; . i . _ .] . . . . ; i ! , ; : ; i r l i { : . } , : r ; : rj,. , . : , i _ :
ft.
4 . R u n 7 5 0 f r . 1 0 3 1 4 - i n . 4 it|:;.;' rJ, " , . - : , , : : - r . , ' ! ;,. . , r , . 1 . . , : i r ^ , , . , .i ; .r ; .: _ . , ,
guide shoe, insert, eight cenllaizt:;s, e;tri oitc rt;liti{::"i,,;:t:j;,:;.t.
j.Llr,:si:.:cr:.r1.:aliz::.-.t
every other collar, startilig a;:Le 1:rslccili r c;t tho i:,i:cm^ l\*;i leri :;;., ;:joint;;
then put one centralizrl ,,,,:,::r.r 'r:1.:;
(:it:.",i-r.i
l."i.t;o:
i l::;l; ,..: . t_t.::-;",,.. " ;.. .
....,:..:
centralizerwith lock ring.
5. Cementwith ClassH cemcnt :ttth 2ati:{'iri'i. I::ii:;r:; ..1)'.i; ;. .._-.,...
6 . I f n o b a r r e l s o f c e m e n t a t c c i ; . c . r l ; ,l ;-."-,,t,:1: r - . i ; , i . ' , :1.:;;--",.l, . r l : : - , : l t , : l . : r , . . . , . . . . .
l.r',..::.,;,..t
togetherwith cementengi':l:ll cn l:,::;i:::.;.r ,.,'...'^:,..........
.
7. WOC (wait on cement).
8. Cut casing.Weld on l0-in. I .,iti-i;-:_.r,r
c;: r.,- ,_,:.:.;.,.
9. Test casinghead to 1,000psi ior 15 rrrini-rres.
10.Nipple up BOPs, annularpi.\ cfitci, ':lt;:ir._. ,;,.....'.:i,i"i. ,::.,.i:;l:p:r-i ,..,_*.
1 1 . T e s tB O P s t o - 5 , 0 0 0 p s i , * n i u i : ; l ' i : ' : " : ' . ! * i t i j . : : . ; , . . ) , . : : : 1 . , . ; , r , . . , , ; ; k c 6 i a ; : " , r , : : l i : - l
5,000psi.
12.Makeup the bottomholeasser,bly*nd 8
13.l3.Trip in hole (TIH) andtrg cemcr.,t"::"1 crsingii: I i*0 ii:.
14.Drill out insert,andtestcasingtc :.,--1,1,;'i1.
15.Drill out guideshoeand 10-lr iom':ariorl.'.',;ii ii-' i; lb i,ii':,r.:.
1 6 . D r i l l w i t h 8 3 / 4 - i n , b i t t o t o p o f C a n i i : r : s a * < i . ' i i , , : : : ; : ; ' , , . .i :cir: ; .; ,t ,r.,. 1: t l i ) : , , , : r r
until the bit wears out. Survcy e\'.r:' ,1r-iji. .''I'i..: ',,i'r,,,:],.-,s*ly fll tolquein

,Sr, ,ii. $, !la;,*i;t:!

 CH III DRILLING PR2DNaSIS & UNDERBALANCED 191

Carrizosand.
l7.Trip out of the hole (TOH) andpick up stabilizersandnew bit.
18.Drill to + 6,700ft.
19.Condition hole, short trip through Carizo sand,and circulatebottomsup. Build
up viscosifyto 60 to 90. Your mud engineercangive adviceon this question.
20.Pullout of the hole (POE)to run logs.
21.Runelectricitylogs.
22.Pickup Monel collar and TIH to bottom, circulatebottomsup,shorttripback
throughthe Carrizo sand,then TIE to total depth(TD) and circulatebottomsup.
23.Make up multishot gyro, and drop in drill pipe.
24.TOE to run casing, lay down 4
gyro tool.
25.Make suremultishot worked-beforerunning casing.
26.Run 7-in. 23 lb/ft K-55 usedcasingwith guide shoe,float collar, stagecollar, fwo
cement baskets, and ten centralizers.Run six centralizersevery otherjoint at the
bottom. Place stage collar (DV) tool per rules for protectingwater sands.Place
cementbaskets100 ft in and 100 ft below the topofthesurfacecasingwith
centralizers,using lock rings.
27.Cemerftfirst stage with Class H cement with 2o/oCaCl,dropbombandopen
second stage, circulate for about 4 hours, then cementsecondstagewith light
cement with returns to surface. Recordamountof returnsto surfaceon cement
record.
28.WOCl2 hours.
29.Nippledown HOPs andcut casing.
30.InstallH section.
3l.Nipple up stackand addrotatinghead:addgatevalve from rotatingheadto shale
shaker.Mustbe 1,500-lb test.
32.Nipp1e up choke and lines to PWD equipment.Hook up gasbusterand flow line
to separatortanks. (Most of this should have beendoneduring drilling of the
verticalhole.)
33.Rig up frac tankswith lO-lb brinehookedup to mud pumps.
34.Rigup PWD tanksto acceptoil.
35.Rig up frac tanksto acceptcleanoil for sale.

Dn M. S. Farahat
 792 CH III DR]LLING PRzDNqSIS & UNDERBALANCED

36.Test HoPs, annularpreventer,chokesystemto samevalueas first test.

37.Train crews on PWD equipment,including rotating-headoperation.
38.Pick up 3ll2-in, rental string and 6 ff/s-in, bit and rIE and tag the DV (stage)
tool. Test casingto 1,500lb.
39.Drill out the DV tool slowly, andtestcasingto 1,500lb for l5 minutes.
4O.Drill out float collar and tag the guide shoe.Test casing to 1,500 lbforlS
minutes.
4r.Drill out guide shoe and l0-ft new formation.Tbst formationatshoeto11.5
EMW.
42.TOH andchangebit.
43.TIE anddrill to + 7,400ft.
44.Conditionhole and TOE for logs to determinechalk sections.
45.TIH open-ended
to cementopenhole.
46.Cementopenhole and 100 ft in 7-in, casingand200 ft out.
47.TOH with drill string.
48.WOC.
49.Rig up directionaldriller and MWD tools.
50.TIH andt4g cemcnt.
51.Drill to a depthdeterminedby directionaldriller.
52.TOEto pick up directionaltools.
53.TIH with directionaltools.
54.Drill curve.
55.TOH to pick up horizontaltools.
56.TIH with horizontaltoolsanddrill 2,500-fthorizontal.
57.Kill well to TOH.
58.ToE to 7-in, casing, checkfor flow. If well is dead,ToH slowly filling hole.If
well is flowing, circulate pipe with brine (weight can be determined by the
consultant).
Keep it as light aspossible.
59.Runwirelinepacker60 ft inside7-in, casingandset.
60.Nippledown stackandcleanmud tanks.Releaseris.

Items 9 tltrougltl2 areself-explanatory.

Item 13: (H) The horizontal layout, asyou can see,is quite a bit more complex.It

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH III DRILLING PRoDNoSIs& (JNDERBALANIED 193

looks like a small oil refinery. A consultantmust checkthe prevailing winds to set
the location so that the flare line is downwind in caseof H2S gas.Also makesure
all roads out are not in harm s way if the rig shouldblow up. All thesefactorsneed
to be taken into considerationby a competentconsultantor engineer.Settingup a
horizontallocationis seriousbusiness.

Items 14 through 16 are self-explanatory.

The bit program is designedto show you what bits havebeensuccessfulin the area
you are going to drill, the rate of penetration,the RPM andwoB (weight on bit),the
hourson the bit, and the gradethe bit cameout of the hole.

The drilling prognosis is the consultant s bible on location.very phaseof the

operation is covered in the prognosis. Refer to it often. The toolpusher,mud
engineer,and cement engineer should have a copy with them to correlatewith
yours.

The cement program will tell you what combinationof cementto use on location
andwhereto placethe centralizers.

The casing program will show what grade,weight, andthreaddesignis to be used

in the wells. Most deeper strings have several weightsthat needto be layedout
beforegoing in the hole.

Figures 3.3 and 3.4 show the rigs rvith casingin the ground.The deeperyou drill,
the smallerthe hole becomes.The prognosiswill tell when the pipe is to be run and
at what depth.

This sectionintroducesunderbalanceddrilling, summarizesthe different techniques

available for drilling underbalanced,and indicates the various benefits and
restrictionsto their use.

3.2.1 ll/hat is UnderbalancedDrilling?

Dr. lV. S. Farahat

 194 CH III Dmttnvc pnoouosts & uNDERBALANIED

Most oil and natural gas wells are drilled using rotary techniques,
in which a drill
bit disaggregatesrock at the base of the well. A drilling fluid is pumped
to the
bottom of the hole and then back up to the surface.The fluid is pumped
down the
well inside the dnllstring and it returnsto the surface,in the annulus
befweenthe
drillstring and the boreholewar. As it flows over the hole bottom, the
drilline fluid
entrainsthe rock cuttingsandremovesthem to the surface.

In conventionaldrilling operations,the drilling fluid senresseveralother

functions.
These include stabilizing the borehole, cooling the bit, and most
importantly,
controlling the formation fluids. The wetl is said to be at barance
if the borehore
and formation fluid pressures are equaL In this situation,thereis
no netfluid
flow into or out of the borehole.

The composition and propertiesof the drilling fluid are often chosen
to ensurethat
the fluid pressure in the boreholeexceedsthe pore fluid pressurein the
formations
penetrated by the wellbore, at all depths where the formation
is open to the
borehole.

In this overbulanced situation,the drilling fluid pressureprevents

formation fluids
from flowing into the welr during drilling. There is some fluid
flow fiom the
borehole into the rock aroundthe borehole.Materialsare addedto the
drilling fluid
to restrict this flow, by depositinglow permeabilityfilter cakeon the
boreholewall
and in the poresand fracturesadjacentto the borehole.

ln underbalanceddf.lling operations, the pressure of the drilling fluid

in the
borehole is intentionallymaintainedbelow the formationpore fluid pressure,
in the
openhole sectionof the well. As a result,formation fluids flow into the well
when a
permeable formation is penetratedduring underbalanceddrilling. For
this reason,

Special equipment and proceduresare required to control formation fluid inflorv

during underbalanceddrilling. Nevertheless,drilling underbalancedoffers several

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CHIII Dnnune pnoonosrc & uNDERBALANzED 195

significantbenefitsover conventionaldrilling techniques.Theseinclude:

l. Increasedpenetrationrate and bit life.

2. Reducedprobability of sticking the drillstring downhole
3. Minimized lost circulation while drilling.
4. Improvedformation evaluation
5. Increasedweli productivity
6. The requirementfor primary stimulafiontreahnentscanbe reducedor
eliminated.

The extent to which it is possible to achieve any of thesebenefits generally

is
controlled by the properties of the target reservoir and overlying formation
;and, in
someinstances,evenby the specificcharacteristics of the well being drilled.

3.2.2 ll/hy Drill Underbalanced?

The simpleanswerto=thequestionwhy drill underbalanced?

is thatit canimprove
the financial returnson drilling the well. This improvementcan comefrom
a variety
of different factors that reduce the cost of drilling the well or
increaseits
productivify oncedrilled.

3.2.2.1 Increased Penetration rate & Bit Life

Increased Penetrafion Rate:

Drilling underbalancedcan lead to increasedpenetrationrate. Most

references,
describing drilling operationswith air or lighteneddriiling fluids, reportpenetration
rates which are greaterthan thesefor wells drilled overbalancedwith
conventional
liquid drilling fluids. A systematicreview of air drilling operations,
conductedby
carden, 1993 cited that air drilling penetrationratescould be as much as ten
times
greaterthan thosefor mud drilling in equivalentformafions.

Increased Bit Life

It is often claimedthat bit life is increasedwhen lightenedfluids areusedinstead

of

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 196 CN III DRILLING PRoDNosIS& UTIDERBALAN1ED

conventional drilling muds, Drilling_ underbalancedremoves rhe confinement

imposed on the rock by the overbalancepressure.This shoulddecreasethe apparent
strength of the rock and reduce the work that must be done to drill away a given
volume of rock. It is reasonablethat this increased,drilling efficiency should
increasethe amountof hole that can be drilled beforethe bit reachesa critical wear
state.

3.2.2.2Minimized Lost Circulation ,. i

Lost circulation occurs when drilling fluid enters an open formation downhole,
rather than reiuming to the surface.It is possiblefor drilling fluid to be lost by flow
into a very permeable zone. More frequently, lost circulation involves flow into
natural fractures that intersect the wellbore or into fracturesinduced by excessive
drilling fluid pressure.Lost circulation can be very costly, during conventional
drilling. The lost fluid has to be replaced, and the losses have to be
mitigated, risually by adding lost circulation material tothemud(toplugoff the
path by which the fluid is entering the formation), beforedrilling can safelybe

. resumed.Since thereis no physicalforce driving drilling fluid into the formationif

the well is drilled underbalanced,underbalanced drilling effectivelyprevents lost
circulation problems.

This is not to say that lost circulation cannotoccurwhen drilling with lightened
fluids. It is possibleto lose circulationwheneverthe wellborepressureexceedsthe
formation pore pressure.Using a lightened fluid does not, by itself, guarantee
underbalancedconditions, This is clearly illustratedby a well, drilled with mist, in
the GrandCanyon National Park The pore pressuregradientwas almostzeroand
air circulationcould only be achievedfor lessthan one-halfof the drilline time.

It is possiblefor chemicaldriving forces,causedby activity differencesbetweenthe

--- - . aquoous-phase=of--a"drilling=fluid-a@rffitoe11grt1e
formation, even though there is a pressure gradient driving flow in the opposite
direction. These low rates are usually so low that they are undetectablewhile
drilling although they can

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH III DRILLING PRoDNoSIs& TJNDERBALANCED 197

3.2.2.3 Minimized Differential SticHng

In a well drilled conventionally,a filter cakeforms on the boreholewall from solids

deposited when liquid flows from the drilling mud into permeablezones,due to an
overbalancepressure.If the drillstring becomes embedded in the filter cake,the
pressure differential between the wellbore and the fluid in the filter cake can act
over such alarge areathat the axial force requiredto mo.,'3the string can exceedits
tensile capacity. The drillstring is then differentially stuck.Therewill be no filter
cake and no pressure acting to clamp the drillstring if the well is underbalanced
Other mechanismscan causesticking; underbalanceddrilling doesnot eliminatethe
possibility of a stuck drillstring.

3.2.2.4 Reduced Formation Damage

Anticipated well productivity is often reducedby regong of impaired permeability,

formation damage, adjacent to the wellbore. Formation damagecan occur when
liquid(s), solid(s) or both enter the formation,during drilling. If the drilling fluid
pressure in the wellbore is less than the pore pressure,the physical driving force
causing penetrationof materialfrom the drilling fluid is removed.That is not to say
that the possibility of formation damage from the drilling fluid is completely
removed. In some circumstances,chemical potentialdifferencesbetweendrilling
and pore fluids could cause filtrate to enter the formation against the pressure
gradient. Also, there are instancesin which a well, that is drilled nominally
underbalanced, experiencestransient overbalancedconditions, due to less than
perfect control of circulatingpressuresor possiblydue to fluid inflow while the well
is not being circulated.

In any case, there are many examplesof wells drilled underbalancedwith higher
productivity than adjacentwells drilled conventionally.

3.2.2.4 Earlier Production and ReducedStimulation requirements

Earlier Production

Dr. M. S. Farahat
r98 Cu III DRTLLINGpRootosts & UNDERBAT,/tNcED

When a well is drilled underbalanced,hydrocarbonproduction canbegin as soonas

a productive zone is penetrated. With suitablesurfaceequipment,it is possibleto
collect oil while drilling. Some underbalancedwells have paid for themselves
entirely from productionbefore drilling operationswere completed.

Reduced Stim uI atio n Requirem ents

Following conventional drilling operations, wells are often stimulated to increase

their productivity. Stimulation can include acidizing or surfactant treatnents, to
remove formation damage; or hydraulic fracturing can be used to guarantee
adequateproduction in low permeabilityreservoirsor to bypassdamagein higher
permeabilityformations.Reducedformation damagemeanslower stimulationcosts.

3.2.2.5 Improved Formation Evaluation

Drilling underbalancedcan improve the detection of productive hydrocarbon zones,

even identifying zones that might otherwise have been bypassedif the well had
beendrilled conventionallv.

When a well is drilled underbalanced,formation fluids flow into the wellbore from
any permeable formation in the openhole section. Penetratingany hydrocarbon-
bearing formation with adequatedrive andpermeabilitywill result in an increased
hydrocarbon cut in the drilling fluid retuming to the surface.With adequatemud
logging and drilling records, underbalanced drilling can indicate potentially
productive zones, as the well is drilled. Conversely,during conventionaldrilling,
the overbalancepressureprevents formation inflows; hydrocarbon-bearingzones
haveto be identified from cuttings,core analysis,logging or DSTs.

It should be possible to use the volumesof producedhydrocarbons,from a well

drilled underbalanced to give an indication oftheproductivityofanypayzones
that have beenpenetrated.Shuttingdown circulationwill allow flow from the well

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH III DMLLING PRaDNaSIS& UNDERBAI./INoED 199

to be measured; for example with a pilot tube or flow prover. This is a

straightforwardpracticewhen a gaswell is drilled with a dry gasor mist. The length
of the flare at the flare pit can give a qualitativeindicationof productivity. Since
this is also influencedby the rateof circulation,the sizeof theblooieline andthe
wind direction, it is difficult to quantiff gasproductionratessolely from the flare
length. If a drilling fluid with non-negligibleliquid contentis beingused,thewell
will have to be allowed to unload before stable flow is established.The flow
measuredis the sumofthe productionfrom all openzones;differentzonesarenot
beingselectivelytested.

The reduction or elimination of forrration damagethat results from drilling

underbalancedwill also improve the interpretationof openholelogs. For example,
there should be no modification o formation fluid composition adjacent to the
wellbore,that might otherwisemaskthe presenceof hydrocarbons.

3.2.2.6 Environmental Beneftts

There can be environmental benefit associated with properly managed

underbalanceddrilling operations.These depend on the exactdrilling technique
adopted.With dry, gaseousdrilling fluid there is no potentially damagingliquid
drilling mud to disposeof afterdriiling i completed.Thechemicalsusedin mist an
foam drilling are often benign an biodegradablesurfactantsthat do not pose
significantenvironmental
concems.

On the other hand, formation fluids are produced while drilling underbalanced.
Particularly with opensurfacesystems,thesehaveto be handledcarefully,to avoid
environmentalcontamination.However, with closed surface systems.there is n
in .a.'wav.that .--.-....-
reserve pit and both cuttings and produce fluids are contained.
minimize the potentialfor environmentalcontamination.

3.2.3 UnderbalancedDrilling Techniques

Many different techniques are available ft intentionally achieving underbalance

Dr. M. S. Farahat
200 CHIII DrutuNe pnoDNosls& u tDERBAr./wcED

conditions.Thesemostly involve circulatinga drilling fluid with a densitythat gives

hydrostatic pressuregradient in the wellbore that is less than the porepressure
gradient.The drilling fluid maybe a singlegasor liquid phase,or a two-phasegas-
liquid mixture. when there is any sigaificantvolumefractionof gas(injectedor
produced)present,the drilling fluid will be compressible.

underbalanceddrilling does not requiretheuseof a compressibledrilling fluid - a

conventional, liquid drilling fluid cangive underbalanced
conditionsin normally or
over-pressured formations,if thecirculatingpressure(sumofthe hydrostatichead
and the frictional pressuredrop to the openendof the fluid retum line) is lessthan
the pore pressure.using a drilling fluid with a density less than the reservoir
pressuregradient does not guaranteeunderbalancedconditions.Particularlywith
foamed fluids, the frictional pressuredrop canbe substantial.This canresultin a
circulating wellbore pressure that exceeds the pore pressureeven when the
hydrostaticheadofthe drilling fluid doesnot.
3.2.3.1 GaseousDrilling Fluids

Probably the simplest and oldestof all underbalanceddrilling techniquesis to use

dry air as the drilling fluid. compressorspump air to the swivel attachedto the top
of the drillstring, down the drillstring, through the drill bit and back up the annulus:
Figure 3.5 is a schematic of a simplified air drilling flow system.A rotating head
provides a low pressure seal arounCthe drillstring betweenthe wellheadand the
drill rig s rotary table, which diverts the retum flow away from the rig floor. For this
reason, it is sometimesreferred to as a diverter.A blooie line takesthe returning,
cuttings-ladenair flow
distance away collect in a pit. It is commonto use someform of water sprayclose
to the exit point or the blooie line, to prevent dust clouds. I lighted flame is
maintained at the exit from the blooie line to ignite any hydrocarbon gas in the
rehrrn flow.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 pRonnosts & ANDERBALANCED
CH III DRTLLTNG 201

Tha purgoaa ot tha oll or gaa

wall lr to loln tha produclne
ronc wlih lh. au.taca to brlng
oll o.gaa oui h comntarclal CONOUCTORPIPE(Usullly
qsanlltlaa. hammaEd In thc g.ound
50 lo lSO lcc0
A. th. w.ll b drilLd, c!.lng
l. r.l ln lha wall lo k co lha
t!llbo.! frofi crvlng In. t{odca
t|ia touraMnga ot Dlpa ln lftla

SURFACEPIPE{o? c.ll.d
alaLc. carlng, uau.lly
Thrgugh thla plp., oll o. gaa
run t om 3OO' to 4@(yl
can ba pum9ad out o.tha wallwlll
ff.c tlow to tha aurtac..

ll{tERtleo|ATE PtPE (or

callad Int.rmadllt. aHng
u.urlly run tron 5O@' to
t 2,ooo'l

LI,I{G StRlLC (or c.lld.otl

orproducllon crilng. la
run to tot l d.Bh ol w.t0

or|.oF cas zoxE (PAYZoNEI

Hgurc 3 '3fte pipingn6dsdto getoll or gasfroma vorticalwell.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
202 CH III DRILLING PRonNosTs & UNDERBALANCED

680I' IMTEfIEDIATEOF
LONGSTRII|CI {h chir r.r.
|.rrt c.5.|!tr horin,
lrlrlnr4 Lrl*ll b.

'

cuRvE At{o 250 oPENHOt!

Flgure e'.-The pipingneededto get oil or gas trom a horizontalwll.

Btoole Llne

?<
Figurg :- r Slmplifled air drilling flow system.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 pRonnosts & aNDERBAT,,/woED
Cu III DRTLLTNG 203

It is possible to use an inert gas,insteadofair, asthe circulatingfluid; nitrogenis

almost invariably chosen.other inert gasesareusually too expensive.Nitrogenmay
bc brought to location as a liquid in cryogcentanks.In this case,heatersareusedto
boil the liquid nitrogen before it is compressedandpumpeddownhole.It is also
possibleto generatenitrogen,using membrane-typefilters that remove oxygenfrom
the air flow deliveredby the compressors
beforeit h pumpeddownhole.

Another option is to use natural gas as the drilling fluid. This can be less costly than
using nitrogen, when drilling in a producing gas field or close to a naturalgas
pipeline The pipeline pressuremay be large enough that compressorsare not
needed.Pressureboosters will normally be required.API an NFPA (NationalFire
ProtectionAgency guidelinesmust be followed.

Whatever gas is used, the compressionsystemhas to be have, sufficient flow rate

and delivery-pres-urecapaCiiiesto be able liftdrilledcuttingsandfluidinfluxes
from the wellbore. circulating pressurea, cuttingstransportare not independentof
one another. The weight ofcuttings beingtransportedup the annulusincreasesthe
wellbore pressure.As the penetrationrate(the rate of cuttingsgeneration)increases,
doesthe wellbore pressure.If the circulationrateis too low cuttingswill accumulate
the wellbore, the wellbore pressurewill increaseand flow will be choked.

Charts prescribing minimum air flow rates for adequate hole cleaning were
developedby Angel, 1957. These charts are still widely usedin the designof air
drilling operations. The circulation rates they suggest correspond to an annular
velocity that would be equivalent to 3,000ft/mm at atmosphericpressure.Angel
argued that this was the minimum velocity for effective cuttings transport.
Predicting circulatingpressures.and appropriate.flowrates for gaseousdrilling.
fluids is not, however,trivial. For thetimebeing,it is sufficientto notethat several

and that higher gas flow rates are often requirethan wouldbepredictedbythe
charts.Today,mostdrilling servicecompanies hawpredictivesimulators.

Dn M. S. Farahat
204 Cn III DRTLLTNopRoovosts & UNDERBALANoED

3.2.3.2 Two -Phase Drilling Fluids

Mixing of gaseous and liquid phases is way to achieve any desired drilling fluid
density, fiom pure gas to pure liquid. These mixtures of gas and liquid are
sometimescollectively referred to as lightened drilling fluids. Lighteneddrilling
fluids can classified as mist, foam or aeratedliquid accordingto the structureand
relative volumes of the gaseousand liquid phasesTheir structureand properties
depend critically on the relative volume fractioi,so gas and liquid at the prevailing
conditions of pressure and temperature. Different lightened drilling fluid densities
areshownin Table 3.1

Table3.1 Densities(ppg) of LightenedDrilling Fluids

Description Density,ppg
. Gas 0.01 0.1
Mist 0.1 0.3
0.3 3.s4
Foam
3.5 6.95with backpressure
GasifiedLiquid 4.0 6.95
Liquid 6.95 19.0

If the volume fraction of anunviscosifiedliquid is lessthanabout2.5 percent,the

liquid will be suspended
asdiscretedropletsin a continuousgaseous
phase.Drilling
with theselow liquid volume fractionsis usually referredto asmistingor mist
drilling. A small triplex pump is used for low-rate, liquid injection, into the
circulating gas- at the surface before the fluid grrtersthe drillstring. The injected
liquid is usuallywater,a surfactantanda corrosioninhibitor.Sometimes,polymers
or salts areaddedto inhibit interactionwith water-Sensitive
shales.Sincethe liquid
is presentas discretedroplets,it has little direct impact on therheologyof the
circulating gas. The liquid droplets do, however, affect wellbore pressure; in a
mannerthat is analogousto the influenceof drilled cuttingsin dry air.

Dr. M. S. Farahat ,
 Cn III & UNDERBALANCED
DNLLING PROONOSTS 205

If the relativeliquid volumeis higher,a stablefoamresults.A stablefoam is usually

generatedwhen liquids, similar to thoseusedin mist drilling, areinjectedinto the
gas flow, at ratesgiving downholeliquid volume fractionsin the range+2.5 to +25
percent. The liquid forms a continuous cellular structure,entrappingthe gaseous
phase.The gas andliquid movetogetherwith nominallythe samevelocity.Foams
are often describedin terms of their quality andtheir texture.Foamquality is the
gas volume fraction, usually expressedasa percentage,at the prevailingpressure
and temperature.For example,a 90-qualityfoamis 90 pccent gasand l0 percent
liquid, by volume. The texture describesthebubblestructureof the foam- a fine
foamhassmallgasbubblesanda coarsefoamhaslargebubbles.

Foamshave high viscosities,enablingvery goodcuttingshansport.Foamrheology

is largely controlledby theliquid volumefraction,at theprevailingpressure.
Foam
viscositieshave been measured rangingfrom 115cP at a liquid volumefractionof
2.5 percent,to 35 cP,at a liquid volumefractionof 25 percent'In someinstances,
viscosifiersareaddedto the injectedliquid. Thesearetermedstiff foams.

If cuttings are to be efficiently removed from a well, the foam needsto be

sufficiently stable to retain its structureuntil it is dischargedfrom the blooie line.
Untreateddrilling foam can have a lifetime of severalhoursafter it returnsto the
surface. Sincethe circulatingrateis usuallyhundredsof cfrn, very largevolumesof
foam might haveto be containedat the surface.This foam containmentproblemcan
be overcomeby using an appropriatedefoamingsystem.

Oncethe liquid volume fractionexceedsabout25 percent,the foam stuctur breaks

down. The gasforms isolatedbubblesthat areindependentof the liquid phaseto the
extent that the two phasescan move with different velocities.Whengas-liquid
mixtures with this structureareusedasdrilling fluids, they areusually describedas
aeratedmuds. They can,be formedwith combinationsof gasandliquid otherthan
air and drilling mud. It is not unusualfor the liquid to be freshwateror brine,with
or withoutviscosifiers,dieseloil or evencrudeoil.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
206 Cn III Druttrye pnoolosts & uuDERBArrtNcED

The drilling rigs mud pumps are usedto pump the liquid phaseto the standpipeand
from there into the drillsking. Compressors,suitablefor the gasin use,arenormally
arranged to inject the gasinto the flowing mud at or closeto the standpipe,aerating
the drilling fluid before it is pumped down the drillstring. The aeratedliquid
returning from the weli is passedthrougha gas-liquid separationsystem.The gasis
then directed to a flare pit, while the liquid flows through a conventionalsolids
removal system. Additional gas separationmeasuresmay be necessarybeforethe
liquid can be pumpeddownholeagain(if at, all). Sorneform of oil-mud separation
system may be required if liquid hydrocarbons are produced. Figure 3.6
schematicallyillustratesthe main eiementsof an aeratedmud drilling system.
It is possible to create an aerateddrilling fluid downhole rather than at the
s
tubularthat penetratesthe wellheadandleadsinto thewellborejust abovethelast
casing shoe. By circulating a gas,which may be air, nitrogenor natural gas,down
the parasite string and into the wellbore, the density of the fluid retuming up the
annulus is reduced (abovethe injection point) and the wellbore pressuredecreases
correspondingly. The same effect can be achieved during re-entry drilling of
previously gas-lifted wells if the drilling assembly can be run downholewithout
pulling the gas lift tubing and production casing sting. This requires a small
diameter, drilled hole. This is probably only practical when drilling with coiled
tubing. It is also possible to aerate the returning drilling fluid by injecting gas
outside an uncementedcasing string, or by using a dual wall drill pipe, wherethe
drilling liquid is pumped down the central conduit of the pipe and the gas down the
outer conduit.
Mist drilling is often used after a significant water influx is encounteredwhile dry
air drilling. Normally air is used in mist drilling. Other than cost, tlere is, no
fundamental reason why other gases, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide or natural
gas, shouldnot be usedin lighteneddrilling fluids, If the liquid phaseis flamrnable,
i.e., crude oil or diesel, nitrogen may bepreferredoverair, forreasonsof safety.
Also, using air in lightened drilling fluids can createconditions downhole that are
ideal for corrosion of the drillsting and any exposed casing. Finally, gas can
dissolve in liquid; some more than others;for examplecarbondioxide in aqueous
liquids, or naturalgasin crudeoil.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
CH III DMLLING PRoDNosIS & aNDERBAI./IN1ED 207

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
208 CHIII DRILLING PR2DN2SIS& aNDERBALANoED

Because gasesare much more compressiblethan liquids, the liquid volume fraction
in a lightened drilling fluid will vary asthe drilling fluid is circulatedaroundthe
well. As pressureincreases,the liquid volume fraction and drilling fluid densitywill
also increase.This situationis further complicatedby formationfluids flowing into
the well. For example,when a water inflow occurri,the drilling fluid may be a mist
on its way down the drillstring but changeto a foam when it entersthe annulusand
picks up the additional water from the inflow. Calculafingcirculaiingpressuresis
critical.

3.2.3.3 Liquid Drilling Fluids

The formation pore fluid pressureoften exceedsthe hydrostatic prssureoffresh or

saline water at the same depth. In this environment,it is possible to drill
underbalancgdusing a liquid. It is not uncommon for conventional drilling
operationsto become underbalanced(un-intentionally)if the wellborepenetratesa
region ofhigher than anticipatedpore pressure.

In certain circumstances it is possible to achieveunderbalancedconditions even

though the drilling fluid has a density exceeding the pore pressuregradient. For
example, loss of drilling fluid into a low pressurezone canreducethe wellbore
pressure, allowing formation fluids to fl into the well from higher up the hole. I
inflowing fluids then reduce the drill fluid densityuntil circulatiortis regaineda
mixture of drilling and formation flu flows to the surface. This is the easein
Pearsall Field in Texas,which has seenof the most extensiveand successfulrecent
applications of underbalanceddrilling in United States

3.2.4.SurfaceSystems

Probably the key distinction betweenunderbalancedand conventionaldrilling

operationsis that additionalsurfaceequipmentis, requiredif a well is to drilled
underbalanced.This equipmentessentiallydiverts all returnflow awayfix the rig
producedhydrocarbonsfrom the drilling fluidinawaythat
floor and separates

Dr. M. S. Farahat ,.
 CH III DRILLING PRoolt,osls & UNDERBAL/INCED 209

allows them to be contained.In this way, underbalsnceddrilling can continue

safely once a permeableformafion is penetrated.

The complexity of the surface systemis influencedby the choice of drilling fluid
and the natureand quantity of formationfluids producedwhile drilling. In the case
of dry air drilling, with naturalgasas the only potentialinflow and no potentialfor
hydrogen sulfide, it is often sufficient to have the blooie line dischargeflared over
an open, earlhen pit in which the cuttingscollect.At the other extreme,a closerl,
multi-phase separator,used with a nitrified water drilling fluid, has to handle
cuttings, produced oil, producedgas,circulatingwater,andnitrogen.Such systems
allow oil to be collected for storage,gasto be flared,andwater to be re-cvcledto
the rig pumps.

Broadly, it is possible to characterizethe separationsystems as openor closed,

depending on whether or not the separationvesselsthemselvesare opento the
-aimosphere
or sealed. Closed separatorsarenot normally usedwith drilling fluids
containing air, in order to minimize any explosionhazard,whenhydrocarbonsare
encountered.conversely,a closed systemshouldbeusedifhydrogensulfidemay
be presentin the producedfluids.

In many instances, surface equipment incorporates an adjustable choke in the

drilling fluid return line, between the diverter and the separation system.Back
pressureon the well providessome degreeofcontroloverthewellborepressure,
independentlyfrom the drilling fluid dens and rheology. If this is to be done,a
rotating seal element in the stack is normally required, to provide sufficient pressure
bearing capacity to seal the backpressuregeneratedby the choke.This technique

where it may be necessaryto restricttheunderbalance pressure(differential)to a

few hundredpsi. In air or mist drilling, if back pressureis increased,annular
velocities are reduced and hole cleaning may be jeopardized.Applying a hack
pressurecanalsohelp to controlchangesin the lip volumefraction with depth.This
may requiredif a foamis to be maintainthroughouttheannulus.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
2t0 CH III DRJLLING PRoDN0SIS & UNDERBALANCED

3.2.5 Limitations to UnderhalancedDrilling

Along with their benefits, there are technical and economic limitations of
drilling. Carden,1993,reported that,intheUnitedStates,wellbore
underbalance
instability and water inflow were the two main masons terminating air drilling
operations. Other technical factors restricting underbalanced drilling include
do*nhole hres, directional drilllng difficulties, and excessive hydrocarbon
production. Various limitations on underbalanced
drilling outlinedbelow.

3.2.5.1 l{ellhore Instabilitv

As in conventional drilling, wellbore instability may arise from mechanical

chemical mechanisms.These may accentuated
by drilling underbalanceWhatever
the underlyjng mechanism, wellbore instability can result in the drillshing
becoming stuck downhole. Rock fragments,too large for the drilling fluid 1olift
from the hole, may fall, accumulateand stick the drillstring or the formationmay
swell or creep,reducingclearanceto the point wherethe string sticks.

In conventional,overbalanceddrilling operations,the excessofwellbore pressure

over the formafion pore pressureprovidessomedegreeofsupport at the borehole
wall. In underbalanceddrilling this support is missing; as the degree of
underbalanceis increased,so too does the tendencyfor wellbore instability. This
can put a lower limit on the wellbore pressure;below which it is effectively
impossible to drill. This limiting underbalance
pressureis principally influencedby

pressruesand the wellbore geometry. In general,it is normally only older, harder

and more competentformations that have sufficient strengthsto allow drilling with
dty air without wellbore instability problems. In some instances, mechanically
induced wellbore instability may be controlledby adoptinga drilling techniquethat
restricts the degree of underbalanceto less than the critical level. In other cases,
particularly in tectonically active areas,the wellbore may he inherentlyunstable
underany conditions.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH III DRTLLTNopRonlosts & INDERBAT,/INoED 2tl

Chemically-inducedwellbore instability can occur when drilling formationswith

significant amounts of water-sensitiveclays. These may be dehydratedwhen
drilling with a gaseousfluid. conversely,thesewater-sensitiveclays may absorb
water from an aqueousphasepresentin the well whenmist, foam or aeratedliquid
drilling fluids are used. In either case, the changein shalewater contentinduces
additional stressesIn the near-wellboreregion.Thesecan destabilizethe wellbore.
In principle. it is possibleto adjustthe activity of the aqueousphase;for example,
by the addition of suitable electrolytes,to match the exposedshaleand prevent
chemically inducedstresschanges.This canbe a challengingtask and complicating
factors,suchas variationsin the water inflow rate salinity, may renderit impossible.

3.2.5.2ll/aterInflows

Water inflow can impede underbalanceddrilling for severalreasons.Whe-ndrilling

with gas,formation water can moistenthe cuttingsdownhole,causingthem to stick
together and accumulateon the drillshing and on the boreholewall. This is most
likely to occur at the top of the drill collars, where the decreasein drillstring
diameter leadsto a suddendecreaseIn annularvelocity. This cuttingsaccumulation
is sometimescalled a mud ring If unchecked,a mud ring can grow to the point
where the shing is trapped.paradoxically,aiding water to the circulating fluid can
control the formation of mud rings, by saturatingthe cuttings and preventing them
from adhering to eachother.For this reason,it is normal to changefrom dry gasto
mist drilling when water inflow first occurs.

Metering in foaming agentcan allow relatively largewater inflows to be lifted from

the well. However, foam stability can he compromisedby salinewater inflows, or
water inflows can be encounteredthat aretoo rapid to be removedfrom the well,
even when circulating foam. In thesecircumstances,
the buildup of water in the well
can increase the circulating pressure to the point that the surface equipment s
pressure capacity is exceeded requiring a change in drilling fluid. However, the
major concernwhen large water inflows occuris economic;i.e., disposalcosts.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
2t2 CHIII DnIIuue pnoonosls & aNDERBAI,ANCED

water inflows may be further controlled by using an aerateddrilling fluid. Since

these fluids tend to have lower underbalancepressures (differential)than occur
when drilling with gas, mist or foam, the rate of water inflow will be reduced.
Producedwater mixes with the liquid phaseof the drilling fluid and is circulated
from the well. Inflow may, however, lead to difficulties in determiningthe air
injection raterequiredto maintaintargetwellborepressures.

There are some circumstancesin which it is possible to sealoffwater-bearing

zones, by pumping chemicals that penetratethe formation and react with one
anotheror with the formationwaterto form flow barriers.

3.2.5.3Downhole Fires

Downhole fires should perhapsmore properly be termed downholeexplosions.

arespectacular- the drill cgllarsandbit
They areinfrequentbut their consequences
can be melted or burnt away. For a fire to occur,the downholecompositionof the
hydrocarbonand air mixture hasto be in a flammablerange.Therealso hasto be an
ignition mechanism,such as a mud ring, downhole sparking, or a small hole or
washout in the drillstring. A mud ring can leadto ignition when it sealsthe annulus
and continued circulation causesthe pressureof the hydrocarbon-airmixture to
increaseto the point at which combustionignition occurs, much as it doesin a
diesel engine. Sparks can result downholefrom contactbeiweenthe drillstring and
hard mineralsin the boreholewall. circulating air, leakingthrougha small washout
in the drillstring, can causea local hot spotwith the potentialto ignite a combustible
hydrocarbon/airmixture.

Downhole fires can be avoidedby using a non-flammablecirculatingfluid. It may

not be practical to change from air to a nonflammable as, uch s itrogen, art
way through drilling a well. In that case,changingfrom dry air to mist drilling can
help by reducing the probability of forming mud. rings. Sincethe structureof a
stable foam made with air isolatesthe air in separatebubbles,the air in foam is not
normally available for combustion.This is one reasonwhy air foamsarewidely
used to extinguishhydrocarbonfires; usingthemin drilling fluid may well provide

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH III DRILLING PRoDNosIS& UMERBAL/INCED 213

a meansto avoid downholefires.

3.2.5.4 Directional Drilling Equipment

Difficulties with directional drilling equipment have caused some operarors

to
abandon underbalanceddrilling prior to undertaking directional work. The
issue
here is flit requirement for the hole to be surveyedfrequently,particularly
in the
case of horizontal wells. conventional, mud pulsetelemetryMeasurement
while
Drilling (MwD) tools cannot operate with the compressiblefluids often used
in,
underbalanceddrilling - the pressurepulsesthey generateto convey their signals
do
not propagate back to the surface with sufficient amplitude to be detectable.
Electomagnetic MWD systems do exist, but there are concerns about
their
reliability, although tool developmentis improving rapidly. wireline steering
tools
can be used. These have a hard-wiredconnecfionfrom the surveyinginstruments
dovrnhole back to the surface.They cannotbe left downhole if the drillstring
is to
be rotated,as is normally the case.The additionaltime taken to trip the steering
tool
in and out of the hole can makeunderbalanceddrilling unattractive.There
arewet
connect and carhidge wireline systemsthat allow the wireline tool to remain
in the
hole while rotating the drillstring, but they also result in some slowing
ofthe
drilling operation.

conventional downhole motorswere designedto operateon incompressible

fluids.
Their performance deteriorateswhen they are run with compressiblefluids,
They
tend to give high circulating pressuresthat can require additional compression
equipment in the circulating system.High levels of energystoredin the drillstring
can lead to disastrousoverspeedingof the motor, if the bit is pulled offbottom
without first venting the drillshing pressrue.Downhole motors have recently
been
(and are being) aeverbpeaspecifically'for'oi".utioo with comprer.iut"'n.ria,
capableof generatingpenetrationratesthat matchthosein rotary drilling.

3.2.5.5 ExcessiveHydrocarbonProduction

Well control concemsarefundamentallynot a limitation on underbalanced

drilling.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
214 CH III DRILLING PRoDN^SIS & UNDERBALANqED

Becausethe formation fluids are not preventedfrom flowing into the wellboreby
the drilling fluid, asthey arein conventionaldrilling, differentwell controlpractices
and procedures arerequired.Undermostcircumstances, suitablesurfaceequipment
call contain and control produced fluids while drilling underbalanced. High
hydrocarbonproductionrates and highpressuresaredesirablefromthepoint-of--
view of the long-term profitability or ther','ell.Theycan,however,prevent,or at
least complicate,some underbalanced drilling operations.
Thesurfaceequipment
should he able to safely handle themaximumateof production.it shouldalsobe
able to containthemaximumprobablesurfacepressure, which couldbe substantial.
If excessiveproduction ratesareencountered, theremaybe little alternativebut to
kill the well andswitchto overbalanced
drillins.

3.2.5.6 Economic Factors

While it m.aybe technicallypossibleto drill a well underbalanced,it may not

alwaysbe economical.Factorsthatcanpreventunderbalanced drilling from being
cost effective include large water inflows, goodpenehationratesor productivity
with conventionaldrilling techniques,andlocallogistics.

In many locations, environmentalrestrictions make producedwater disposal

expensive.with large water inflows, disposal costscannegateanyreductionsin
well costassociated
with underbalanceddrilling.

The increasedpenetrationatedueto drilling underbalanced

may not alwaysreduce
the drilling cost. If the penetrationratewith mud drilling is alreadyquite high, (for
example, 50 ft/hr or more) or if only a shortinterval is to be drilled underbalanced,
the total dri[ing time for that interval may not he decreasedsufFcientlyto pay for
the additional mobilization and daily costs associatedwith the underbalanced
drilling equipment.

Similarly, if the well productivity is high whendrilled conventionally,theremay be

little to he gained by drilling underbalanced. At the otherextreme,therearemany

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CE III DrutuNG pnoDNosrs& qNDERBALANzED 215

reservoirswhich have suchlow undamagedpermeabilitythat they would haveto be

stimulated by hydraulic fracturing even ir'drilledunderbalanced(presuminghigh
ROP when drilling conventionally).

Also, in some areas, it can be uneconomic to drill underbalancedif the required

equipment and materials, such as compressors,boosters,foaming agents,etc.,are
not available locally and the cost of their mobilization or transportexceedsthe
benefitsof drilling underbalanced.

Finally, this section introduced the different techniquesthat can be used to generate
underbalancedconditionswhile drilling. The benefitsof drilling underbalancedcan
be considerable, in terms of reduced drilling cost and increasedproductivity.
However, underbalanceddrilling is not suitable for all wells. It requiresspecial
equipment and procedures,not usedin conventionaldrilling operations.A number
of technical and economic factors limit the applicationof underbalanceddrilling.
Sometimes,the limitations seemto be very daunting.Ho*"u"t, it *ill oft"r, tum out
that the benefits outweigh the disadvantages.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
2t6 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS IYELI^'

CnaprBRfV
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4.1Introduction

The huge gasrecoverydiscoveredrecentlyin the offshoreEgyptianMediterranean

attracted many exploration companiesto startdrilling activitiesin this area.Thus,
drilling in the Mediterraneanoffshorearea (Fig.4.l) is surroundedwithmany
drilling qqoblgms_w_hichobstacle drilling progress an subsequentlyincrease
operationscosts.

The main source of drilling problems in Temsah area is the underlying

overpressurizedand sometimesoverstresses
marineshalewithin Plioceneare (Kafr
El SheikhFm.) which will be discussedlater in the Geologicalsection(Figure4.2).

That is due to the deep marine deposition model, and the associatedturbodite
sequences.Moreover the area was subjected to tectonicactivitiesin the Pliocene
age, which created a lot of faults and folds. Thoseactedas subsurfacepermeable
planes which overchargedsomenormalpressurizedinterval from deeperformation,
and overstressedsomeothers.This createda very complicatedsubsurfacepressure
gradientsregimein this interval (Fig. a.3).
;
In the other side the deltic model in Baltim areadevelopeda smooth pore pressure
developmentwith in the sameintervalbut the deepmarineinviroment in the lower
part of Mioccne (Todonian) created an ubrupt Increase of pore gradient which
could be consideredthe main sourceof drilling problemsin Baltim concession(Fig.
4.4).

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GAS WELI^g
217

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
218 CH IVDRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

To deal with such two main problems:

First a mean to improve overpressuredetectionand evaluationwhile drilling was

necessaryto enhance other drilling models Thereforethe applicationof PPFGin
conjunction with LWD was carriedout in most wells drilled in 1995,which proved
a good realability as compared with other models (Sigma & Dexp.) and was
confirmed with RFT results.

Second a Contingency plane was necessaryfor any Drilling Programmein Temsah

area, to be applied in case of any unexpectedOverpressureproblem. In which an
extra casing(ll3/4 in Liner/, is addedto the normal profile to enabledrilling rest of
well to total depth with commonhole size (8 l/2in) for productionpurposes(Fig.
4.3)

Third a new casing profile for Baltim wells was necessaryto reducedrilling costs
and to avoid suddengaskicks in the lower part of 8 l/2 inhole. The main concepts
of that new profile are l) Reductionof 20in surfacecasing2) Replacing17 l/2in
hole with l6in hole 3) Setting of 7in liner at bottom of Abu Madi massivesand
(main target) and drilling well to total depthwith 6 in hole if necessary

In addition drilling of directional wells increasedin the area due to drilling from
templates to improve drilling and production plaits unproperseabed conditions
(very deep or very soft seabed) andpresenceofshallow gases.Thereforefinding a
mean to minimize & reduce sliding intervals (Down Hole Motors time) was
necessary to cut down drilling costs. The Catenary Directional Technique was
applied in well Baltim East fA4Dirto reducedrilling costsand good approacheswere
achievedas will shown in CatenaryApplication section.

Finally for softer operation, easierhandling of 30in conductor pipes , more flixible
decision either for driving conductor pipes or drilling 36in hole , and to improve
cementing of Conductor Pipes the use of 30in XL Connections and Hydraulic
Hammer were necessary in orderto reducedrilling costsAlso the use of Posiclose

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS
IYELLS 2Ig

coring tools improvedthe recoveryof very

fine and loss sand ofhydrocarbon
subsurfacereservoirs.

4.2 GeologyOverpressureSoarcesof the Area

4.2.1GeneralGeologt

The Mediterranean basin is characteristics

with two main depositional
environments,DeepMarine andDelfic environment.

4'2'1'1 Temsahconcessionis laying in the Deep

Mann basin, andthe general
lithologicalcolumnis shownin (Fig.4.2).

4'2'1'2 Baltim concessionis laying in the Deltic

environmentareaof the river Nile
Delta& the generallitlologicalcolumnis shown (Fig.
in 4.2)

- nt: OverpressureSources

Most possiblecausesof abnormalpressuresappears

to result from interaction
betweenthe followingeffects:

l. Pressureseal
2. Compaction
3. Tectonic
4. Diagenetic
5. Temperature
6. Fluid migration
7. Fluid density

The abnonnalpressureconditionsin Mediterranean

areais mainly resultedfrom the
interactionbetweentheCompactionand,Tectonrceffects

Dr. M. S, Farahat
220 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GASWELLS

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELIS
221

4.2.2.1Compaction

The clay-based marine sediments associatedwith turbodite sequences

in the
Mediterranean Basin is the main reason for overpressurein the area.
Its an ideal
model for acting the Compaction Effects, where the rate of burial
exceedsthe rate
of fluids expulsion.

4.2.2.2Tectonics

The Mediterraneanbasin had subjectedto a very activetectonicsduringpliocene

andMioceneages(Fig. 4.5)where:

Tectonic stre.rsesbuild faster than the rate of fluid expulsionandresulted

in an
unexpectedfluid overpressure in somesandlenseswithin Kafr El sheikhformation
A'lso during overthrust events, rapid roading of underrying sediments
by
impermeable coverresultedin very severeoverpressure conditions.

Faults and Fractures.' Normal Faults tend to 6e openandmakeeffective

drains
which allow charging of normalpressureintervalsfrom abnormalpressure
deeper
intervals.

Tectonic st/essesresulted in a severestuckpipe in the fracfuredoverstressed

shale
within top of Miocenein well Temsah#5.

In Temsahareq thecompactionandtectoniceffectsinteractedtogetherand
created
a very complicatedand unexpectedpressureregimeswithin the pliocene
&
Mioceneintervals.-

Fig.4.3 showspressureregimesof three wells two of then,drilled from the

same
templatebut they havecompletelydifferentpressureregimesThereforeconfingency
planswerenecessary

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 222 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS IYELLS

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IVDRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GAS
II'ELI.S 223

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Dn M. S. Farahat
224 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

In Baltim area the subsurface pressure regime is common for all wells drilled in
this concessiondue to the Deltic environmentduring the Plioceneage. But in the
most lower part of Miocene(Qwasim& Sidi Salim Fm.) an abruptand tremendous
increase in pore pressureis experienceddueto the compaction& tectoniceffectsof
the- deepmarine environment during the Tortonian stage.Which required real-time
overpressuredetection tool (PP/PC), and new settingdepthforproductionstring
(new casingprofile) (Fig. a.q.

4.3 1995Elforts

The efforts done during1995by LE.O.C.teamcorrldbe subdividedinto two main

directions,.,frsf Programmingmodificationsand its relevantapplications
second
newdrilling tools& techniquesapplications.

1.3.1 Progriiming Moiift cations

As meirtioned previously the Mediterranean Offshore area has two different

Programming models for Temsah & Baltim wells due to the variation of
depositionalenvironments(Deltic, deepmarine)and subsequentlythe over-pressure
developmentsregimes

4.3.1.1 Programming ModiJication in Temsah Concession

The improvements & modifications of casing profile and design in the Temsah
concession, was mainly carriedout in the Plioceneinterval.This modificationswas
carried out It, order to match the unexpected & abrupt increasein pore pressure
against the fracture gradient at the zurfacecasing shoe.Which reducethe Allowable
Choke Margin to the minimum limits required to drill the intermediateinterval
safely down to the top of major overpressureinterval.

Dr. M. S, Fqrahat
CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GAS WELLS 225

Dr. M. S. Farahat
226 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

Eventually due to the very complicated pore pressure gradient regime in the
Pliocene interval it was decided to prepare a contingencyplan with any drilling
programme in this concession.In the Contingencyprogamme an 11 3l4inliner is
designed to be set between the two intermediatesstring 13 3i8in & 9 5i8in (Fig.
4.3).
l

4,3.12 Contingenqt Plan !

The conventionalCasing Design & Setting.Depthsin the area is basedon the

CommonPressure GradientProfileof the area
l

In the conventional design the 20in shoe was set @ top Kafr Et Sheikh shale,to
obtain a sufficient Fracture Gradient of +/- 1.6 s.g EMW. That value permits
drilling the. first intermediate,hole(17 ll2in) safely as deepaspossiblein the major
overpressuredevelopment interval. Settingof l3 3/8in casing(lst intermediate)at
that depth gives a Fracture Gradient more than 1.9 s.g.,which can handlea mud
weight of around I .85 s.g., Suchheigh mud weight shouldbe sufficient to crossthe
Evaporite of Rosetta Fm In Rosetta Fm. a pore gradientof more than 1.8 s.g. is
expected, due to the presencepossibilitiesof overstressed
shaleintervals(Fig.a.3).

The Common Pressure Gradients ProJile of the area was driven from the
correlation between drilling models (Dexp. & Sigma), drilling events (Kicks,
Losses, Tight Hole etc..) , and confirmedwith LOT, SonicREF logs & DST data
@ig.a.6).
uncommonpressureregimewas appeared
in Temsah
# 5 well whichexhibitan
uncommon increase in pressure within bottom Kafr El Sheik!, and Rosetta
evaporitesdue to overstressedformation (tectoniceffects).
Recently the seismic interpretation showed a new pressure regime in the area
which will be mentioned in this chapter as Contingenq, pressurc Gradients Profilc
That regime had beenprovedby a Kick, was taken@ 2240m while drilling a well
in the area , and showeda suddenincreasein the pore pressuregradientfrom l.44
to 1.67 s.g. , within mid of Kafr El SheikhFm. (Fig.4.7)

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CITIVDRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELI.S
227

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228 CE IV DRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GAS WELLS

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLEAON OF GAS WELLS
229

Taking in considerationthe different regimesa contingency plane was necessary

to
be prepared, and to be attachedto the Drilling programmeof any well in Temsah
atea.

4.4 CaseHistory of ContingencyPlan! - :i ' ," i '

Here below an examplefor programming

andapplicationofcontingencyplanin
TemsahNorthWest#.

The contingency Plan attachedto the Drilling programme after the normal_16
Operation Seqaence section.

contingency Plan wasincludedundertwo main subjectsconditions & operation

Se[uence.

4.4.1 Conditions
lVhile drilling 16

If the drilling models (Sigma, Dexp & pp/FG) andDrilling Events(mud gases
&
fight hole problems) show a continuousdrasticincreasesof the pore Gradients
to
exceed l'45 s.g' EMW before reaching 2400w, whichrequiredaminimummud
weight of 1.5 s.g.to control the formationpressure(Minimum overbalanceallowed
is 05 s.g. EMW) the Contingencyprogrammewill be applied(Fig. a.S).

4.4.2 Operational Sequen ces

The well remsah North west # l was drilled asper normal prograrnme:

* 36 in holeto 210m (30 cP @ 116M).

* 26 in hole to 1289m (20 Csg.@1278m).
't' 16 in hole drilled down to 1953m whereDrilling
Models (Sigma,Dexp &

Dr. M. S. Farahat
230 CH IVDRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS IYELLS

PPFG) mud gas, and hole conditionsindicatedsharpincreaseof PoreGradient

(1.2 s.g.to 1.4sg.) was confirmedafterwith RFT. At this point the mud weight
was increasedto 1.45s.g.(LOT @20in shoe1.62s.g.EMW), 13 3/8in casing
was set & cemented@ 1938m and the CONTINCENCY PLAN wasappliedas
follows:

* 13 l /2in lirir- to 2654m (ll 3/ 4 liner @ 2653m).

..'.Ran 12 ll4ln bit, cleanedinside casing.Drilled out shoe& rat hole. Drilled 10
m of new formation.
* Ran 2 ll4 * 13 ll2in BICENTERbit& open13 ll2inhole down to2654m
(casing point) with average8mftr which is betterthan normal PDC performance
in this interval.
.!. The caliperlog showedthe last 150m undergaged(12 l/4in) dueto very hard
and abrasive sandstone,which is difficult even for normal PDC application.
Therefore somemodificationswere suggestedby IEOC engineersin behalfwith
the Bicenter supplier, which will be discussedin BICENTER APPLICATION
later in this paper.
.!. Underreamedthe hole with 14 3/4in Undereamer (Av. ROP lm/hr) in l0
days, which showedvery poor progressand short life ofthe tool.
.3.Finally ran & cementedI 13/4incasing 2653m(ll 3l4in- 65 lbs/ft - Pl 10
@
furnished with NJO tlush connectiozto ablerunning of 9 5/8in casingthrough
ll3l4in liner & to passll 3I4in Csg.in 12 1/4 hole with suificientclearance).

* 12 ll4in hole to 3216m (9 5/8incasing@ 321lm)

{. CleanedTOL with 12 ll4inblt.
.f. Cleanedinside casingwith l0 5/8in bit & Drilled 6m of new formation.
* Drilled 12 ll4in hole with l0 5/8 X 12 l/4in BICENTER bit to 3216m
(Av.ROP l3m/hr) which is similar to normal PDC performancein this interval.
.!. Ran & cemented9 5/8incasing@ 32ll m 9 5/8in Csg.-Pl10- 53.5lbs/ft-the
lower part of casing was furnished with NJO flush connection to passthrough
ll.3/4in liner with sufficient clearance).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IVDRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS
231

0o

,t
i:

(t)
(n

F
H
v)

Dn M. S. Faralnt
234 CH IV DNLLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

programming modification result. Here in below the most effective application

which havebeencarried ottby IEOC during 995 in the areawill be submitted.

4,6.1CatenaryDirectionalApplication '

The trendto drill directionalwells in the areawas increaseddue to the following:

* Installation of templates from which several adjacentwells to be drilled in

orderto improve exploration& developmentplansin the area.
Very soft seabed directly abovetarget'
Shallowgasesdirectly abovetarget.

Therefore introducing a new directional techniques was necessarvas a trial to

reducedirectionalcosts.

Catenary curve is the natural shape that cable, chain or other lines ofuniform
weight assumewhen suspendedbetweentwo points'

The beneJitsof the CatenaryproJile could be summarizedin the following points:

* Reduction of directional drilling costs asa directresult ofreducing Sliding

intervalsalongthe well trajectory(lessDown Hole Motors Time).
* Reductionoftorque requiredto rctatepipe and subsequentlycasingwear.
* Catenaryprofiles alleviateskey seatanddifferentialsticking problems.

Catenary application is limited with single or narrow targetsrelatively deepand

required relatively wide displacementfrom surfacelocation.Theselimitations are
necessaryto haveenoughtolerancefor the stringto follow its naturalshapebetween
two points (surface& targetlocations)with continuoussmoothbuild up'

Becauseof these limitations theCatenaryapplicationdid not meetthe exploration

requirements in any of the wells drilled after this trial. But it could be very
beneficial for future activities in Baltim concessiondevelopmentwhere the above

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CE IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS
235

mentionedlimitations are existing.

4.7 Catenaryapplication in Baltim East 4

As well Baltim East# 4 met the previouslymentionedcatenary

curve limitations. It
was worth to carry on with a trial for the purposeof reducing
sliding interval and
hole problems.

A significant cost reduction was achieved, and will be demerstrated

later in this
section.

Fig' 4.llcompares conventionalProgrammeof well Baltim

East# 4with the actual
Catenary trajectory of the well The goal is to drill from
surface point X to
horizontally displacedsubsurfacepoint C.

using conventional approacftes,boreholebetweenpoints

A and B is programmed
to 6e drilled with constantlychangingdeflectionor inclination
anglesalong a radius
of curvature. Inclination angle between points B and c is
held as consranras
possible. where Pipe will lay againstlow side of the
boreholefrom B to c, but will
tend to be pulled into the upper sideof the horebetweenA
andB, which meansthat
if differential sticking occurs, upward pull to free pipe
must overcomepressure
differential and frictional force createdwhen pipe is pulled into
keyseats.

The actuul catenary profite showed that when tension pulled

is on drill strings
approximating a catenary curve, the pipe tends to move away
from the borehole
wall and becomesuspendedin the hole, which resulted
in a significantreductionin
drilling torque and consequentlyreductionin wear.

Reduced torque and drag allow for greater weight onbitforincreasedRopand

fewer stabswas needed. I
I
L

Primarily in catenary application the most important difference was

the angle
reducedat surfaceand increasednearto Bottom wherethereis the least
tension. il
ti
Il i
ti
I

Dr. M. S. Farahat I
I
238 CH IVDRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GAS IYELLS

The Conventionalproftle in this casewas as follows:

Kick off @ 600m with 2.5 deg./30m B.U.R. to reacha final build of 31,75 deg@
975mm
Hold sectionwill be drilled down to target@ 3630 m.
The CatenaryproJile for the sametarget,which was actuallyimplemented, kicked
off @ 600 m with I deg/30m and continuousbuild to targetreachinga maximum
angleof5 deg.

4.7.1Evaluation

The Catenary profile has resulted in a great improvement in the overall cost of the
well as shown in the next fizures:

A total interval of 3706m was drilled in a total of 400 hours.An interval of 453m
was steeied with m;tor (slide drilling) in 77 hours l3%oof the total drilling time
(total motor time 102 lT s25%oof the total drilling time).

Comparing with the averageof the offset wells which used conventional profile:
A 400Gm well to be kicked off @250 m , and drilled directionallyto a maximum
angleof45 averagelyrequired:

Total Drilling Time: 650 hrs : ii

Sliding Time lsOhrs (23%o)
Sliding Interval 800 m (20%o)
Total Motor Time 350fus (53o/o)

Eventually from this two figures the motor & sliding time was reducedby 50% as
well the sliding interval was reducedby 50% againstthe conventionalmodel, which
reflecteda betterhole condition.

4.7.2Comments

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CE IV DRILLING & COMPLETIONOF GAS TYELI^'
239

It found that Excellent mud carrying and cleaningcapacitiesand Expert

personnel
familiar with catenaryapplicationwas necessaryto havethe best results.
Therefore
the significant tight hole and orientation problems encountered
during the
application could be countedto shortsin thesetwo factors,(relafively poor
cleaning
capacity of oil BaseMud & undesiredbuild up at the uppersection)
but they could
be easily adaptedfor future applicationby improving mud rheology
and calling the
very specialists.

4.8 Bicenter Technique to OvercizeHoIe under Casings

contingencyprogrammeapplicationwas basedon theuseof 143/4i

n & 12 1/2in
Underreamers to open oversizedhole for rl 3l4inliner & 9 5/gincasing.But
the
previous experienceof IEoc in the area,to open 17 rl2in
hole using 22 in
Underreamerexperienced manyproblemssuchaslosingpartsof underreamers and
poor progress in addition to the worldwide successof
using Bicenterbits
encoura[edthelGa br replacingUnderreamers with Bicenterbits. Speciallythat
this techniquehasbeenusedrecentlyandsuccessfulyby Agip it, many
of its world
wide concession.

4.8.1 Introduction to Bicenter theorv

The advantages of usinga BicenterpDC bit arethata largerholecanbe drilledthan

the internal diameterof the previous casingstringit is onepiece
tool (no risk for
loosingparts)andfurthermoreits drilling rateis compatibleto normalpDC hits.

The Bicenterdesign consistsof a pilot bit ttratsimilarto a conventional pDC bit

with a reamersectionthathasall thecuttersmovedto oneside(Fig.a.
r l ).

Bicenter bits were developedapproximately20 years ago but haveseen

rimited
applicationsbecauseof severalproblemsthat have stemmedfrom their
unusrral
geometry,suchas

Dr. M. S. Farahat
240 CH IYDRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

ry A.tt
- '. :9':.!i:

,, i. .'1
l

:i ,-.:i .:
r-

:G

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS IYELLS 24I

l. Drilling smallerhole thanexpected;

2. ExcessiveReamerscutterwear;
3. Poordirectionalcharacteristics:

The sourceof thoseproblemsarebit instability andseverebit whirling Recentlythe

great improvementsof bit designsalong with body and cuttersmetallurgy overcome
for wide range the first two problems. Moreoverthe introductionof Penetration
Limiters like Shaped Cutter , Reverse Gullet greatly improved bit stability and
Now a new generationof steerable.
directionalcharacteristics Bicenterhadbeen
developedand succeeded
to drill heighangleandhorizontalwells.

N.B. The Bicenterbits are normally recognizedwith threeDimensions.Over sized

hole diameterX Path throuehdiameterX Pilot bit diameter.

l.t.t.t Bicenterapphcationin well TemsahNorth lAest# I

The 13 1/2in oversizedhole was drilled successfullywith 13 1/2in X 12 1/4in X I

3/4in Bicentetbit typeSCI9BC from 1955mto 2654m at averageROP of 10mAr.
Moreover the bit did not show any tendency to walk. But unfortunatelythe last
150m, had been indicatedby logscaliperto have 12 l/4in. Passthroughdiameter
only. It believed that the reasonfor this malfunctioncould be countedto the very
hard sand intervals which were encounteredwhile drilling this interval and
subsequentlycaused excessivewear on the reamerssection.In addition the PDC
application in this type of formation showedin the offset wells a bad performance .
in the sameinterval.

The interval was underreamedwith underreamersin 13 daysat averageROP of 1-2

m/hr showing a bad performancein comparisonto the Bicenterperformanceand
then I I 3/4in liner was run to bottom without problem.

Therefore it was decided to apply somemodificationson the Biceneterbit usedto

better stand the expected hard formation in the future trials. Thesemodifications

Dr, M. S. Farahat
242 CH IV DR]LLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

are:

.1. Enlarging Pilot Bit size to 9 5/8in instead of 8 3/4in to eliminate

drilline
stressesin the reamersection.
.1. Increasingnumberof bladeson the reamersection.
{. IncreasingPDC cutterson reamer& pilot bit sections.

The 12 1/4in oversizedhole was drilled successfullythroughthe I I 3/4in liner from

2650m to 3216m using 12 ll4in X 10 5/8inX 11 3/4in Biceneterbit typesr4sBC.
A perfecthole size 12 l4in was provedby caliperlog and the 9 5/8in casingwas run
to total depthwithout problem.

4.8.1.2Evaluation

The use of Bicenterbits to open 13 llz &12 l/4inoversizedholeshelpedsave

significantJosts on this Temsahwell. Not only hasunderreamingbeeneliminated
but theoverallrateofpenetrationhasbeensignificantlyincreased
to +1- l3 in/hr.

4.9Real -Time PP/FG Applicationin Conjunctionll/ith LllD

The very complicatedPore Pressureregimein the areaaspreviouslymentionedwas

the main factor which encouragedthe idea of introducinga new real-timemodel in
order to enhanceother Drilling Models (Sigma& Dexp.) results.The recentuse of
Logging while Drilling (LwD) tool in the area,provided a real-timepetrophysical
data recording(Resistivity , GammaRay & Density log). petrophysicaldata are the
basis for the Real-Time PP/PG model calculations.According to this conceptthe
PP/PG introduced to the operationin this areaand proveda good resultsas will be
discussedlater in this section.

4.9.I Introduction to Real-Time PP/F G

Pore pressure and fracture gradient are the two natural limits which exert the

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS IYELI^S
243
greatestinfluenceon drilling costsandsafety.Traditionalpore
pressuremethodsare
limited to one lithologytype(shale)andreryon empiricalpetrophysical
or drillins
datavs. depthtrendline (Fig. 4.12).

A new technique is described which quantifies the effective

stresslaw (p (pore
pressure) : s - o' where s overburdenis the integrated
bulk density,ou Fractureis
the vertical stress ). The method uses petrophysicaldata
and mineralogicstress-
strain relationship to calculatepore pressureand fracturegradient
as a log through
all sedimentaryrock types.

The PorePressureand FractureGradientevaluationtool is a

softwaremodel. which
calculatespressureon an incrementalbasisusing petrophysical
data.

In a new area the Model requirescalibrationto know pressure

in offset wells for
best accuracy in a real-time applications. For this appricafions
overburden and
fraoture pressurescan be directly calibrated to leak offtests pore
pressurecun be
calibrated to wireline formation tester (RET) and other well
responsessuchas
connectiongassloughing shale,kicks DST data.etc..

4-9.2casehistoryof Real-timepp/FG appricationin oneof rEoc

weils

IEoc decidedto use the pp/FG serviceon line with LWD

to calculatepore pressure
throughKafr El SheikhAbu Madi & Sidi Saliin formafion.

In this report will describethe applicationof the pp/FG

model to determine
formationpressurein the 16in, 8 l/2 in & 6 in openholesection
of oneof IEOC
well in Teinsahconcession.

All previouswells were analyzed.toprovidecalibrationfor theuseof pp/pG in this

well. Petrophysicaldata sets and formation pressureinformation (RET
& Lor)
weresupplied.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

".1
{'
A;

O:E
o.q
11 ,

Dr. M. S. Faraltat
 CH IV DRILLING & CoMPLETI,I\T oF GAs
II/ELLy 245

Data quality

The quality of petrophysical input

data (gamma, resistivity and densiry)
is very
important' Thereforea generalobservation
for eachsensoris necessarv.

Gamma:

sometime the gamma ray arcnot an

accuraterepresentationof the lithology,
in such
casethe operatorcan adjustthe baserine
to bettermatchInterpretedlithology.

Resistivitlt:

Porosity derived from resistivity

in hydrocarbonbearingzonesis invalid
and
densifydatamust be usedto deriveporosity.
...
Bulk Densitv:

In young unconsolidatedshales, drilling

fluid and hole washoutscan reducethe
measuredbulk density becauseDensify
sensorshaveonly a very shallow depth
investigation. of

4.9.3 Evaluation

Pore Pressure & Fracture gradientspore

pressure& Fracture gradients calculated
from PP/FG model proved a good
reliability when comparedwith *.T and
LOT
dataa shownin the following tables:

Dr. M. S, Farahat
248 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS WELLS

4.1030 in XLS Connections

The xLS connection was used by IEoc, becauseof its economicalcompetitive

versus welding and, weld on Squench connectorsfor 30 in cond. pipes for the
followingreasons:

.3. Eliminatesfield welding.

* Eliminatesrig floor handlingproblems,and washingof bad eyes.
* Eliminatesalignmentinspectionof connectors.
{. Eliminatesweld inspectionfor connectors.
.t Eliminatespipe lossupon retrieval.

Evaluation: . ",. :,'

For 9 joints of 30 in X I in (109m length)with makeuptime 10-15minutes/joint

versus2.5-3hrs/jointwelding,this savedapproximately
25,500USD.

System(SecondGeneration)
4.11PosictoserM

The Posiclose coring systemis designedespeciallyfor successfulcoring and core

recovery in un-consolidated,soft, or friable formationsthat was not possibleusine
standardtechniques.

The technique is achieved by using a hydraulically activated,mechanicallyfull

closurecore barrel assemblv.

The system was successfullyused 'rdth the [Eoc in recovering10.5m of friable

sand.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH IV DRILLING & COMPLETION
OF GAS IYELLS
249
4.12 I99S Drilting performance

Although the programmingmodification

andnewtechniques applicationofIEoc
during 1gg5 lwere having many shortcomingsduring
field apprications its
advantageshelpedto achievethedesiredtargets
to an acceptablelevel.

Improving drilling performancefor

zubsequent
reducfionof operationalcostis the
brighttargetforanyeffortsbeingdoneintheoilIndustry.

In the following brief discussion

will summarized,theresults of IEocs
duringl995,andwillshowtheoperationbenefitsobtained. efforts

During 1995 IEoc achieveda significant

improvementin dri'ingperformance
which reflecteda better drilling costs
againstrggr-rgg4period.Theperformance
comparisonwill be focusedagainst
theyear1994.

In 1995 IEoc drilled a totar of

38206m (offshore)in 871driring
days,with an
averageprogressof 66 meters/day(25
%omore than 1gg4), whichreflected
average
costpermeterof 1396S (13 % less an
than1994).

The 1995 drilling performancesimprovement

is demonstrated
in the folrowing
Table4.4andFigure4.14.

Table 4.4: Drilling activityperformance

lgg4_Iggs

Activity ll/ell Drg Drg Difl Drg rate Drg rate

Depth,
Diffr
Cost94 Cost95 % 94 95 %
m
Baltim 3800 1369 rt49 -l6.l 59.1 72.6 23.0
Temsah 4200 l8l2 t644 -9.3 46.8 60.1 28.3

Dn M. S. Farahat
250 CH IVDRILLING & COMPLETION OF GAS VELLS

!*
(i ;
a

-t
:l t
i(.,t
I
^i
b
a-:

ei
EI
tl

e.t
c)5
-,s

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING IIORIZONTAL ,YELLS
251

Cnaprrn V
Tncrnror,ocyFoRDnrr,r,rmc
.q.Ivo
ConTpLETING
HORIZONTAL, EXTENDED- REACH WELLS

5.1 Lateral Drilling: A new application showspromise

5.1.1Initial Drilling Operations

Four vertical wells were initially drilled in a star pattern(Fig.5.l)downtothe

Leopold charles coal scams ranging in depth roin2,g20 to 2,g40 ft (Fig5.2
, 5.3).
Planscalled for them to be gasifiedin the first part of the experiment.

-- - -Fifst attempts at linking

two of the, vertical wells by creatinga channelusing the
reverse combustion method were however,unsuccessfulprimarily due to the
high
lithostaticpressure,which led to a closureof flow pathsin the coal seam.Therefore,
it became evident that the link must lie mademechanicallyand the short
radius
deviatedlateraldrilling techniquewas chosen.

Alter careful study cu the geologicalsituationandthetechnicalconditionsofthe

vertical wells (which were partly damagedby lie previous experiments),
it was
decided to start the lateraldrainholefrom the bottom of the Thuhin 1 well, toward
Thulin 2 (Fig. 5.4) Becauseof the general lack of experiencein drainholedrilling
in coal, difficulties in maintaining accurateazimuth control were anticipated.
Therefore, a target one or he rainhole as hosen etween hulin 2 and rhulin
3 (seeFig. 5.4 plan view). The final connectionwith oneof the vertical wells could
then be made by sidetracking either the Thulin 2 or Thulin 3 well.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
252 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELI^'

I
-gt
I

)3:

D'1111u51r31s6
rl^ is lhe well spacingptantor the I hutinverticattest
.rerlsthat showsthoirrelationship basedon 115.1tcenters.

2.640

2,670

2,700

2,7&

2,760

2,790

2,8N

2,UO

2,670

2,7@

sj z.zso
o
2,7@

2.790

2,Am

2.850

.eopoldCharlesseams(2, 3,4, 5 and 6) and variousfauits.Vertical

wells 3 and 4 also indicated.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
cH v DRILLTNGAND COMPLETINGHORTZONTALWELLS 253

Inic{ionnell
Crhulin1) Productionwell

I Thuljn2
Ta.gelw6ll
i
l--- Assumedside lrack
landing point

Assumedcourseol lhe drainhole

\
\ I
\\ \
\l
\l
Thulin3
Subsidiarytargetwetl
N

tlg_-;-lPlans called lor the drainholeto be ticked ofi nearthe bottom

or,Inutrn1 andlalerallydrilledto a targetzonebetweenwells2 and 3
wnereI coutdbe Inlercepted by a sidetracklrom eitherwell.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
254 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETINGHORIZONTAL IYELLS

From previous overhauling and fishing operation on Thulin l, some experiencewas

gained conceming necessarydrilling mud quality to stability the boreholewalls.
The traditional bentoniticmud (density8.6 ppg) was unableto adequatelystabilize
the wellbore for more than two hours,as coal and stabilizethe wellbore for more
than well house, as off bottom after24 hoursled to plugging time (Fig. 5.5). The
same mud, but with higher density(8.9 ppg) gavemore satisfactorystability of the
coal-bearingformationsfor a longer period of time.

5.12 Drainhole Drilling Operations

Eastnan whipstock of Houston was contracted to conduct he ateral rainhole

segment.The rig company smet used an Ideco Dual Ramble rig equipped(for
drainhole purpose)with a Bash Ross65-tonpower swivel. IDGS ensuredcontrol of
the operatioywith the help of the Facultepolytechniqueof Mons.

Thulin I was hen prepared in order to setthe packer-whipstockunit, which was

necessaryto deviate the well (Fig.5.6).orientation of the whipstock-packersetting
unit was controlled with a Sigmagyro-surveyingsystem.The variousbottomhole
assemblieswere connectedto the drillstring (including bout 980 ft of drill collars)
and were driven from the surfaceby the power swivel. The first I .5 ft of drainhole
(starting hole) were drilled from the kick-offpoint with a conicaltool designedor
deepdrilling and rock mechanics.

The curved portion of the drainhole(with a curvatureradius of 4l ft) was drilled

with a bottomholeassemblyincluding a 6-in, rock bit, drill guide and flexible drive
pipes. Rate of penetrationwas relatively low, with the first few Feetdrilled at about
I ft/h. A low weight was appliedto the hit (2000 lb) and swivel speedwas 50 rpm
or less.The well was also reamedperiodically to ensurea competentwellbore.

Three direction surveys weretaken;thefirstafter40ftofdrilling,thesecondafter

54 ft and the third after 65 ft of drilling(endofthecurvedsection).Thesurvey
downhole assemblyconsistedof a magneticmultishot devicesetinto a nonmagnetic

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELI^S 255

steel barrel and pushe.lby aluminumdrive lilies. Rotation andmud circulation

while goingin theholewith thetool werealsofeasible.

The initial survey indicateda properrate of curvature,with a radiusof about42 but

azimuth was about 20 too much to the south. (The second and third surveys
measurementswere used mainly to control inclination andto determinea starting
point ofthe straight lateraldrilling operation).

Following the first suryey, some difficulties aroseduring insertionof the drilling
tool. Evidently the hole has been somewhat squeezedbelow the Kop as each
survey took 14 to 16 hours to complete(includingtripping-outthedrillingtool,
tripping-in the survey tool, andpulling out the surveytool andreplacingthe drilling
tool). Becauseof the Swelling formation,the hole routinely overhauledby reaming,
sing the roller hit directly connectedto the drive pipes.After he econd urvey he
precautionof rearmingthe hole was alsotakenbeforegoing on with drilling.

since RoD was low during lie first portion of the well cuttingsexaminationgavea
good indication ofthe penetratedstrata.

The first component of the lateral section also presentedthe opportunity of making
trial azimuth correct ions. composition of the downhole assembly used in
attemptingthesecorrectionswas as follows:

{. 6-in roller bit.

{. A variable anglebent-sub.
{' Nonrotatingflexible drive pipe. i
{. One guide pipe (nonrotating, bending only in one direction).
{. Drive pipes

5.2HorizontalDrilling Useon the Rise:why and Now

productiontrendsamongU.S.wells
SPURREDBY ECONOMIC considerations.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELI.S

will undoubtedlyundergochangeduring the next decade,one ofthese changeswill

be the usageof horizontalholesto depletea wider rangeof reservoirs.

This trend is already on the rise. in 1987,upwardsof35 short-radiushorizontal

wells and 28 medium-radiushorizontalwells were drilled in North America.These
numbers far exceeded1986 applicationsofhorizontal drilling and it is anticipated
that thesefigureswill increaselogarithmicallyin futureyears,dueto the production
successes
occurringin thesewells.

while horizontaldrilling is now a well-established

technologyfor vastly improving
production from almost any type of reservoir, the technology is undergoing
dramatic changes.Further, properlyapplyingthis technologyis neverthe samefor
any two wells. Therefore, careful considerationof appropriate ites,planningand
well designmust be undertaken.The following text will offer guidelinesfor eachof
theseareas.

5.2J Why horizontal drilling

Well for well horizontal drilling is typically, initially more expensiveandmore

difficult than conventionalvertical echniques,o hy hould n perator onsider
it? Achieving the following II resultsclearly depictswhy:

Azimuth correction began at 2 853 ft and gurdedto the left (North) and slightly
upward.

With this assembly,drilling continued to2 887ft wherea directionalsurvey(the

fourth) wasmade.During this segmentof the well (aswell as during the last part of
the curved section) gasinflux andswellingcoalpresenteddifficulfies that affected
mud quality and finally causedthe drilling tool to stick. Mud densitywas therefore
increasedfrom 9.0 to 10.9ppg to alleviatethe problems.

Seriousproblemsalso arosewhenit was erroneouslythoughtthat azimuthhad been

corrected and drilling was therefore continued with the lateral drilling downhole

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS )<1

assembly-
consistingof:

t 6-in,roller bit
* Nonrotatingstabilizer
* Drivepipes.

In this situation (and due to the repeatedpull up and push down maneuversplus the
low mechanical strength of the coal), the hole diameterhad increasedwherethe
azimuth was changed,causingmore gasand coal inrush.As drilling reacheda depth
of 2,891ft, the downholetools finally werenearthe point of total blockage.

At this point it was hard to pull the string from the hole and upon doing so, it was
fount that the nonrotatingstabilizerwas severelydamaged.Sincestabilizationof the
lateral hole was not possibleespeciallywit hi the startingcondition of a washedout
and enlarged section, it was decided to use a very simple bottomholeassembly
consisting of a bit connected directly to the drive pipes. This resultedin
abandonment of the azimuth correction attempt hut allowed the trajectory
establishedby the curvedportion of the hole to be followed hr directionalstability.

In order to drill the last well sectionactuallyinsidethe coal seam,a dragbit was
substituted for the rock bit as it was more appropriate for in-seam (frilling
operations.Furthermore,the much densitywas increasedto 12.6ppg.

Drilling was resumedandbottom found at 2,873 ft. This and the fifth surveymade
at 2,879 ft indicated that the previoushole had collapsedtotally in this section.A
sixth surveywas madeit a thdlled depthif 2,902 ft.

Drilling continuedwith a bottomholeassemblythat includea stabilizerand drilling

finally progressedto 2,928 ft wheresticking problemsduring the last few feet of the
operation led to a decisionto pull the assemblyout of the hole. After examiningthe
diameter of the drag bit, it was found that wear had reducedit to a size smaller than
that of the stabilizer The next trip in was thus made without stabilizer.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 2s8 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

During a 3-ft-interval at 2,931 ft Rop slowedand shaleand calcitewere

found in
the cuttings. Since it was very likely that the drainholehad crosseda fault
zone
(which was predictedin the area),it was deemednot worthwhile to go on
with time
drilling operation. thus, alter a final survey(seventh)arid after a checktrip with
a
flexible string,the drainholeoperationwas terminated.

Results achieved are shown in Fig.5.7, which illushates the trajectory of

the
drainholein a plan view. The total lengthof the drainholefrom Kop to TD was
129
ft with 104 ft of that distanceactuallyinsidethe coal seam.

{' Natural vertical fractures often can be penetrated through planned well
orientationto maximizepermeabilityandenhanceproduction(Fig. 5.g).
* Invasion of unwantedreservoirfluids dueto coningmay be conholled Fig.
5.9).
{' Four horizontalwells with multiple extensionsmight be drilled to adequately
drain i given reservoir where 20 might be neededwith conventional.vertical
methods.
't' Secondary and tertiary recovery projects may
enjoy the benefits of rinear
injection,ratherthan radial.
* Recovering60% to 80% of hydrocarbonsinplaceinareservoircanbethe
norm, ratherthan the exception,if horizontaltechniquesareused.

over time, horizontaldrilling technologyandtechniqueshaveimproved,and these

advancesare continuing. Many of the initial stumblingblocks to applying these
methods have been overcome Table ), andthe adventof computing echnology
has simplified planningand designcriteriarelatedto horizontaldrilling.

5.2.2Picking good candidates

One of the most important aspectsof horizontal drilli"g is candidateselection.
Horizontalwells are moreexpensive to drill thancomparable
verticalwellsduein
part to the simple necessityof drilling more hole-asmuchastwo to threetimes
morehole.For example,a well mayhavea totalverticaldepthof only 2,000ft, but

Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH VDMLLING AND COMPLETING EORIZONTAL WELLS
259

lill lhe well up

tl (alter 24 hrs)
2,422 tl

Sis5ilitylosl when usinga Stabililymainrained with a

_-dri ing mud wsighing8.6 ppg drillingmud weighing8.9 ppg
(slaorlrlyguaranteedlor onty2 h.s) lor al least15 hrs

Fro ..' . :Mud_d_ensity

Fid playedan importantrolein maintainingwellbore
srdo'hty. At 8.6 ppg, swelingand slufiingcoat and gas in-lluxesre-
sultedin the weti fi ing with-debris withi; a lew trou"rs.
Raiilno rn-e
'ergLl]r ro U.gppg substantially
eimrnatedthe problem

Fig.. -Thulin was prepared tor the laleral d.ainhole bv settino a

pacher and whrpstockabove lhe Leopold Chartes coal sdams -

2,757 Planview dpth,ft

---2,742
End;---.

|:!9; . -A plan view ol the drainholopalh shows the actual linaloosi-

\'on ot rhe drainhotewirh regardto wa s 2 anOS. fhe tiit wiiiSfri_
natedwhena tautrzonewaScrossed
andttreoiiHr'striie'liilliiiiie.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 260 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS
!':

the bottom of the hole may be 4,000 ft away from the vertical portion of the well.
Due to this additional cost alone, careful selection of horizontal candidatesis
recommended.And there are equipment costs related to horizontaldrilling, too,
including power swivels, specialized drilling fluids, downhole motors, special
stringsof drill pipe, and measurement-while-drilling(MWD) equipment.

Horizontal drilling is best suited to productiondrilling, not exploratory.It is best

used when a great deal of subsurface,reservoir and production data has been
compiled. Reservoir parameters and geologic tectonics should be thoroughly
understood.Ideally, an operator contemplating a horizontal hole will require
three-dimensionalreservoirmodel that indicatesareasof permeability,porosity and
planes of natural fractures. The idea is to be able to model and then drill
perpendicularto the plane ofthose naturalfracturesin order to enhanceproduction.

Table 5.1: fmprovement in-horizontal tlriiling during the lastdecqde:

* Downhole tools now permit deviation and azimuthmeasurements

while
drilling
* Downholemotors are now steerableandhave extendedlives
* Drilling fluids can be tailored to meet most hole cleaningor formation
stabilization require:nent.
* Bending stressesarid buckling forces that act on drill pipe in horizontal
holescan now be precalculatedand designedfor
* Evacuation of cuttings from horizontal holes is now achieved through
appropriateannularvelocities.
* Horizontal holes are now routinely logged,cased,perforatedand selectively
treated

5.2.3 Seleaion guidelin es

At present, there are no hard-and-fastrules for candidate election, Much depends

Dr. M. S. Faraltat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL
WELI^, 261
on what the individual operator is trying to accomplish.
In general,it is believed
that most operators will use the techniquechiefly for production
enhancement-to
recover the most hydrocarbon production at the smallest
cost. parametersthat
should be considered, therefore, inclufe: depth, pay
thickness, eservoir drive
mechanism, porosity, absolute permeability, formation pressure,
character of
reservoir rock, original saturations,oil and gas characteristics
specific ravit5r, our
points, etc.) reservoir temperatures, vertical restrictions
within the reservoir,
Iocationof leaselines, required spacing,productionhistory,
hydrocarbonsoriginally
in place,hydrocarbonsremaining,casing.andhole sizes,
anticipatedcompletionand
productiontechniques,economicsand market.

Utilizing these interrelated conditions,. production geologists,

engineers and
managementcan begin to recognize rospectswhoseeconomics
may be improved
or productionlife extendedthroughthe applicationofhorizontar
drilling.

5.2.4 C lassify ing candidates

Another step in the appropriate selectionofgood horizontal

drilling candidatesis
properly lassiffing he elr as to whethera short-radius,
medium-radiusor long-
radius of curvature hole will apply. Radiusof curvature
has to do with the rate of
anglebuild usedto drill from vertical to horizontal (Fig.
5.10)

shon-radius horizontal holes were the first to be attempted

by using specialized
tools, suchas universaljoints, articurateddrill collars and stabilizers.
Thesetypesof
holes are still being drilled today, but with more sophisticated
toors.production
histories from these wells indicatedimprovedresults,and
somecorrectionof both
gas and water coning. However, major drawbacksto
short-radiuswells still exist,
such as inability to conhol azimuth over the short distance
and the inabilitv to case
the horizontalsection.
I

i,

Dr. M. S. Farohat
262 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

- <- r-
Flg. - -lJsing a propr rservoirmodsl, horizontalwells ideally can be orientsd throuoh ths
maximum number ol natural kactures in order to improve produciion.Veriical wells u-sually
cannot penetrata comparativenumberol tracturesin a given producingzone.

Watsr

l-. 'd
4 -
Flg.1'JHodzontal compltionshave proventheir abilityto reducegas and watorconing,which
is a commonproblemwith perlorationsin a verlicalwell bor. Coningnol only reducesoil pro-
duction,but also increasesproductioncosts.

*
E
tai
E
r'l A
*1-
I
Shorl radiusI U.Oirr,"air"j
I
s.{
125ll ll
F--#
2,0q,ft !tx) rr 4,qx, tl l,,lm lt
Short Sadlun Lon9

ral. r9t"-1260/100' '18.8.-

I 1.5.1100'
471'-785. 1,845',-4,712',
50o,-2,00o 1.(no'-4,0oo'

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HOKIZONTAL IYELLS 263

Still, the short-radiusmethodhas tremendous pplicationfor use in older wells and

in enhancedoil recoveryprojects.Shallowreservoirswhereclosespacinghasbeen
establishedor is desireddue to poorpermeabilityorlackofoverburdenpressure
make excellent candidates for short-radiushorizontal wells. The short-radius
method works well if isolating troublesomezonesis necessaryimmediatelyabove
a producingformation or for solution to coning problems.Shallow,tight gassands,
or coal depositsthat producelow volumesof gasbut haveextendedproducinglives
alsofit into this category.

Live examples where this method might come into play include the shallow
Bartlesville reservoirs of southeasternKansas that lie between300 and 1,200ft.
Heavy, low viscosity oil regions in Kansas Missouri, Texasand califomia also
apply.

-Bdcause-thereare
somevery useful applicationsfor short-radiushorizontal drilling,
the methodcontinuesto be improved.Tools arebeing developedthat hopefully will
decrease the time, effort and expensenow required to drill the short-radius
horizontal hole. When the techniquesare simplified,useof this methodwill result
in a commonly acceptedwell stimulationpractice.

Medium-radius of curvature wells are those with curvaturesbetween 286 ft and

700 ft, and having anglesofbuild between20 and 8 per hundredft. Thesewells are
drilled with more or less conventional rotary equipment,except for the use of
downhole motors, MWD equipment, compressiveservice drill pipe, and power
swivels or top drives.Advantagesof this techniqueincludegreaterextensionof the
horizontal section, improved azimuth control and cased completions. It is
particularlyadaptableto wells having productioncasingof 5 l/2 in, or larger.

Medium-radius candidates are numerous,asthe technique generally applies o

formationsat or below 1000 ft from awidevarietyofreservoirtypes.Excellent
candidatesexist in fields that coverlarge areas,wheredevelopmentwells exist on
large spacing patterns (such as the Austin Chalk, Spraberry and San Andres

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

formations in Texasand New Mexico) and in tight gassands(suchas the SanJuan

basin in New Mexico). Many candidatesalsoexist that areinaccessibleto vertical
ddlling, suchas reservoirslying underrivers, lakesor townsites.

Becauseof the wide candidateroster,medium-radiusdrilling offers a high degreeof

flexibility in types of equipment that may be used,Typically a packer hipstock
assemblyis set at the point of departure from vertical,The angle-builddrilling
assemblythat is usedat this point generallyconsistsofa bit; a stabilizer-equipped
low speed, high torque downholemotor; an orientingbent sub; a nonmagneticdrill
collar, and MWD equipment.This assemblyis no rotatedwhile drilling and is used
to kick-off and build angleup to the terminal angleof 90 at the target.During the
drilling of this angle-build phase, the MWD should be monitored closely to
continuously check hole projections. Afterthe targetzoneis reached,the deviated
sectionshouldbe reamedto eliminatetight sectionsor ledges.

casing may be used in medium-range wells. Aftercompletion ofthe angle-build

portion of the hole, casingis set and cementedif desired.

To drill the horizontal portion of time well, an angle-hold assemblyis used that
generally consists of a bit; a high-speed,low-torque, steerabledownholemotor
equipped with a bottomholeor conical stabilizer;a nonmagneticdrill collar and an
MWD tool. Drill pipe is slowly rotatedby meansof a power swivel or top drive.
The power swivel is used in this portion of the well to assurethat rotation and
circulationcan be usedat all times.

conventional drill strings are not suitable for drilling any of the non-vertical
portions of a horizontal hole. High build rate sectionsdo not readily acceptdrill
collars. Drill collars must remain in the vertical sectionof the well, with drill pipe
run above and below the collars.If a trip is required, pipe is addedbelow the drill
collars.

Drill string designwill vary from one portion of the holeto thenext.While he
vertical port ion of the well maybe drilledwith conventional
design,all portions

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS
26s
thereafter are subjected to varying forces, loads and stressesand
require varying
types of compressiveservice pipe. Carefuldesignof the drill string
for horizontal
holesis a mustin the medium-range category.

Long-radius holes, on the other hand, can be drilled using conventional

rotary
drilling tools, drill string and techniques.Thesetypesofholes generally
are usedin
conjunction with extended reach drilling, suchas occurson offshoreplatforms
or
pads to reach a target far removedfrom the surfacelocation,
Reachingout under
townsites, rivers, lakes or inaccessiblemountainousterrain are
other common
applicationsof long-radiushorizontalholes..

Long-radius holes are generally those requiring angle build rates

of2 6
hundred ft, and radiusof curvaturesof 4,500 ft to 1,500ft. Advantages
of this type
of hole include the fact that conventionalrotary tools and techniques
may be used,
Larger diameter drill string componentsand casingsizesmay be used
not_onlyin
tlie curved sections of the hole, but also in the horizontalsection.
Also, the well
bore may be more adaptableto reciprocatingrod pumpingand,/orthe running
of a
greaternumberof conventionaltools and equipment.

Disadvantagesof long-radius horizontal holesincludethe increased

cost andtime
required to complete these wells. At the long distances achieved
through long-
radius drilling, torque and drag can become a problem that requires
igh
concentrationof friction reducers in the drilling fluid. while drilling
theselong
holes, it also may be necessaryto live with troublesomeformationsfor
extended
lengths of time. Small targetsalso are more difficult to hit with theseholes,
due to a
greatervariability in the build radiusencountered.

:
In drilling long radiusof curvaturewells, casingmay be setat the end of the
curve
and tools similar to those used in mediurn-radiusholes are used to drill
the
horizontalportion of the well. r
:
Given theseconsiderations,
theselectionof appropriate
horizontalwell candidatein
an appropriatecategory (short-,medium-or long-radiusofcurvature)hen ssures

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

consideration should be given to selection of the drilling rig, based upon

finalization of well design. The well program will dictate if the rig needsmud
pumps with specific capabilities regarding pressureand volumes, for example.
Stand pipe pressurefrequentlywill exceedthat necessaryfor conventionaldrilling.
Substructures must accommodateblowout preventor stacks designed for
unconventionaldrill strings.Mud pit designand flexibility, alongwith mud mixing
capabilities,should be determined. Mud cleaningapparatussuchas shaleshakers,
desandersor centrifugewill in all probability be required.A rig must accommodate
top drives or power swivels.And good communicationsequipmentis essentialif all
of theseelementsare to work in harmony.

5.2.5.2Supemision

Finally, rig floor supervisionis of prime importance.In most instances,operations

in the angle-build and angle-hold portions will be conducted on day work. The
' will be requiredto superviseall phasesofoperations,and
must be extremely knowledgeableand capable.This individual must understand
drill string design and capabilities,well control, hydraulics, directionaldrilling,
drilling fluid chemistry, rig operationsand capabilities.Most importantly, this
personmust be capableof seeingdown- holeproblemsdevelopingandalleviate
these problems before they become full blown. The operator representatives
authority must be total, including re- sponsibility for accepting and rejecting
equipment,proceduresor personnel.

Horizontal drilling exceptional demandsupon supervisory personnelthat arenot

ordinarily found in conventionaldrilling. The history ofhorizontal drilling, in fact,
hasshownthat problemsencounteredgenerallydid not lie within thedesign stages,
or with the equipment used,but with inadequaterig supervision.Do not overlook
this point.

Becausehorizontal completions have been found to increase productionfrom a

wide variety of reservoir types and condifions, and becausehorizontal drilling
techniqueshaveadvancedover the last decade,the useofthis methodis expectedto

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETINGHORIZONTAL
WELI^S 269
increaserapidly in the near

There are guidelines that shourd be followed when

choosing candidatesfor
horizontal drilling. And once chosen the horizontal
well candidatemust be
classified appropriatery-shouldthis be a short, medium
or long-radiushorizontal
completion? Next comes the weil planning and design
phase.Horizontardrilling
necessitatesa blend of disciplines and technorogythat
must be combined in a
comprehensiveunit to attain practicar results (Fig.5.l2),
thus, carefulplanning
and well designare musts.Every horizontalwell program
will differ to someextent.

Finally, horizontal drilling is a more delicate procedure

than most conventional
vertical drilling; therefore, high quality rig supervision
is anotherconsideration
when electing to undertake these wells. The best
of planningand designcannot
makeup for poor execution.

The rapid advanceof horizontar drilling, both in its

technology unai*r"uri.rg
applications,promisesto open up anexpanded fierdfor industrypractitioners.ts
properusewill ensurethis bright future.

5.3 Horizontal Drilling is Becoming commonprace:

Eere s How It s Done

Horizontar rcel/s could turn out to be one of the most

irnportanttechnological
developmentsof the decade.what wasconsidered anexoticway of drilling in the
early 1980s,and more or less anextensionofdeviated
drilling,now appears asa
significantproductiontechnique.

Between 1980and l9g4 very few horizontalwelrsweredrilled,

only oneor rwo per
year. Last year, more than 100 were drilled, andarecentsurveyindicatesthata
similar figure can be forecastfor 1939.Thesefiguresareprobabry
low sincemany
operationsin theu.s. areon a tight holebasis,andvery few
havebeenpubricized.
There are projects under study involving severalhundred
horizontal wells to
developlargeoil reseryes.

Dn M. S. Farahat
270 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

Ph!!s no' 2 Ph!!! rb. 3 Phaio no. 4

Phose no. I

Surlac
hole
Surlac
casln9
lnl6rmodiat
hol
Tubir
Cemenl lop
Tubingp6cker
Uneahangr
lnlormediat6 Fladiusol
casmg Rat hol Productbn linor
ll dhd

Zono ol Intorgst

Drill vrtical holo Dd[ do.vlatodhole O.itl extendsd roachto Equip & complote nell
optimum dislanc as tqu|ro
and/or tosl lomation to 90 dgt8 &
Intrscltatgel

jl";xm::**rv*'Jiilt'ir'fi
t- .t.l I ---

I,*'? i]
:f*1il-giiffiH:1[,i,:*ft*$3itff
snouroDoPraln's 'e;
Phase4. complotion' iliA$;ii;d;r;neri;"i 6rder.Actuatdrillingbe-
ILa o
[ii5ilfl''H:iJT3io"l?il133Jlf,
"**
. r" "i{:

f=-1
ComPletlon
AngleHold &
Rlg Srloclton hortrontal hol'a
Raqulremcnt!
Substruclurhigtlt Hol6 diametet
Logging Hole length
BOP @n hole
Kill manilold Drill string design
Plps cntralizer MWD
St$ack capability Slottodliner Downholemolors
ri.noort Coss & cmnt
31ffip. pr'".u-
llexibility Farlorating
Hols stability
M; ii de;isn & Tsting
Hydraulics
Mud mi:ing ability Steerability
ftfud daning quipment Mud tYP' Rheology
ttil pip on hand Frictkn ' orag
Trp drtr6 Well corilrol
Bit slec{roo
Porronnel
Com(nunicatilE
II
I AngtFBul6 e devllt.d holo
lr.rtlcal Holc Targotdspth
ll{ or dd w[ Kick{fi Pdnt
Hol sizes Obntation admdn
Osplh Arlb|Jild
_ dov{ihole
Caslt dsist i,lWD- sun ying
Cg|nnling motoa
lkld VP - BheologY (til| liring deCan

**#r;*i*:t
l{yd.Eulc6 Bit soloclbn
Surt/yrtg Hvdrauli:s
ofl shg dldgn U'uotvpe - nheotogy
Sab$zllio.t Frtc{bn - drag
B[ laaacib.t OPnholg
inrlg a rr{n(brY Cas & cmnt
LoSSitrS
ffio,un*,o**
&
Whiostock Padt

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLET.INGHORIZONTAL WELLS 271

In spite of theprevailingbad economicconditions,horizontaldrilling is booming.

Heres why:

'3' Horizontalwells haveprovedtheir capabilityfor improvingproduction.

.f. Experiencegainedhasled to considerablyreducedcosts.

{' Drilling horizontally hasopenedthe third dimensionto drilling, paving the

way to the highly promisingconceptof drainagearchitecture.

It is now possibleto reachratiosof productionimprovementto costincreasefar in

excess of one, and in a greatvariety of reservoirs.Horizontal wells must be
considered
todayasan attractiveway ofdevelopingreserves.

5,3.1 llthat consfitutesa horizontal well

Drilling horizontally is not an objective in itself. The objective is production. But

the term horizontal well is still vague.It appearsto be genericof a wide group of
production systemsthat all have in cornmonthe goal of locating a horizontal or sub
horizontal section inside the productive formation. For examplewells in which a
horizontal section in the reservoir is cementedand then fractured are designatedas
horizontal wells, but they do not createhorizontalproduction.on the other hand,
drainholes drilled from a shaft createhorizontal production but are not designatedas
horizontalwells.

Therefore, let us limit this analysis to wells drilled from the surface that penefrte
the reservoirat an angleof at least80
production, we shall assume that it is long enough to createparallel flow (see Fig.
5.13).More preciselywe shall considertwo overall categoriesof horizontal wells.
'!

'3' wells whose production comes continuouslyfrom the horizontal or sub

horizontalsection

Dn M. S. Farahat
272 CE VDRILLING AT{D COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

* Wells in which the horizontal section is discontinuouslyproducingfrom

selectedstimulated(fractured)zones.

5.3.2 Applications for horizontal wells

since this point has beeri.discussed extensivelyin the literature,only a brief

mentionof theapplicationof horizontalwellswill be givenhere(seeFig. 5.14).

venically fractured resenoirs, in which fractures are scarce and inegularly

distributed, were one of the first applications and probably one of the most
rewarding. The best example Is the developmentof Rospo-Marefield offshoreof
Italy by Elf. Potential reservoirs are fractured carbonates,karstic formations.
fracturedshales,etc.

Thin reservoirs in which the oil or gas column is lessthan 50 ft thick. If there is a
bottom aquiferor a gascap,the situation s ven ore favorable.The bestexamples
are the development of heavy oii sandsin Canadaand thin gas sandsin the North
Sea.

Tight formations where multiple fracturing (4 to 6 or even more per well) along a
horizontal section of the well is possible. he uccessfuloperationsconductedby
Maersk on Dan field in the North Sea is probably the best example. chalky
formations in the North Sea or in the U.S. (Austin chalk), or tight gasreservoirs
provide a huge number of candidatesfor such operations.This application is
probablythe most promisingone with u.s. operatorsexpressinghigh interestin it.
The great majority of the existing horizontal wells were drilled for oil and very few
horizontal wells are producing gas. The rational behind this choice is more
economical than technical. In fact the production improvement provided by
horizontal wells is higher for gasthan for oil Thanks to a lower rate per openedfoot
of formation, turbulence, which is typical of gas production, is practically nil in
horizontal wells. In the near future many operationswill be conductedin gas fields
and especially in marginal offshore gas developments.

Dn M. S. Farahat
CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

,\l
-a
Parallel llow

,r/
\l
| !
Radial llow
Horl2cnlrl well

-----\\
/,-

Parallelplus radiallh

Parallel flow

Seclion views
'--pror
Fl1- a sectionview, flow to a vertical well apparsparalll
,vnlellowto a horizontalwellcombinesDaralleland radialllow.From
a plan view,parallelllow occurs in the ho.izontalwell.

Verl|callvlractu.edlorrhation

Thin oil column

Flg. -Typicsl applicationsfor horizontalwe s inctudo vertica v

'.adured lomations,
thin rasorvoirsand tighl lormationsthat ar6
stimulatedby multiplefractuG lobs.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
274 CH VDRILLING AND COMPLETING EORIZONTAL IYELI-S

These arethe main applications,but they arenot the only ones.Resewoirengineers

are sureto find a muchgreatervarietyof applicalons,especiallyin two-phaseflow
systems.Many experts in enhanced oil recoverythink thatthe ability of horizontal
wells to createparallel flow and to reduce oil velocitycanboostthe interestfor
tertiaryrecoveryprocesses. In fact,in manycasesit may makeit economical.

5.3.3llell geometry

Before going further let us define what geometriesarenow possibleandwhat is

desirablefor the future.

Length of horizontal section Productivity is increasedwith drainholelength,and

the drainedarea is generallydirectly proportionalto this length.Actuallengths
range from a few hundredfret to a mile. In mostreservoirsthehorizontalor sub
horizontalsiction rangesbetween1,500 and 2500ft. However,itis obviousthat
drilling and completionproblemsncrease ith ength.It is doubtfulin mostfuture
routineprojectsthatthehorizontalsectionwill exceed3,000ft in length.

Vertical controlThe vertical controlof the well, which canbe exp,ressed

asthe size
of a cylinder inside which the horizontalor sub horizontalsectionof thewell s
maintainedin theproducingformation,is oneof themostcriticalparameters. any
horizontal wells are drilled in thin layers cr thin oil columnsabovea water-oil
contactor below a gas-oilcontact,Drilling in the cap-rockor in thebed-rockwill
result in a loss of productive section(Fig. 5.l5). Drilling too nearthe a water-oil
contact or gas-oil contact or even inside the aquiferor the gascapwill result,at
least,in theproductionof wateror gasor, at worst,in thelossof thewell.

controlling the vertical position of a well is a must.Basicallyit is an economics

problem. Accuracy dependson tb.eprice the operator is willing to pay. In the
absenceof an aquifer or gascap,therequiredaccuracyis about+/- l0 ft. Existing
tools can accomplishthis at a reasonablecost. If there is a fluid contact,the
accuracyrequiredwill dependon thethicknessof the oil column.If it is lessthan40

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH VDRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS
275

It, then accuracy must be within +/- 3 ft. Suchobjectivesare achievable,

but at
presentare difficult and costly.

The solution to obtaining this control lies in the availability of specific tools,
or
specific sensorsused in conjunction with the MWD tool, This will be reviewed
later. For future developmentgood accurAcyis compulsory.Thatmeansthat
we
should be ableto follow within +/- 3 ft eithera geologicalmarker(top or bottom
of
thereservoir)or certainposition.

i
5.3.3.1Radius of curvature is not as critical, Its selectiongenerally esults rom
severalconsiderations:

* Horizontal displacement betweensurfacelocationand entry point into the

reservoir
.t. Positionof the kick-off point
..:,
Len-gthof horiz-ohtalsectionto be achieved
* Completionconstraints.

Generally speaking a long radius of curvature,over 1,000 ft, allows longer

horizontalsectionsand easiercompletions,Long radii aregenerallyselected
for
developmentwells, while mediumto shortiadii applyto re-completionof existing
wells.

5.3.3.2 Horizontal section diameter From a productivity standpoint, the diameter

of
the section opened in the reservoiris not as critical for horizontal wells as it is
for
vertical wells. well diametercan be reducedwithout loosing much productivity.
up
to now, most long radius wells were 8l/2 in, in diameterwhile medium and short
radii wells were drilled in diametersrangingfrom g l/2in down to 4 in. or evenless.

i
Drilling long to medium radii horizontalrwells in smaller diameterswill not
necessarilyreduce costs.Small diameterwellsaremoredifficult to controlandto
complete,which cangenerateadditionalcosii andjeopardize thepotentialsavings.
For some low costonshoreoperations,
drilledverticallyat diameterslessthangl/2

Dn M. S. Faryhat
 a to CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

in., it may be economicalto drill horizontallyusingsmallertools,This meansthat

all drilling, measurement
andcompletiontoolsthatarenow availablefor drilling 8
ri2-in, holemustalsobe availahlein 6-in. sizes.Furthermore,
the smallertoolswill
be valuablein saving wells that encounterproblemsthat would preventtheir
completionusingthe largertools.

The following analysiswill be focusedon mediumto long radiustechniques

and
developmentoperations.Re-comnpletingold wells by drilling small diameter
drainholesof limited extentis an attractiveoperationbut of a very diflerent nature.

5.3.4Drilling operations

Drilling plans for a horizontalwell usuallyincludean entry oint nto he eservoir

and a minimum lengthto be drilledinsidethereservoirat a givenangle.The entry
point is calledthe targetandthe sectioninsidethereservoir,the drainhole.Thefirst
objectiw will be to reachthe target,thesecondto drill thedrainhole.To reachthe
target, the driller will haveto follow a designedtrajectoryDesigningthis trajectory
is a critical step in planning, add many constraints should be taken into
considerationfrom surface problems to completion.This designis a teamjob and
should include not only the drillers,but reservoirandproductionpersonnelaswell
asmud speciaiists.

Reachingthe target canbe dividedinto threemainphases,eachhavingits specific

problems.Fig. 5.16showsthe variousdrilling phasesof typicelhoilzcntalweli.

5.3.4-1Verticaldrilling Exceptfor wells drilled with slantrigs, all wells startwith a

more or lesslong sectionvertically drilled down to the kick-off point.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH VDRTLLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS )'71

L- { r5 -
Ftg.',.-bneorthemosr
difricurr oI.T11:,1glil9l""f:f
asp,e,cts
;,,'Xih;;ifi";;';ttii'iittrinor awavrrom3 nearbvwateror
iiservbir
gas-oilcontact.

l'--:- - tt

ag,:ffi :',",#i"?33i13::flT'""i''"':";
ltl':?::1',5"*B'f
"1J'f,l"s

Dr. M. S. Farahat
278 CH VDRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

5.3.4.2 Deviated drilting from the kick-off endsat a point near the target where the
high angle approach phase will start.Roughly speakingthis phasecorrespondsto
drilling from vertical to about70 , To drill this phasea choicehasbeenmadeduring
planning betweena two stepbuild-up sectionor a continuousbuild-up section.This
trajectory has been optimized to minimize drag forces,torque,cleaningand well
stability problems.It should allow an easycompletionof the well. During this phase
the driller hasto stay on trajectorywithin given tolerances.He thereforeneedsgood
control of inclination and azimuth and a well adapted bottomhole assembly
Depending on his experience,he will use a more or less versatile bottomhole
assemblyto avoid trips. Steerableturbinesor mud motors,remotecontrolledbent
subs and remote controlled stabilizers are valuable tools for this phase.But with
good field experience,this phasecan be doneusingmore economicaltools.

The two main problemsthat can occur during this phaseare inability to build angle
or the neces'sityto correct azimuth.Inability to build anglecan haveseveralcauses,
the two most prevalentbeing:

.!.
It generallyresultsfrom poor well designor from improperdrilling fluids.
t -This will occur primarily in areaswhere
deviated drilling is not a currentpractice.The possibility of this difficulty must
be addressedduring the planning phase. when experiencein the areais poor,
build-up rates must be kept low, lessthan 50 per r00 ft. If this kind of problem
arises it is then possibleto usehigherbuild-up rates(crackertype BHA) to get
back on trajectory.There are good bottomholeassemblysimulatorsavailableon
the market,which during the planningof the well, can help avoid big mistakes,

Quality drilling fluid is essentialduring this phase,not only for well cleaning,but
for ensuring its stability especially in shaley formations. Mud characteristics
(rheology, density, etc.) must be adaptednot only to the formationsdrilled but also
to the angleunderwhich they are drilled. Someshales,easily drilled vertically will
turn into a nightmareat 70 inclination.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CE VDRILLINGAND COMPLETING
HORIZONTAL IYELLS
279

In the future this sectionof the welr could

be diled automaticallywith a fire
forget bottomhole assembly' The concept and
is to dose the loop betw,eendata
acquisition with the MWD and the remote
controilederementsof the bottomhole
assembly,via a computer. Several operators
are alreadyworking on this concept.
The hajectory to be followed is fed into the
computer,which will constantly
receive
information on bit position sentby the MWD
tool. The computerrvill then compare
actual position with the desiredposition. If
a correctionis necessary,the computer
will determine which kind of correction
is to be made-increaseRpM, increase
decreaseweight on bit, open or shut a or
stabilizeror activateor deactivate
a remote
controlred bent-sub, The computer will
then send its orders ro the drill
floor or
down hole.

This is not a dreamMost ofthe piecesofthis jigsaw

puzzrealready exist.Remote
controlred bent-subs and stabilizers are
on the shelves of service companies.
Sinnrlation pro-grains for predicting bottomhole
assemblybeha'iour in 3D already
exrst. The missing link is the expertsystem
that will be able to optimize the changes
and sendthe orders.

5'3.4.3 Approaching the target This is

the most delicatephaseof the operation
becausethe exact position ofthe target,
the entry point into the reservoir,
is never
known with accuracy.Geologistsand geophysicists
cannotgive the drilrer the depth
of the reservoirwithin a few feet. Therefore
the driller is in a position simirar
to that
of a pilot who must land an aircraft on a
runway whosealtitudehe doesnot
know. If
the runway is lower than expectedhe will
fly over it, wit is higher he will crash
into
it (Fig.s.t7).

The problem facing the driller duringthisphase

is not to stayon trajectorybut to

rargetthe altimeteris useless.

Thedrillertherefore
hasto do,n","-"tlnll;i:l:
pilot-observewhat he seesoutside,using
MWD logging capabilities, primarily
Gammaray andresistivityhe canpick geological
markerson his rvaydownthatare
thenusedto determineverticaldistance
befweenthebit andtarget(Fig.5.1g)

Dn M. S. Farahat
 282 CH V DMLLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

Currently during drilling, fit is detectedthat the bit has drilled out of the reservoir,
it
means that the distancebetweenthe bit and sensorhasbeenlost and would
haveto
be re-drilled after making a course correction.Fig. 5.19 showsthatincaseof
a
continuous change of relative dip (angle between bit and reservoir top) great
a
drilled lengthcan be lost.

If the reservoirtop is sufficiently flat, then the problem consistsin staying at a given
depth above the, water/oil contact or below the gas-oil contact.In such a case
the
distance between the sensor and the bit is not as critical. It is the distance
he
hogging tool sees out into the formation to detectthe contactthat is critical.
The
minimum rangeappearsto be severaltensof feet,30 ft being a reasonablevalue.

Drilling the drain inside the reservoir is the first problem,the secondin
order of
importance is keeping the hole in good shape,cleanand stable.cleaning the
well
obviously is'a must, not only to reduce drag and torque,but to avoid
formation
damage.cuttings transport in an inclined well is complex. In horizontal wells,
the
difficulty arises from the fact that mud parametersthat would be optimum
horizon_
tally art not applicableto inclined sections,Thus it is necessaryto compromise.

Hole stability is also made more complex due to the isotropic distribution
of
stressesin a horizontal section,paradoxically,soft to very soft formationsare
less
complex from this point of view sincethe distributionof stressesis more uniform (it
Overbalancedmud should never
be used to stabilizethe hole in horizontalwells. Just imaginehow hard it would
be
to pull I ,000 ft of bottomhole assemblyrestinghorizontally on the bottom of
the
hole in overbalanced mud. well cleaning models, able to simulate cuttings
transportationin complex well profiles, will be amongthe basic tools for future ell
designers.

As said earlier,the longer the drain the better,once navigationproblemsare solved,

the parametersthat limit the extensionof the drain are relatedto the mechanical
aspectsof drilling. Drag and torquewhile running pipe areusually the main limiting

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLET:ING HORIZONTAL WELLS
283

factors. In addition,buckling may createadditional rag orces,The amount

of drag
and torquedependson the normal force of the drillstring on the wall of
the hole and
on the friction factor' The normal force is ca,rsedby the weight of the component
and the force created by the tension ofthe string in the inclined section(capstan
effect). Therefore, to reduce drag and torque, the following parameters
must be
considered:

Drillstring weight. A righter string wirl reduce the nor-ma] force

and can be
obtainedby using aluminum drill pipe.
:

{. Dog-leg severity.A smoothwell profile will reducecapstaneffects.

* Lubricating effect of the mud. This is obtained by using oil

basemud or
additivesto waterbasemud.

Using a top-drive system that allows rotation during trips considerably

easesthe
drilling operation. Most horizontal wells over 6000 ft deephavebeen
drilted with
top-drives. In, the future there is little doubtthat top-driveswill be common
when
drilling horizontalwells below 6000ft.

In conclusion, it can be said that the Futureof horizontaldrilling will

essentially
dependon threecapabilities:

* The capabilityto locatethe drillstring

11ithrespectto a geologic or fluid level
markerlocatedseveralfeet away (beloweaboveor ahead)from the driu
bit
l
* The capability to steer the drillstring,l keeping the well at a given
distance
from a marker (top or baseof reservoircr fluid level) or on a given trajectory
t
* The ability to reducedrag and torque,which, limit hr length of the drainhole.

:,
:
5.4 High-Angle and Horizontal Weil Completions
284 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

FR1M ilIZPTEMRER lg8sto January1987,Standard-Alaska production co. (now

BP Exploration) drilled eight non-conventional(horizontalor high-angle)welis at
PrudhoeBay. Typical well profilesareshownin Fig. 5.20.Drilling techniques
used
in the first threewells are describedelsewhere.Liners were cemented for zonal
isolation in seven of the eight wells. cementing techniquesincluded off-non-
conventional bottom cementing of 7-in. liners for gascap isolation; simultaneous
rotation/reciprocation of liners while cementing, and strategic placement of a
cement-filled formation packer between the gas/oilcontactand the oil producing
interval.

The liner cementing techniquesused on the sevenwells. Resultsare evaluatedby

re viewing cementevaluationlogs andproductiondata.

Since January 1987, seven additional horizontal or high angle wells havebeen
drilled amitl completed with cementedliners, These last seven wells are not
included in this article, other than to referencethe longerlitter lengthsthat recently
havebeencementedand perforated.

5.4.1 HORIZONTAL COMPLETIONS

Horizontal completionsare chosenfor locatiols wherevertical permeabilitybarriers

such as continuousshalesare not present(Fig. 5.21). These wells are drilled
through the productioninterval for extendeddistances(1,5001,600ft), while being
held within a vertical window of 12 to 30ft.Thismaximizesstandofffromgas
and/or water They are completedwith, a slottedliner throughthe horizontalsection
and a cemented gas-isolationliner throughthe gascap.Use of a 7-in. gas-isolation
liner cemented off bottom provides optimum conditions for successfulliner
cementing,by minimizing the length of liner to be cemented.

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL 'YELI.S 285

:t'.,*s,""",m:*';tl'":"ii:ltlilliJL?.f i!i,[i{:i",f
i1""""1ff
ol
bvthedeveropment
if'f;H'ff:iiii5Htli'ri"lii"ir"o'iiiti';iuiJre
sensorslocatedin the bil ltsell'

a
:5

2!

2Svpica wetls
andhorizontal
rr.-1' retlborprofilslromhigh-angle
.t.illedin PIUdhooBaY.

Dr. M, S. Faralrat
 288 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HOMZONTAL
IYELI.S

Preflushes are designed for a minimum 10 m contact time.

The mud-thiruring
chemicalsthat they contain take the form of dispersants
for water-basedmud and
solvents for oil based mud. preflushesalso containa surfactant
to provide water
wetting of the pipe and hole walr. Displacementrates
are designed to provide
turbulentflow wherepossible.

Cement slurries are designed to contain zero fret water as tested

under horizontal
conditions. This is of pe.11e,r1-importance in non-conventional
wells, since any
free water presentmay migrateto the high side of the annulus
and createa channel.
To minimize loss of fluid from time slurryandinflowofformationFruidswhile
cementis developingcompressivestrength,row fluid loss (less
than 40 ccl3o min.),
short transition time class G cement slurries are used.
A low fluid rossclass G
cementslurry with 5o%potassiumchloridealsohasbeen
usedsuccessfullv.

As added insurance against gas channeling,a cement-filled

formation packer
(CFFP) is placed across a thin shale section between
thegas/oilcontactandthe
productioninter

5.4.4 OF F-BOTTOM CEMENTING

in horizontal slotted liner completions,g 1/2-in.hole is drilled

to TD before setting
and cementing the 7-in, gasisolation iner, This procedureis preferred
over setting
the 7-in. liner at the beginningofthe horizontalsectionand
then drilling a 6_in,hole
to TD. This is becausedirectionalwork is easierin gih-in.
hole, and logging of the
productionhole with drill pipe-conveyedor MWD logging
tools requiresa hore size
of at least8 1/2 in.

The key elementin off-bcttomcementingisa 200-ft long crossrinked

porymerplug
that is placedjust below the intendedshoeof the 7-in, gas isolation
liner (Fig. 5.23).
The polymer plug used is a patentedbrend of salts, polymers
and catalysts
developedby M-I Drilling Fluids co. when properly cataryzed,,the plug developsa
rigid, crosslinkedgel structure.The reactionis completelyreversible
with breakers,
The plug exhibits high shear strength and no syneresisafter crosslinking
at

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CE V DRILLING AND COMPLETINGHORIZONTAL IYELI^9 289

bottomholetemperature.Its purposeis twofold: to physicallyblock cementfrom

enteringthehorizontalproductionsecfionandto protectthehorizontalsectionfrom
surgeandswabpressures generatedby pipereciprocationwhile cementing.

After the crosslinked polymer plug is spotted,andbeforeit becomesappreciably

crosslinked, the top is circulated off to ensurethat it is closeto the intendedshoe
depth. The liner is then run in the hole and simultaneouslyreciprocatedand rotated
while cementing. After cementing, the liner is loweredto contactthe crosslinked
polymer pill, hung off and released.A 6-in. bit is usedto cleanout the liner and
reenterthe horizontal hole for cleanup prior to running slottedlinen

5.4.5Rotation / Reciprocafion

Reciprocation
of liners whitecementing
hasbeenpracticed
by Standard
Alaskaat
PrudhoeBay since 1976,Theoriginalreasonfor thiswasto obtainimprovedmud
removal and cementintegrity.Liner reciprocation
andgoodcementingpracticesin
conventionallydrilled directional wells have all but eliminatedliner and lap
squeezes.

since 1964, numerous papershaveurgedrotationof liners,with the argumentthat

this providesmore aid to the mud displacement
processthanreciprocation.Most
papers ave ocusedon an either/orchoicebetweenrotationandreciprocation, and
most experimentalwork has used gaugehole as a model. clark and carter
indicated that rotationmay be betterthanreciprocationin gaugehole,but their data
showed that displacementefficiency in a simulated washoutis better with
reciprocationthanwith rotation.

with this in mind, StandardAlaska has chosento rotate andreciprocateliners

simultaneouslyin horizontaland high-anglewells. it is believedthat rotation
provides a mechanicalmeans of ensuringthat cementis placedunderthe low side
of the pipe, and that reciprocationprovides fluidvelocityandpressuresurgesto
helpbreakup gelledmudin washoutzones.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
290 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

tlg.,_--
_11iS!-3plg comptetionchosentorprudhoeBayinctudes
---'- a
c,|2-rn.comgntedtinerand a cement-filld
tormationoafkei.

-.&)
Flg. -9116o11or cementing of 7-in. linsr
.r includes placino a
9l9sjul!9 polym.ar ptugjusrbietow
rheintenoeo s'hos-oi
fi;'iYrnl
unar. I ne ttner isolalesa gas cap.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS
29r

The p'rocedure uses a Texas Iion works, Inc., Rp rotating

and reciprocating,
hydraulically set liner hanger with amodifiedsettingtool(Fig.5.24).Thesetting
tool transmits torque to hangerbody, and thus to the liner, through
a spline during
cementing. After cement is place, the hanger is set and weight
is slackedoff to
shear a pin, causing disengagement of the spline from
the hanger body.
Simultaneously,a squarekelly sectionengageswith the rereasing
nut. The hangeris
releasedby rotating to the right. The settingtool has a 4 ft
strokeonce the pin has
shared,ensuringthat the action will be observedat the surface

Liner connectionsare shoulderedto eriminatedany damagethat

might be causedby
overtorquing. Slip-on, stand-offbandsof stampedand welded
constructionare used
on 7-in. liners for centralization.on 5l/2. Liners, slip-on
cast alloy, solid
centralizers are used (Fig. 5.25). Both typesof centralizersare placed
at every.;oint
in the liner, are free floating and act as a bearing support
during rotation and
re'ciprocation.

5.4.6TorqueLimitations

speci$'ing maximum operating torques when rotating/reciprocating

is more
complex than when cementingwith rotation alone.In both cases,
drill pipe ffiction
during rotation must be considered when specifuingmaximum
allowable torque.
Torque/drag model studies indicate that a good estimate
of torque causedby drill
pipe friction can be obtainedby rotating the liner (rather
than the drillstring) inside
casing,with the shoeat about the point that will be occupied
by the liner hanger.

In non-conventionalwells, this techniqueis superiorto estimafing

torquesby
rotating the drillstring at the casing shoe while ripping out for
the liner.This is
becausedrillstringsusedto drill high-angleor horizontalsectionsinclude
a BHA of
2,500 ft or more' which is laid down before runningliner, This makes
the riner
running string considerablylighter than the drillstring, resulfing in less
torque
generated by drill pipe.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
292 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

In high departuredirectional wells, it is not unusual to note significantlylower

rotating torques when reciprocating into the hole (down-stroke),than when
reciprocating out of the hole (upstroke). This is due to tensiondifferencesin the
drill pipe as it passesthrough the build section;differencesofnearly 5,000ft-rb
havebeenobserved(Fig. 5.26).

With this much difference, speciSring maximumtorquebasedon that seenon the

upstroke could lead to over-torquingconnectionson the down-stroke.Conversely,
specifying maximum torquebasedon that seenon the down-strokecould leadto an
artificially low torque limit on the upstroke.For this reason,maximum torquesare
specified separatelyfor upstroke and down-stroke during simultaneousrotation/
reciprocation.

Torque limits for simultaneousliner rotationandreciprocationaredeterminedas

follows: Rrjrr in hole wiih liner and stop with liner shoe 250 ft insidecasing.
Reciprocateliner with 20 to 30 ft strokeswhile circulatingandrotating at 10 to 20
rpm. observe maximum torqueon up and down-stroke.Add liner connectionmake
up torque to these values to establish eparate aximumtorquesfor upstrokeand
downstroke.During operations,the rig torquelimiter is setat the maximumtorque
for the upstroke, thus preventing over-torquingwhen reciprocatingup. When
reciprocatingdown, the torquegaugeis observedcloselyto preventover-torquing.

Using thesetechniques,100o/o
successwas achievedin rotating/reciprocatinginers
during cementing on four non-conventionalwells. Threewere rotatedusing a top
drive. on well F-23, the string was rotated usinga 40-ft cementingkelly with a
rotating cementing head in place of the swivel. To preventjump-out of the kelly
bushingon the upstroke,lock down pins wereused,

Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL
WELLS 293

Setling nut

Packotlbughing

,lW:S FIPFtolalingand Reciprocating

flS. . hydrautichanosrser_
rng useoIn nrgn-angte/horizontal
wells.

dt
294 CH VDRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

5.4.7 FORMATHON PACKERS

cement-filled formation packers (cFFps) are used in non-conventionalprudhoe

wells primarily as added insurance gainst as hanneling ownward uring
production. cement-filled packers are preferred over oilier types, becausethe
packeris expectedto provide protectionfor the life ofthe well.

Like fluid-filled packers, cement-filled packers can be inflated to provide a

specified pressure over and above reseryoir pressure, Design of the cFFp
incorporates steel shoulders above and below the rubber element. The steel
shouldersprotect the packerelementduring running, and to a lesserdegreeduring
rotation/reciprocationwhile cementing.

As of July 1988, all cFFPs installed in non-conventionalwells had beenplaced

-to
across a l- 3-ft vertical thicknessshale(10- to 30-ft MD interval), about70 to
180 vertical ft below the gas/oil contact.Suchshalesareusually discontinuous n
the Sadlcrochit reservoir, but one or more appearin most wells. Settingthe packer
in the shalepreventsgas flom bypassingthe packetthroughthe formation.

5.4.8Evaluution

Simultaneousrotation/reciprocationwhile cementing has beentrouble-freeon all

four non-conventionalwells on which it hasbeenattempted.one liner, 2,g57 ft. in
length, was rotated/reciprocatedin a section with maximum inclination angleof
89.1 from vertical. surface torque of up to 16,600 ft-lb has been seen while
rotating/reciprocatingliners. After subtracting drill pipe torque,torque at the liner
top hasneverexceeded6,500ft-lb on 7-in, liners,and3,550ft-lb on 5ll2-in riners.

Previous work indicates that torqueincreasesusually occur as cemententersopen

hole. On non-conventionalwells, StandardAlaska has seentorqueincreasesduring
displacementwhen cementing 7-in, liners, but on wells with 5l/2-in. liners, torque
decreaseshave been observedduring displacement.This torquereductionis felt to

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 IYELI^S 295
CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETINGHONZONTAL

liner in the cement'Conversely,

be due to the buoYancYeffect on the 5 1/2-in,
to the additionalweight of the pipe
torque increaseswith 7-in, liners is likely due
andsmallerannularclearances'

Cement-filledformationpackershavebeensetsuccessfullywithoutproblemsonall
fourattemptedjobs'Threeofthesejobsweredonewithsimultaneousrotationand
reciprocation.

Cementevaluationlogswererunpnortocompletiononfiveofthesevennon-
pipe-conveyedon four wells' On well
conventional wells, Logging tools were drill
tubing equippedwith electric line' The
G-29, tools were run on I l/4-in, coiled
for running roduction ogs n
coiled tubing technique was later usedsuccessfully
wells IX-2, B-30' G-29 andG-23'

Cementqualityismostreliablydeterminedbylong-termproductionhistoryThe
andproductionlogging data for the
following summarizesbond log intemretation
sevenwells as of APril 1988'

Productionlogs run after 14 monthsof

JX-2- No cementevaluationlogs attempted'
productionindicateno channeling'

B-3o.Wellcementedwithseverelostcirculation,Linerreciprocated'butnot
rotated,Bondlogindicatespoorcementualitybovelostcirculationzone,good
cementacrosslowerl50ftofliner.ProductiontestsindicateelevatedGoR,which
beganaltersixmonthsofproduction,isreservoir-relatedatherhanhannel-
related.

Y.2l-Bondlogindicatesexcellentlinercementquality.Wellisadowndipproducer
withnoindicationofcharrnelingafter20monthsproduction.

G-27-Nobondlogrunduetoinabilitytorundrillpipe-conveyedtoolsinside5l/2-
in,linerattimewellwascemented.AfterlTmonthsofproduction,thereisno
indication of channeling

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 296 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELI.S

C-29-Bond log showsexcellentcementquality across7-in, liner. Debris left inside

Iiner, as indicated by erratic cement valuation aliper eadings, esulted n alse
indication of channelingon cementdensitydisplayfrom 9,660-9,723;9,934-9,952
ft. Productionlogs run after eight monthsproduction,,ndicate o channel-related as
production.

F-23-Bond log indicates excellentcementquality across5 1/2-inliner. Production

data after 15 months indicates no channeling.Debris inside liner is apparenton
cementevaluationlog over much of the liner.

G-23-Bond log indicatesfair to good cementquality below gascontact,production

dataafter l4 monthsindicatesno channelins.

It is recommendedthefollowing:

o competent liner cementingin horizontalandhigh-anglewells hasbeen achieved.

Techniquesexplored and found successfulin non-conventionalwells arebeing
implemented as improvementsto cementing of liners in all directionalwells at
PrudhoeBay.

o Simultaneous rotationL,/reciprocation
of liners is feasible in 90 wellbores.
Recently,well E-28 was completedwith 3,131 ft of 5l/2-in,cementedliner,of
which 1,300ft was inclinedbetweeni;90"and97."

o Cement-filled formation packers canbe rotated,/reciprocated

in high-anglewells
without damageto the element.

o Off-bottom cementing of liners using a crosslinkedpolymer plug has been

successful.Care musr be taken so that the original hole can be reenteredafter
drilling out the liner shoe.

o cement evaluation logs for horizontal and high-angle well liners can be drill

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH VDRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS
297

pipe-conveyed,
or run on coiledtubingequippedwith electricline.

5.5 Controlting Sand in a Horizontal llell Completion

THE Mosr TALKED about oilfield technologytodayis horizontalwell drilling

and production,andmostof thesediscussions
areaboutincreased
productionrates,
improveddrainageof heterogeneous reservoirsandreducedwaterandgasconing
rates. Horizontalwells arebecomingevenmoreatkactiveasdrilling costsdiminish
with experience, especiallyfor offshorelocationsand hard to reach reservoir
targets.

Horizontal well completions are thoughtto reduceconcerns bout ormation

damage becausethe extra completioninterval length in the pay tone offsets
productionlost from reducedpermeabilityaroundthewellbore.However,this may
only be true for completionsin hard rock formations,becauseholes drilledin
wealdy consolidatedsandstonJtend to collapse.

wellbore collapse problems can result in a vertical wellbore completion that

performs better than a horizontal completion. It must also be recognizedthat a
workover to remove and fiom a horizontal hole may be extremelydifficult to
perform and very expensiveRemedialefforts will alsobe hamperedby fluid tossto
the formation over the long productiveinterval.

5.5.1 Formation damageeffects

Formation damage around a horizontal wellbore should occur in a nearly radial

pattern, similar to tile patternof damagearounda vertical hole. The result,in either
geometry, will be a cylinder of reducedpermeabilityaroundthe wellbore,but the
damage zone may affect a horizontalwell s productivity more than that of a vertical
well.

The primarydifferenceis that the drainagelimitofahorizontalwellborewillbe

only half the formation thickness(wz) inthe verticaldirection.Thus,thedamage

Dr. M. S. Farahat
298 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

tone will be a greaterportion of the reservoirthickness.

Table 5.2., compareseffects of damagedzonesin horizontaland vertical wellbores,

and indicates that the differencebetweenthesecalculatedvaluesare probably not
significant,unlessthe damageis very severe(reductionof permeabilityby 90%).

Considering the large increasein theoreticalproductionratesfrom horizontalholes

as shown in Table 5.3, only the most restrictiveformationdamagesct,arioreduces
the horizontal ell roductivity ndex bpd/psi) o hat f ertically ompleted
well.

5.5.2lYeakformations

A much more serious problem will occur when unconsolidated, r eakly

consolidated,sandstoneformationscollapseand fill a horizontalhole, an eventthat
can completely stop production from beyond the fill point, lithe hole is only
partially filled, fluid production may be restricted enough to cancel horizontal
completionbenefits.

^: 'r:i '
.; ,.' \..,i : :

Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH YDMLLING AND COMPLETING HOMZONTAL IYELI-| 299

tlSt.E S-tffect of tormatl

on hortzontatwe produc l:ttydamage
Resrvoirthicknoss ff,l = SOtr
Drilled hole radius (rJ = 0.33 ft
Formationpermeabit,ty(K,) = 100 md
Heservoirradius (r. r.,,)= 93S ft
uomptetronzon length = 500 ft
Homogenaouslormation
Singl phase ,low
Noalzontslhole. Ve.tlcal hot
Oamlgo aadlus ptoducllon rel6
oround rqulvalont
Damagaronr rallo ra o
wellbore, pe.me!blllty,

o.5 50 O.82
1.0 .90
50 0.76 .85
2.0 50 0.69 .80
3.0 0.65
0.5 .78
0.6'l .74
1.0 25 o.5l
2.O .66
25 o.43 .5s
3.0 25 0.38 .53
0.5 10 o.34
t.0 .49
10 o-?3 .s9
2.O t0 o.20 .fit
3.0 't0
0.17 .2A

.t.3
TAELE .- -Productlyltl| Indlcet ratlor
of horlzontel end vertlcal wollbolos
Reservoirradius (r., r.t = 933 ft
furmation thickness(h) = 50 ft
Drilld hole diametr(rJ = 0.33 ft
Homoggneousfo.mation
Single Phas llow
Completlon lntervsl Produc vlty ratlo.
length hodzontat/ver cal
(nl (JtJ,l
1@ 1.5
20o 2.1
400 3.4
800 - 4.7
1,000 5.7

Dn M. S. Farahat
300 CH VDRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

obvious means of trying to prevent this problem are to use a slotted liner, wire
wrapped screen,prepackedscreenor gravelpack to stabilizethe hole. However, all
of thesemethods resent roblemswhich may resultin suchimpairedproductivities
that it may not he economically,favorableto drill a horizontalhole.

A slotted liner or screenmay preventa weakly consolidated

and stone from
completely filling the wellbore, but this dependson how effectively the screen
actually stops the sand.Even the best screendesignallows somesandto flow into
the wellbore until a stablesandpack is obtained.Sandthat flows into the screenwill
most likely fall to the low side of a horizontalhole andremain there,as producing
fluids bypass it. The effect on fluid flow of this sand fill may not be properly
predicted, because the volume and location of the fill cannotbe determined,and its
effect may not be realized until the screenis almostcompletelyfilled with sand.
When this occurs,productionmay be totally stopped.

Before a significant amount of sand works its way into the screen, a weakly
consolidated formation will probably collapse around the screen, filling the
screen/drilledhole annulus. Screen openings may then becomedoggedwith sand
and mud cake, as the annulus fills with materialthat has lower permeability than
core measurements would indicate. There is no way to determine how much
restriction to flow this will cause, but Table 5.4 lists the possibleeffect of a sand
filled annulscomparedto an undamagedopenhole.
Note that if permeabilityof sandthat fills the annulusis at least 50% of
native formation permeability,restrictionto flow may not be significant. However,
if screen openings are severely dogged with sandand mud, the combinationof a
cloggedscreenand low permeabilitymaterial in the annuluscan be very serious.
If the combinationof screenplugging and low permeabilitysandin the annulushas
an effective permeability of only 10% of the native formation,this could reducethe
production rate of the well to half of its undamagedproductivity (Table 5.4).
However, if formation damage from drilling fluids, completionfluids, etc., is arso
present near the wellbore, productivity restrictionwill be evenmore severe(Table
5.5).

Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING IIORIZONTAL TI/ELLS
301

i;i,flH;T:5lji.ji,=lT,'1,
Dcrsen radjus (.J = O.2OBtt

,r'
$"ft1illi;;i1i-#t:;'f
Ettective permeabllltv
ot sand/mud fllt ln
screen/drllled hole Wellproduc vtty reflo
compa.ed|o r.ndamaged
annulug
(mdl
.100 (oJa")
75 .98
OE
50
25 .90
t0
.53

$f,+Hi'"".1;;;f,i13i,i1i""",,'n"J,?,""1t",
lfi :[lyJ';:,fi "nnut
:"""#ndu u"
"n"Jili,ml]bd=iil
Reservoirlhickness(h) = 50 tr
unled hote radius (tu) = 0.33
li
Dcroen radius (d = 0-208 lt

;:'Jffi g3;'oo'o
i trJf."?:i,Y
uomptetionzone length =
SOOft
rromogeneouslormalion
orngte phass flow

Oamageradlus Horlzontel hote

atound produc on rate
Demagazone .a o
wellbore,(t0 panneabltty,(md) (Qo.-a/Qrr"--e-)
0.5 50
1.0 0.48
50 0.46
2.O 50
3.0 0.43
50 o.42
0.5
1.0 0.40
25 0.36
2.o 25
3.0 0.32
25 0.30
0.5 10
t.o '10 o.27
2.O 10
o.e.
3.0 0.18
10 0.16

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 302 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL IYELLS

Critical factors in obtaining desiredproductionratesItem horizontalwells. in order

of importance,are:

l. Preventtotal hole collapse

2. Maintain high permeability in the screen/drtlledhole annulus.
3. Preventscreenplugging
4. Minimize depth of invasionofformation damage
5. Minimize efect offormation damageon permeabilityof the invadedzone.

5.5.3Preventing hole collapse

A slottedliner or screenwill helppreventtotalcollapse

of a wellbore,butbothare
subject to plugging as mentioned above, A more positive solution is to use a
prepacked screen fabricated with a high permeability material, usually gravel
consolidated
witli plastic.

A prepackedscreenwill probablypreventsandfrom filling the wellbore, but it also

is subjectto plugging by dirt, fines, etc. during installationandwhen the well is put
on production. If a prepacked screen is made with 20140U.S. Mesh gravel
consolidatedwith plastic, permeabilityof the gravelshouldbe about50.000md.
But invasion of even a small amountof mud and formationfines into the poresof
the gravel may almost totally plug aprepackedscreen.Therefore,removalofall
mud cake and formation damage from the well before a prepacked screen is
installed and keepingthe wellbore full of deanfluid as it is being run in the hole are
very important.

Unfortunately, weakly consolidated formations are much more likely to collapse

after the mud cake and formation damagehave beenremovedand cleanfluid is
circulated into the hole, than while the well wasbeing drilled with mud in the hole.
It may be necessaryto keepmud in the hole while the screenis being installedto
stabilize the hole until the screenis in place.In this situationan acid soluble,or oil
soluble,screen coating should be used. This will keep a screen, or prepacked

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CII V DRILLING AND COMPLETINGHORIZONTAL WELI.S 303

screen, from becoming plugged on its way in the hole, andthe coatingmay be
removedby acid, oil or solventwhen the well is readyto be put on production.

Even if a prepacked screen is successfully installed and retains maximum

permeability when the well is put on production, it will not immediately stop
invasion of formation sandand fines. It will only stopthe particle sizesor which it
wasdesigned.

For instance, gravel usedin prepackedscreensis usuallydesigaedto be somewhat

less than six times larger than the medianformationsandgrain. Averageparticle
size of 20/40 U.S. Mesh gravel is slightly more than 600 microns whichwill
physically stop most formation sandsthat havemediangrain sizeslarger than 100
microns. Since about half the formationsandgrainsare smallerthan mediansize,
much of the sand will invade the gravelbeforea stablearrangementis achieved.
This will have only a minor effect onproducfivity,butifalargeamountofsand
-
alongthe completioninterval is smallerthanthis size,pluggingcan be severe.

One solution is to obtain core samplesfrom the entire horizontal ole nd easurc
particle size distributionsof samples rom ach oot f he ore o etermine ravel
size that will stop sandinvasion.But this is impractical,so the alternativeis to use a
smaller gravel size that will positively stop sand invasion, yet have adequate
permeabilityto maintainacceptablefluid production.

Better results with prepackedscreensare more likely when gravel sizeshaving only
10,000 md permeabilityareused.Final permeabilityof this smallergravel, after the
well is producing, will probablybe higherthan if either20140or 40160U.S.Mesh
gravel were used.

Table 5.6 compares effects of varying permeabilityprepacked creens, ssuming

that formation sand fills the screen-/drilledhole annulus.Thesedata indicate that
there should not be significant difference betweenproductivity of a well completed
with prepacked screenshaving a permeabilityof 80,000md andone having 10,000
md.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
304 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

5-.6
TABLE '-Ettact of preprcked 3creen
on ho rontal well ploductlvlttl
Assumpllons:Formationdamage Invaslon= 0.5 ft
Permsabilityof Invadedzone = 50 md
Ressrvohthickness(h) = 50 ft
Drilld hole radius (rJ = 0.33 tt
Scren outside radius (r!) = 0.25 ft
Scrsn insido radlus (r) = 0.14 ft
Formationpermability(K.) = 100 md
Rsssrvoir radius (r.) = 933 ft
Completlonzone lngth = 500 ll
Homogsneouslormation
Single phase llow
Gnvcl plck
E lrctlv! Etlcc-llv. Prop.ckedlcrcon wnh prsplck
parmclbll|ty p..m..blllty producilonmlo producllon rata
p..p!c|.d acraan/hola ,rllo aatlo
acaaan, annulut;
(t'|d) (md) (OFJO!hd.6.r.d Opcn Holol
80,000 100 0.91 0.95
40,o00 100 o.sr 0.95
'tod)o 100 0.91 0.95
1,O0O tq) 0.90 0.94
100 ' 5 t00
0 0.82 0,82
8{r,ooo 0.86 0.95
,O,0o0 50 0.86 0.9s
t 0,ooo 50 0.86 0.95
t,000 50 0.85 0.94
100 0.58 0.82
80,000 to 0.62 0.9s
,10,000 t0 0.62 0.95
Q,o@ t0 0.62 0.95
.t0
,' 1,00Q 0.62 0.94
t00 t0 0.58 0.82

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CII V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL 'YELI.S 305

A cased hole completionwould alleviatesomeof the hole collapseproblemswhile

running a screen,but thereis somedoubt that cementcanbe properly placedaround
a horizontal casingin a weak sandstoneformation.One problem is that centralizers
will tend to embedin a soft formation,preventinggoodpipe centralization.

Another problem will occur while displacingmud with spacerandpreflush fluids

ahead of cement; once mud cake is partially removed,the hole is more likely to
collapse.And cementmay not form a good bond to the formation if mud cakeis not
adequatelyremovedbefore cementis placed.

It might be argued that if a wellbore is completelywithin one strataof a reservoir

there is no need for zonal isolation by cement and that flow through a cement
channel may even improve production.This is onereasonwhy openholes areoften
usedfor horizontal well completions.

As more experience is gained, horizontal heterogeneities

in reservoirswill likely
require good isolation to handle paraffin, scale, sand, and water or gas
breakthrough,as the reservoirsdeplete.

5.5.4 Gravel Packing

If horizontal holes in weak forma n sandscan be successfullygravel packed,the

result could be significantly higher well productivitiesthan with a liner, screenor
prepacked creen lone. Table comparesproductivitiesofa well using a screenby
itself and with the same screen gravel packedwith 20140US. Mesh gravel.This
assumesthat a gravel pack is placedin openhole, underideal conditions,without
causing any additional formation damage. Gravel packing without causing some
formation damage is probably impossible, but packing even partoftheannulus
shouldimprove well performance.

Successfullygravel packing a long horizontalhole will be difficult because:

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELLS

o The hole will tend to collapsebefore gravelis completelypackedhi place

o Gravel will tend to fall out of the fluid in the horizontalwellbore annulusbefore
it is completelypacked

o It will be difficult to centralizea long screenin a horizontalopenholebecause

evenbow springcentralizers will erhbedinto softformationsand

o Fluid lost to the formation over a long, permeableinterval will causeformation

damage and reduce fluid velocity below the minimum necessaryto transportthe
gravel.

Because of these problems, the only formations feasible to gravel pack are
friable
sandstonesnot expectedto producemuch sanduntil after the well has producedfor
awhile, and semi-competentsandsthat will not collapsebeforegravel is packedin
place. Such' formations are relatively strong, but producesomesandcontinually
with the gas or oil, and begin producing larger quantities of sand as reservoir
pressuredeclinesand/oras water productionbegins.

overall, chances of successfully transporting and packing gravel over the entire
screen length In a long horizontal hole are not very good. However, an attempt
shouldbe madeto frll as much of the annuluswith gravelaspossible.

As mentioned above, a specially desigaed wire wrapped screen, or prepacked

screen,may be used that is sealedwith an acid or oil solublematerial,and a high
density gravel slurry circulated into the screen4roleannulus until the gravel is
packed in place. Gravel concentrationsof at least l5ppgandpreferably 20ppg
should be used to minimize settling of gravelafter the pack is in place.The screen
will lie on' or near,the low side of the hole andgravelnot tightly packedwill settle
slightly, but this should leavethe screenfully covered.plastic coated,or pre-coated,
gravel is preferred, as these materials will becomeconsolidatedin place,remain
stable while the screen coating is being removedwith add or solvent,and prevent
future formation collapse. A strong HF acid treatment should not be usedwith

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 CH V DRILLING AND COMPLETING HORIZONTAL WELIS 307

plastic coated gravel, pre-coatedgravelor with mostprepackedscreens,as it tends

to attackthe plastic.

Any screen used shouldhavea very limited numberof holes/ft in the pipe baseof
the screen and restrictedlateralflow channelsto preventbypassingoffluid as it is
being acidizedor flushedwith solvent. This will facilitateremoval of the temporary
screen coating and help with future remedialwork. This designmay be referredto
as a SelectiveIsolation Screen,andmustbe speciallyfabricatedfor well conditions.
The screenshould be orientedin the hole with openingsinthepipebaseofthe
screentoward the top of the wellboreto makethe easiestfluid flow path from this
direction.

A prepackedscreenshould be used as a backup foragravelpackinveryweak

formations. This will ensure sand control in zonesnot completelypacked,where
risk of sandfilling the annulusbeforegravelis packedin placeis too great.Risk of
holE collapse of a totally unconsolidated
formationwill prevent use of this
technique, or make it economically unattractive.Even if drilling techniques
maintaina stable horizontalhole, there is notmuchhopeofbeingabletogravel
pack suchsands,

One practical way to control completelyunconsolidated sandis to usescreens,or

prepackedscreens,as part of the drill string,andleavethe bit in the hole after the
objective drill targetis reached.Ifa SelectiveIsolationScreendesignsealedwith a
temporary coating is used, the coatingmay thenbe removedby an acid or solvent
treatnent and the well put on productionwith the sandcontrol systemalreadyin
place. An effort should be made to circulate mud out of the annulusbeforethe
temporary coating is removed, to help remove as much formation damage as
possible.

It is recommendedthe following:

Formationdamagein most horizontalwells may not reduceperformanceto that of a

vertical well in the same reservoir, but if the reservoiris a weakly consolidated

Dn M. S. Farahat
308, CHVDRILLINGANDCOMPLETINGHORIZONTALWELLS

sandstone,the hole will tend to collapseand causeuntenableproblems.

Wells completed with only a liner or screen in friable or semi-consolidated

formations will probably perform well until reservoirpressuredepletionor water
production causessandto plug the screenandfrll the wellbore,Therefore,the initial
completion design should consider potential future problems, and diffrculty and
expenseof workovers.

Prepackedscreensmade with l0 darcypermeabilitysandare likely to provide and

maintain higherwell productivitiesthan thosemadewith 20/40or 40/60 U.S. Mesh
gravel. But placing gravelin the annulusofthe prepackedscreenshouldyield even
better results. A screendesignedto isolateshortportionsof the completioninterval
with very limited numbers of pipe base openings will facilitateremedialwork.
without affectingperformanceof the initial completion.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TABING 309

CnaprnnVI
Appl,rcATIoN OF COILD
TunrNc

6.1 Coiled Tuhing Fluid (Water)Ja drilling

During the past ten years,high performanceradial waterjet drilling systemshave

been developedto provide extendedcompletionthroughnearwell bore damage.All
these jet radial systemsuse coiled tubing as a drillstring. The conceptis to provide
multidirectional, horizontalradialson the sameor different levels.The radialsmake
an ultrashort radiusof turn of l2-in. (0.31 m) from verticalto horizontal.The result
is an array of radial boreholewhich penetratethe nearwellbore damageor skin and
plovide a set of undamagedradia conduitsfor gr-avityflow.

Two coiled tubing water{fluid) jet drilling systemsareeither in commercialuse or

under development for installation of horizontalor obliqueradial drainholes.The
first system,the Ultrashort RadiusRadial System(URRSXFigure6.1), is being used
commercially in U.S. and foreign fields. The URRS is basedon conventionaloil
field equipment including a work over rig, section milling equipment, under
reaming equipment, high pressure(8,000 to 10,000 lbs/in2) (55.2 to 69.0 MPa)
fracturing pumps and an adequatelyratedwork strrngl4-ll2 in. (l l4mm) screwed
tubing with a sectionof smoothwalled 3-ll2 in. (89 mm) motion controllertubing
at the bottoml. The second system, the Quick Radial System(QRS)(Figure6.2)
which is under development requiresinstallationandorientationof the whipstock
but the remaining operations can be accomplishedwith a coiled tubing unit, a
blenderto mix abrasivefluids andmediumpressure(3,500to 5,000 lbs/in2)(2.41 to
34.5 MVa) mudpumping equipment.Only the commercialURRS will be described
herein.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
310 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TABING

F t c u R E6 ' l

A U I C K R A D I A LS Y S T E M

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TABING 311

6.1.1 Utrashort Radius Radial System @RRS)

For a drillstringthe URRSsystemutilizesa non-rotafing100to 200 ft (30 to 6l m)

length of l-1/4 in. (32 mm) coiledtubingwith a water(fluid)jet drill headat its tip.
As shown in Figure 6.3,the drainholesaredrilledfrom a 24 in. (0.61m) diameter
by 10 ft (305m) high windowwhichhasbeensectionmilled andunderreamed in an
existing wellbore. A whipstockto providea 12 in. (0.3I m) radiusturn is anchored
in the wellbore casing abovethewindow.Thewhipstockis erectedandheld erect
by pulling tension in the work stringat thesurface. he hort oiled ubing tring
and water (fluid) jet drill headareconnected
backto the surfaceonly by wireline.
They are hydraulicallypropelledaround thewhipstockandinto theformationby
water pressure.The wireline connectionto the surfaceprovidespower to the
hydraulic directionalcontrol and brings back positionalinformationin real-lime.
The rock drilling is accomplishedby a specialConicalJetwhich createsa coneof
water particles movingat 700to 900 ff/sec(213to 274.mlsec).Thesehigh velocity
water particles cut a 2 to 4 in. (5lto 102mm) diameterboreholein mostrocks.The
drilling rate is controlledby a downholemotion controller (braking)system.A
schematicof the components of theURRSis shownin Figure6.3.

6.1.2 Control While Drilling

A control while Drilling System,under continuingdevelopmentfor both the

URRS and the QRS,allowsthedrill headinclinationto be monitoredandadjusted
by the operatorwhile drilling. djustnentso nclination re nitiated rom ontrol
system computerlocatedat the surface.Solenoidactuated pilot valveswithin the l-
l/4 in, (32 mm) coiledtubingdrillstringdirecthighpressure
drilling fluid to several
sidethrusterjetsthatactperpendiculartotheaxisofthedrill.Thesethrusterjetsar
much the same asthe smallrocketthrustersusedto maneuverrocketsor satellites.
with the control system, the operator can make adjustmentsto the drill head
inclination to follow a predetermined
pathanresponse to distanceandinclinometer
dataavailableto the operatorwhile drilling.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
3r2 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING

6.1.3 Inclination and Three Dimensional Sumey of Radial Drainhole

The radialdrainholecanbe surveyedby flexiblewirelineinstruments. The simplest

tool is a flexiblewirelineinclinometer,whichmapsverticaltrajectoryin relationto
the initiationpoint.Theinclinationanglealongwith wirelinedistancearemeasured
for a seriesof pointswithin therecentlydrilleddrain-hole.Thesedataareconverted
into a plot of the verticaltrajectoryof thedrainholefrom its point of initiation.

A second more complicatedflexible wireline tool is to provide a threedimensional

(3-D) surveyof the completedradialborehole

6.1.4 Completions

Several completion options are available for the radial drain holesdependi*gpu --t.,
client requirements:open hole, electrolyticallyperforatedcoiled tubing,n"iibif
permeable casing(FlexibleSandBanier),andhorizontalgravelpacking.

Becausethe exit pressureofthe drill headis essentiallyat formationpressureand

becausethere is movementof the cuttingsas a slurry backto thewellboreand
thenceto the surface,the formationaround theradialboreholeapparentlyis not
'of
damaged y he rilling rocess. This lack damagehas been measured
experimentallyin the laboratory.To furtherreduceformationdamage,water-based
fluids andno rnudareused.

For most applications, the radial drainholecan be completedasan openholeor

gravel packed. For openhole, I l/4-in. (32 mm) coiledtubingdrillstringis simply
pulled back. For unconsolidatedsands,horizontalgravel packing developedby
Petrolphysicsis applied.

For.unconsolidated formationswhereinPetrolphysicsgravelpackingis applied,the

drill head is cut off electrochemicallyand the radial borehole is packedin two
oppositelydirectedlifts of water andgravelslurry.Thewaterbased,low velocity
slurry is pumpedfrom the surfacedownthe4-ll2 in. (1la mm) workstring,into the

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TABING 313

l-ll4 in. (32 mm) coiled tubing string andthroughittotheendofthedrainhole.

The slurry exits at the cutoff dril! head, and progressivelyback fills the radial
borehole toward he xisting ellbore. he irst ift gravelpacking fills 70-90% of
the radial borehole.

Sincethe permeability is high in most formations equiringgravel packing, a second

lift grave) pack is used for maximum frll. This second Lift gravel pack is
accomplishedin conjunctionwith gravelpacking of the existing vertical wellbore.

Gravel slurry is deposited in the opposite direction from the first lift, i.e.,
progressively from the existing wellbore toward the end of the boreholeand within
the annulusof the boreholeand coiled tubing drillstring. When the well is placedon
production. The result is a maximum gravelpack as shownin Figure 6.4. Because
of the ultra-short radius turn (12 in. (31 in)1,the producedoil can flow by gravity
directly to a conventionalpump.

6.2 Coiled Tubing DeployedCoritpilaibnTbchniqubs

6.2.1 introduction and Scope

The first applicationof 3 l/2 inch continuouscoiled tubing for well completionsin
the Middle East. Because of the uniquenessof the operations, a detailedstepby
stepprogramthat increasedin complexity over the trial period was developed.

6.2.1.1 DeJinition of initial trial operation

1. Trail objectives:

Thefollowingtrial objectiveswereidentified:
1. Rig up andrun 3ll2 inchOD coiledtubingcompletions.
a) Establish costs and times for runningCT completionoperationsto quantiff the
benefitto operator.
b) Identifu any flow improvementsresultingfrom lower turbulencein nonjointed
pipe.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
314 CH. VI APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING

u'
u'JfJPN,-'K'FfPJ
Mot ion Conttol

Radial Tube

Working Str ing

Hioh Prossure
Reiovabl sea I

Anchor I no

cas Ing

---,-Unde r ramod

Rad la I Tubo
ipstocr
s embI Y Radial Bor Hole

FfcuRE 6,3

RADIUSFADIAL
ULTRASHORT
COMPLETED
SYSTEMWITHGRAVITYDRAINAGE

,tou^, 6' A

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING 31s

c) Determinecompletionintegrity of CT and connections.

d) Determinecorrosionresistanceresultingfrom reducedturbulenceatjoints.
e) Assessserviceabilityof ESPson CT.

2. SuccessFactors

The successcriteria were definedas follows:

Operatingtime:
l. Rig up/rig down timesshoulddecreasethroushouttrails.
2. Initial for each Rig up/rig down target times should 24 hours for each
completion.
3. Safe24 hour operation.
4. Time for connectingESP cable to 3l/2-inchcrshouldbecomparablewith
conventionalESP completiontimes.
5. Time to install standardweilhead for ESp and to makesurfaceconnections
shouldbe comparabletoconventionalESp completiontimes.

Completion running times:

1. Determineconnector makeup/ breakouttimes.

2. DetermineCT running speed.

Ilireline performsnce over CT rig:

l. Determinerig up / rig down times.

2. Determine capability to service gas lift mandrels/ sliding sleevecirculating
devices,with coiled tubing unit on site.

Retrievable bridge ptug:

.:

l. Problem free pulling of retrievablebridge plug performance.

Dr. M. S. Farahot
316 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING

lltell performance:

l. Determinepre- and post workover flow performance.

Tubing life:

1. Determinereductionin workoverfrequencies.

Serviceabilitv

l. Determine wireline accessibility for installation and change out of gas lift
valves.

As noted, several of the evaluation points will require several years before an
accuratecomparative determination can be made. At this time, the mechanical
operation regarding the 3 inch coiledtub-ingoperationhasbeencompletedfor
eight wells. Only the successof the mechanicaloperationin the total context of the
trial objectivescan be provided at this time.
.

The following sectionswill presentan overview of the completioncomponentsand

the unique equipmentconfigurationsused.

6.2.2 Complaion Components

The main completion componentswere the coiled tubing connectorsand the

completionaccessories.All other equipmentused;suchasESPs.Packers,gaslift
mandrels,sliding sleevesand nipples,were standardcompletionitemsthatwere
Thesearedescribedbelow.
to the CT with the slip typeconnectors.
attached

6.2.2.1 The Coiled Tubing: The CT wasshippedfrolmthe manufactureon 180inch

extenraldiametersteel spoolsthat have amaximumcapacityof6500ftof 3 ll2-
inch CT. Each spool containedsufficient CT for two completions andweighed
approximately60 000lbs. 70 000psi yield strengthCT wasusedin all completions.

Dn M. S. Farahat
 CH. VI APPLICATION OF COILD TT]BING
3t7
The wall thicknessselectedwas0.r gg inch for thegas
lift cr wasorderedasflash
free, i' e' , the internalweld seamhadbeenremovedduringmanufacture,
asit was
felt that this would minimizepotentialfor wireline
serviceproblemsduringthelife
of the string' Prior to shipping each spoor had
beendrifted,pressuretested,and
nitrogenpurged. The spools were deliveredto
the well locationby truck,anda
crane was usedto amountthemin a hydraulicspooling
device.once theprotective
packagingwas removed,they were ready to
be run throughthe injectorinto the
well.

31/2 connectorwasusedto attachcompretioncomponents

to the
coiled tubing. The body of the connectoris comprised
of four sections,which are
made up manually with pipe wrenchesand require
no specialfitting equipment
(Figure 6.5). Tensile loadsaresupported by l6individualslip segments. As tensile
load increases,the forceexertedby the slip elementsincreases.pressureintegrityis
providad by a metal to metal femrle ring
seal and also by an o-ring
po)ytrafluoroethylene nonextrusion
ring backup.

In testing,theseconnectorsproved suitableforuse
with tensileloadsin excessof
100000lbs andpressures in excessof5000psi.Thesripconnectors werealsotested
to ensurethat they could withstandthe anticipate
startup torquedeliveredby an
ESP (1400 ft;lbf). The torque resistance ofthe connectorwasfoundto be greater
thanthatof theCT; i. e.,in excessof 12000ft.lbf.

The slip [rpe connectorsweresuppliedwith a standardtubingthreadcut

on oneend
for attachmentto completioncomponents.All completion
componentshas cr
connectorsattachedin a work shopprior to being
deliveredto the well location.No
tong facilitieswerethenneededon theCTU work
floor.

3 1/2- inch rnturnar crimp connectors:Internalcrimp

connectorswerenot usedin
the installationof the completions,
mainlybecause
thereducedID inherentwith this
design would place limitations on subsequentwire
line accessibility.
However,a
suitableconnectorthat would be able rejion the
cTandpassthroughthecoiled
tubing injector chains whenretrievingthecompletions
wasneeded.The oneniece

Dr. M. S. Faralnt
318 CH. M APPLICATION OF COILD TABING

internal crimp connectorsconsistedof two male endswith a3l/2 - inch upset in the
middle of the tool. when pulling a cr completion,after a completioncomponentis
removed from the cr string, the intemal crimp connector is inserted into the
opposing ends of the cr, and the exterior of the cr is crimp onto the male endsof
the connector. An air-over hydraulic crimp device is used to contract a setof
circular dies that crush the CT onto the connectortube,effectinga sealaroundan
o-ring . Tensile load is supportby friction the CT and the connector.The interval
cciled tubing crimp connector is shown in Figure 6.6. In testing,the connectors
proved suitablefor loads in excessof 100 000 lbf withtheresultantconnection
having a slightly reducedOD when comparedto that of the original CT.

Erternal-crimp connections.' These one-piece connectors are internally flush

with a slim external upset, and are quickly and easily madeup in the field. A
standard tubing thread can be cut onto one end for attachmentto completion
components.As with the internalcrimp connectors,they requirethe useof an air-
over hydraulic crimp device,which when placedarounda connector,causesa setof
circular dies to contactradically andcrushthe connectoronto the CT. Tensileloads
of up to 100 000 lbs can be supportedby the friction betweenthecrandthe
connector.

relied on O-ring seals. Consequently, they were not used in any of the T
complefions.However,if suitable,they shouldbe consideredfor future applications
as from an economic stand point, it must be noted that the unit cost of these
connections is one-thirdthat ofthe slip type. The externalcrimp connectoris shoen
in Fizure6.7.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TABING 319

Figure 6' S
3 1/2 Inch SIip Type Tubing Connector
64

Tubing

Fitting

Figure, 6,6 Figure. A,V

lnternal Coiled Tubing Connector ErternalCoiledTubingConnector

Dr. M. S. Farahat
320 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING

6,2.3UniqueEquipment

although some of the following equipmentmight exist in similar configurationsin

other parts of the world, the 3 ll2- inch oD sizeof the coiled tubing andthe design
configuration and fabricationof the completionequipmentusedin the oman coiled
tubingoperationsareunique.

6.2.3.1Coiled Tubing Unit: .;

.!1t $ 1!

In addition to the main coiled tubing unit componentsof a control house,injector,

spooling device, ll-inch 3M annular,tubing andbuildramblowoutpreventers
a
work window structurewas also employed.The completeBop. work window and
injector rig up was flange connecteddirectly to the wellheadandsupportedby guy
wlres.
i--

6.2.3.2 lltork lYindow

This structure incorporatedan 1l inch spool,which was flangeddirectly abovethe

BoPs. The work window provided the necessaryworkplatform forpersonnelto
carry out the installation of completioncomponents.It consistedof 20 feet of box
frame sections with a stabilizingleg at eachcorner.The work window housedthe
required specializedequipment, such as the hydraulicpipe positionersand a pipe
shaightener,as well as the more comrnonplaceitemsof equipmentsuchas a slip
bowl, air winch and hand tools. The work window was of a dual-leveldesign
allowing personnelto work at a rangeof heights.

6.2.3.3.Air ll/inch system.To lift thevarioustoolsandcomponents to work floors,

a 1000 lb capacityair winchwassourcedandattached to thelowerwork floor of
the work window. By mountingthe winch to the frameunderthe floor andcutting
an accessholein the floor, it waspossibleto runthecablethroughtheholeandover
a sheavehungfrom thebottomofthe injector.

Dr. M. S, Farahat
 CH. VI APPLICATION OF COILD TABING
321

6-2.3.4 Mouse Hole. A l2-inch round hole was cut in the front part
or the lower
work floor to allow the hung of various tools, componentsand complefion
assembliesup throughthe hole and into the work area.

6.2.3.5 Hydraulic Tubing straightener. During yard hials, it was discovered

that
the cr retaineda significantresidualbendevenafter being run through
the injector.
This residual bend made it very difficult to makeconnectionsand manipulate
the
3l/2-inch heavy wall cr. consequently,a suitablehydraulicstraightening
device
was designedand fabricatedto resolveIbis problem.The shaightenerwas
mounted
to the bottom of the injector and was controiledfrom the work floor.
The system
included over-travel stopsto precludethe fubing from beingreverse
bent. once the
over-travel stops were properly set.excesshydraulicpressurehad no
further effect
on the tubing.

6.2.3.6 Hydraulic Positioning Rains Although the hydraulicstraightener

worked
extremely well, a finer degree of control was requiredin sonic instances,
suchas
when stabbing the cr into a connector.This problemwas solvedby
the designand
fabrication of a set of two hydraulicpositioningrams,which captured
the cT in a
bushing and enabled the position of the cr to be fully conholled in thc
horizontal
plane.

6.2.3.7 slotted Spool. when an electric submersiblepump (ESp)

is run, it is
necessaryto strapa power cableto the exteriorof the cr. If its necessary
to setthe
floor slips on the tubing, the power cabremust be protected.This protection
was
accomplishedby fabricating a slotted spool with the SameoD and ID as
the I l-
.-ch I0 M spool incorporated into the lower work floor. The slips were
thenset
abovethe slottedspool, henceproviding an openingfor the cable.

6.2.3.8 3 l/2-inch Stabbing Snake. Becauseof the natureof the 3,4-inchOD coiled
tubing, i.e. rigidity. residual bead, weight, andunwieldness.a suitablemethod
of

Dn M. S. Farahat
322 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TVBING

stabbingthe tubing throughtheinjectorwasnecessary.

Thuswasfacilitatedby the
fabrication of a stabbing snake consisting of, a I inch OD central cable,
approximately 8 feet long with th-'ee3 the body
of the cableand a 3 l/2- inch rcundednosepiece.

6.2.3.9 Slip-Type Lifi Nubbins. The innovativecratedvariable-OD,slip-type lift

nubbin provided a suitablemethod for attachingthe stabbingsnaketo the end of the
coiled tubing and lifting the gas lift mandrels'onto the work floor. This tool
consistedof a tapered mandrel with three slip sets operatedby a knurled collar
locatedon a threadedbody abovethe taperedmandiel
6.2.3.10 Clamp Around Protection Tray. When installing the slip-type connectors,
the sixteen slip inserts are manually placed. To guard against the possibility of
dropping an insert into the well, a square plate of approximately18 incheswas
fabricated. This hay had a slot barely larger than3 ll2-inches wide with a rounded
end that allowed the tray to be slippedonto the pipe with a closeenoughfit that
none of the tools or slip dies being usedcouldpassthroughifthe were accidentally
dropped.
6.2.3.11 Power Beveling TooI Before any of the connectorsare installed, it is
necessaryto apply a bevel to both theinsideandoutsideoftheendofthecoiled
tubing. During yard kials. this was donewith files and a rotary grinder.This method
was time consuming and inconsistent.To effect cbnsistentbevels,an air-powered
bevelingtool was sourcedTile tool worked well and savedtime and manual labor.

6.2.3.12TaperedRoller Bearings in Gooseneck:RollersAlthoughno gooseneck

roller bearingsfailed in the yard test or on the trial well, on the first actual
completion, it wasnotedthattheball bearingsin the gooseneck
rollerswereunable
to withstandthesideanddirectloadsexededby the.3ll2- inchCT. Consequently it
was decidedto use a larger sized taperedrollerbearing.To accommodate larger
bearings,new rollerswerefabricatedwith a greaterthicknessof metalleft on either
side ofthe individualhearingswith integralsuppord
legsat eachcornerto aid in the
stabilizationof the rig-up. This guying arrangemert(shownin Fig. 6.8)coupled
with thesupportlegsprovidedvery a stable.ig-rrp.

Dr. M. S. Farahat. .
CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING

5/8 inchGuyWiresAnchoredto
Pre-SetConcreteBlocks

2 RearGuysto
Counteract
ReelPull

Minimum Minimum
30 feetfrom 40 feetfrom
Wellhead Wellhead

Figure 4'g
Injector Rig Up
Dr. M. S. Farahat
 324 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING

6.3Efficiently log and Perforate 600(High Angle wells) with coiled Tubing

and completion techniquesfor highly deviated (extendedand horizontal boreholes.

This is the result of cost-effectivedevelopmentof oil andgas via:

o A minimum number ofproduction platform on large stnrctures.

o Incremental but marginal reservesin outlying and/or small fault blocks.
o Shadowreservoirsin deepoffshorewater.
o Significant hydrocarbon accumulations in environmentally sensitive and/or
restrictiveareas,e. g., permaforst,urban areasetc.

The major challengein logging zuchhigh angle,extended-reach, and alsohorizontal

Horizontal .borehole_s_ is gufding the logging tool string to the bottom of the
wellbore. In the horizontalportion ofa borehole,the useofcoiled tubing has proven
successfulin pushing the logging instrumentationtoward the bottom (end) of the
borehole.

6.3.1 llhen coiled tubing is aseful Centrally speaking, standard logging

instrumentation is easily run in vertical holesand in wells having up to a 450off-of-
vertical deviationangle.Conventional ogging ools ill free-fall due to gravity in
boreholes at angles up to 450 In wells in the range of 450 to 600 and having
relatively good boreholeconditions,howeverspecialhardwarestill allows for the
utilization of standard logging equipment. For example, to overcome downhole
constraints to friction of logging instruments,insufficient eight, igidity f ong
instrument assemblies, and the possibility of the bull plug sticking at small
obstructions in highly deviated wellbores, specialmechanical devices,areavailable
including sinker bars, swivels, knuckle joints, side-and-through-rollers,
andnose
guides.

In greater than 600 angle boreholes 400 to 600 wells with poor borehole
hole conditions, special hardware systemsarc required to guide (pu-p) the logging

Dn M. S, Farahat
 CH. WAPPLICATIONOF COILD TABING
325
tool assenrblyto the bottomandto log
the zoneofinterest.

coiled tubing-conveyedwirerinelogging
and perforatingservicesfor exteremry
high-angleand particularryhorizontar
wellboresrecentlyhavebeendeveloped
Atlas for both open and casedhole by
conditions.Althoughnewto theindustry,
method has arreadyproven successful this
in west Germany,France,Alaska
offshoreCalifornia. and

COILED 7T]BING CAPABILITIES

Data telemetry between the downhole
instnrmentationand surfacewellsite
computersutilizes standardsingleor
murti conductorwireline cablethat is
threaded
throughthe coiled tubing. Thelogging
or perforatingcableheadis thenaffixed
the end of the coiled tubing via to
speciallydesignedflared connectors
predeterminedpull out stengths. with
Any wireline tool or specializedauxiliary
equipment,suchasro'ers, swivels,knuckrejoints
andholefinders,maybe attached
belowthecablehead.

Methods for accutatedepth measurements

have been developed.while in the
wellbore with wireline tools, specialized
downholepress'recontrolsubsarow
coiled tubingto be usedfor circulating, the
aswell asfac'itatingreversedflow for
testingwhile perforatingor runningproducfion wefl
logs.

A standardloggrng truck or offshoreskid

unit that housesthe digital computerized
logging servicesequipmentfor dataacquisition
andprocessingis all that is required
for this procedure,otherthanthereelofcoiled
tubingitselfandtheinjectionhead.
The typical wellsite equipmentrequirement
is schematicallyinustated in Figure
6'9' a sequenceof photosin Fig're 6.10
showstheinjectorhead,thecoiledtubing
reel with wireline cable, the pressure
controlsubandthe straight-linemeasuring
unit.

Dr. M. S. Famhat
 CH. VI APPLICATION OF COILD TABING

depth,directionaland deviationdata, weightofdrillingmudorcompletionfluid,

casingand/or openholediameters,empiricalfrictionfactordataandcoiledtubing
specifications.

TABLE 6.1: Coiled tubing speciJication

Outsidediameter(in.) 1.25 1,50
Insidediameter(in.) 1,082 l.3l
Wall thickness(in.) 0.087 0.095:
Weightwith cable0b/1000ft) 1264 1650
Pollingstrength( l,000lb) 19 29

.
6.3.4Coiledtubing history

The pioneering efforts with coiled tubing conveyedwireline servicestook place in

West Germany in October 1985.PreussagAG OiI andGas drilled the Berkhoepen
2001 horizontal welt as a researchproject for theevaluationof currentdrilling,
. surveying and logging technology. The logging progam run by Atlas with coiled
tubing included a gamma ray, casingcollar locator and acousticcementbend log
over a 600-ft (183-m) horizontalinterval in 7-in. casing.

After successfulcompletion of the West Germany project,Atlas usedthe coiled

tubing system in a horizontalwell in the Chateaurenard
field nearParis,France.A
gamma ray, casingcollar ocator nd arbon/oxygenog ere uccessfully ecorded
througha 7-in. slottedliner in the 655-ft (200 m) horizontalsection.

Since these initial and pioneering efforts In Europe, coiled tubing-conveyed

wireline serviceshave been used in the United SatesIn both loggng and per-orating
of an extended-reachwell for StandardAlaska Petroleum Company at PrudhoeBay,
Alaska. A gammaray and casingcollar locatorwere rirn to I1,528 ft P514 in) anda
l4-ft (4.3 m) zonewas perforatedwith 4 in, casingguns.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. W APPLICATION OF COILD TUBING 329

wireline services ere un

More recently, in August 1986,coiled-tubing-conveyed
in California.Casingevaluationlogs havebeenrun successfullyto total depth(TD)
on wells that previously could not be surveyed beyond he ree-fall oint f he
wireline tools. Furtherrnore,the first and pioneering openhole Jogging oh with
coiled-tubing-conveyedwireline services was carried out successfullyin one cf
these California wells, A gammaray-dualinduction focusedlog was run to 6,155 ft
TD (1876m) after neEotiatingdeviationstp to 74.

6.3.5 Futare Applications

At this time, additional applications of coiled tubing wireline methods are already
planned. Because coiled - tubing- conveyed wireline services provide a major
technological and cost-effective advancein the petroleum industry s quest fur
reliable methods of formation evaluation, completionandworkover operationsin
and horizontalboreholes,they promiseto be a survivor.
"*tJnd"d-t"u"h

Dn M. S. Farahat
330 CH. WI FATURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGWT

Cnq.prnnVII
Furunn oF HoRTzoNTAL
Dnrr.,r.,nqc
rNEcypr

The horizontal drilling technique was first practicedinEgyptin lgggbyKhalda

Petroleum company to drill Hayat-3 well. The same techniquewas usedby the
same companyalso in SalamField for drilling a horizontalhole in Salam-7well, in
westemdesert.

7.1Evolution of Horizontal Technology

Horizontal drain holes began as shortradiusof curvewith small diameterswhich

limited assssmentand remedialactions.The first generafion$rpeof true horizontal
wells were drilled as a geometricalexercise,with the targetspecifiedby the geology
department,and the finished hole often deliveredby the drilling departmentalone
who were surprised to find that the geologicalmapsof structureto be incorrect.A
study of y'rst generation type horizontalwells were a successin oman Abu Dhabi
(Al-Muhairy and Farid, 1993) and for the offshore India areaconcludedthat the
wells had delivered 1.9 times more production than a conventionalwell for 1.46
times the cost though high GoR and water cut wreproblems;i.e. they were a
success (Sinhaet at, 1995).

second generation type wells are executedwith the useof pre-well log modeling,
steering while drilling using a combination of geometric and geological
information, and a team or assetmanagementapproach.This techniquehashad
marked successesaround the world and in generalhasimprovedproductionby
many times that of offset conventionalwells. Thesetechniqueshave introduced
their own questions, such as: How do we interpret the logs in terms of Rt and
porosity after thejob" let aloneat the wellsite during drilling?. what do we do when
the actual log does not match the modeled log as drilling progresses?
when the

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. VII FATARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
331

geology drilled doesnot match the anticipated?What if the wrong

answersto these
questionsresult in major lossesm potentialproduction?

This has led to the emergence of a third generation of horizontal

drilling
technology' making use of the introductionof At-the-Bit (Bonner et at, 1993)
and
just as important new azimuthal measurementswhich give
geologistsdirectional
information while drilling to help steer the well towardsand eventually
into the
objective (McCanii et al., 1994;Evanset al.,1995; Bomter ci al., 1996;These
same
measurementsare also used keep the horizontalor inclined or stair stepping
drain
holeswithin the reservoirzone.

The measurementsat the bit now include gamma ray and resistivity in
the new
Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool as well as the inclination which insures(he bit going
is
the direction that you meanit to be going. The azimuthalmeasurements
allow one
to dirtct the bit in a more desirable direction and thus preventing
the bit from
gradually leaving the reservoir objective (Figure 2).
However, when
crossing a fault either unexpectedor expected,these measurements provide
can
details about the structureso as to steerthe well towardsthe optimal position
once
again (Mccann et al., 1994; Lovell et al., 1995; Rosthal et al., 1995).
These
azimuthal measurements include density to see changes in porosity
and/or
lithology and either resistivity or densitycan be usedto assessthe actual
dip while
drilling towards the objective reservoir and also while trying to stay within
the
reservoir layer to maximize production.For smallerdiameteror slim holes
the new
ARC-S brings new possibilities for knowing what is being drilled in real time.

As one drills further away from a vertical well which encounteredthe

top of the
formation and maybe the reservoirzonethe actually dip and characterwhich
will be
encounteredwas soon found to be less certain. Michaelraylor(IggO)ofExlog
International provided a good summary of the welr site perspectiveof a geologist
evaluatinghorizontal wells.

7.I. I Optimal Placement

Dr. M. S. Farahat
334 CH. VII FUTURE OF EORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

Utilization and interpretation of LWD datais aidedby the comparisonof the real
data with models. Typically two types of model might be used:First, a medium
scale, depthmodel of the formation,e.g. a depthrhap constructedfrom 3-D seismic
data with a sampling at the reservoir depth of 50x50 in, and calibrated to the
measured depth of the offset well penetraticins;and second, a fine scale,
petrophysicalmodel of the formationpropertiesmeasuredby the LWD sensors,e.g.
'However,
resistivity and natural gamma-ray radioactivity. the data from the first
type of model are too coarselysampledto provide decision-support,while the data
from the first type of model are essentially2-D projectionsofl-Ddatathatare
madeunder an assumptionof layer cakegeology,that may not be valid.

once a horizontal well has been successfullylanded in a target formation,well

optimization depends on the efficient use of the real-timedatato adjustthe well
position with respectto the: l) upperandlowerboundaries of the targetzone;2)
local positiln of fluid contacts;3) variationsin formationproperties.The lastof
these problems is addressedby the data transmitted in real-time by the latest
generation of LWD tools (Mccann et al., 1993).The first two of theseproblemsare
essentially geometrical and require that real-timedata,suchasthat obtainedfrom
LWD tools, be rapidly usedto updateand refine 3-D models(Murphy, Husseinand
Nurmi, 1996; Bryant and Baygun, 1996).The third problem requiresgeosteering
technology to be able to changewith the changesin the formation,especiallydip or
faulting.
I
cost-effectiveness is increased by using the new azimuthal geosteering
measurementsas the nature of the porosity is revealedand the fluids presentare
evaluatedbefore invasion (Prillman et al., 1995).Thus,besidesbetterplacingthe
well into the reservoir the characteristicsof the reservoir are sometimesbetter
understoodthan would be possible with standardwell logs after drilling the well,
Moreover,it is very likely in a few yearsLWd measurements
will completely
a
replacethetraditionalwell logging.
l

An approach to drilling horizontalwells that is rapidly growing in favor is the dual

Dr. M. S. Farahat t
 CH. WI FUTURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
335

drilling approach. This methodis usedin geologicallysimple areasand

specifiesa
target entry point for the driller, which shouldbe achievedas efEciently as possible.
once the target entry point is reached,the strategy changesto positioning
the
producing interval or drainhole as optimally as possibre so as
to deriver the
maximum return on investment over the life of the well, including adjustments
as
the optimalpositionvaries.

7.1.3 llhy be so accurate?

Today, in a typical Middle East horizontalwell, the targetTVD window

is set at
l0 feet, which is reasonablefor geometric steering, with survey control
and
measurements40 to 60 feet behind the bit. The useof standard2Mhz
resistivity
Iogging while drilling tools, improve the control to as little as +/_ 6
feet, with the
survey point at around 40 feet behindthe bit. Moving the measurementpoint
to 5
feet behind the bit, allows +/- 2 feet of TVD control (Murphy, Hussein
and Nurmi.
teg6).

In considering two simplified examplesboth using the same30 feet of oil

column
reservoirvarying the toleranceallowed fortheReservoirSteeringbetween+/_
l0
feet target objective and the other with a +/-3 feettarget.This greaterprecision
of
+/-3 feet can mean a greaterretum of 70 million dollarson the investment
of usine
higher technology(Murphy, HusseinandNurmi, 1996).

The exampleis a 30 feet of oil-column reservoirwith a water drive so that each

foot
of drainageof the targethorizon will yield 666,000barrelsof oil. And if we assume
the following conditions:that the oivwater contactwith productionwill move up
as
a horizontalplane;that the well is no longer economicalwhen 50% of the drainhole
is in the water; and that the well doesnot comecloserthan 5 feet TVD to the gas/oil
contact. In the first case,with a +/-10 foot targetwindow, the well will produce l0
million barrels overall (15 feet of drainage),and will start having a water cut
problem after the first 3.3 million barrelsareproduced.Total revenuefor the well at
$15 per banel would be $150 million. whereas,in the secondcase,with a +/-3 foot
target window, the well will produce 14.7 million barrels overall (22 feet of

Dr. M. S. Farahat
336 CH. WI FATARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

drainage), and will start having a water cut problem after the firstl2J million
barrel areproduced.Total revenuefor the betterdrilled drainholeis 5220million. or
$70 million more than the first case.

Reducing the geometric targettoleranceis not enoughin most cases.As more and
more horizontal wells are drilled it is becoming apparentthat many of them are
actually more complicated than originally mapped, all of them containedfaults
invisible to even 3-D seismic, somehad thicknessvariationsor porosity changes,
actual pinch outs and internal tight areashavealso beenencounteredall ofwhich
contributeto the final result.

7.1.4Future TechnologyNow Available

It is now possibleto determineformationdipsdownholewhile drilling withoutvery

subjectiveinterpretationsof approximatedata.This realtime sendingof dip datain
real time td be usedin optimallysteeringa well, whetherdeviated,a sidetrack,an
extendedreach going far from the nearestwell, or a horizontalwith a complex
reservoirhas been field tested in the Gulf of Mexico.However,if the sequence is
very complex,suchasif a unknownfaultwith little dip deformationis present,then
it is possibleto removetheResistivity-at{he-Bittool from the holeduringa trip and
examinethe very high resolution imageryfor an final interpretation
(Lovell at al.
1995;Rosthalet al., 1995).Thus, future steeringtanmakehorizontalwellslike
treadinga needlethroughthereservoira realitywithoutthepresentdiffrculties.

7.1.5 Old Fields Contain Bypassed Oil

Evaluationsthe EoR, enhancedoil recoveryprojectsin the USA revealthat it was

not economic to useexpensetertiaryrecoverytechniquesandchemicalsin mostof
the fields studiedbecause
of thegeologicalcomplexityof thesefields.However,it
was recognizedthat considerableamounts of oil wasbeingleft behindaftereven
carefully plannedwater floods. It lead to tle erroneousbelief that random or
systematic in-fill drilling was appropriatefor these reservoirs,but again the
geologicalcomplexitiesof thesereservoirsdid not result in bypassed oil being

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. WI FATARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGY?T
337

uniformly scatteredwithin thesefields.

Later, a similar realization was reachedin the North Sea(speersand Dromgoole,

1992) but in this case it was clear that normal faulting of the giant Jurassic
reservoirs in the central grabenwould yield the ultimate recoveriesanticipatedby
the major petroleum companies.It was shown that fault compartmentalizationwas
resulting in considerableby-passedoil, The realizationof sub-seismicfaults became
obvious (Gauthiet and Lake, 1993) and lead to renewed efforts to understand
reservoir faulting and to use new technology to help find the by-passedoil. The
successof new ideas and new technologyhave extendedthe production life ofthe
North Seafor a number of years.

Area after area could be cited but the reality of reservoir development is that old
fields, even water flood fields in Egypt and elsewhere,containbypassedoil. The
only uncertainty is what quantity of oil, where it is locatedand how to do it. Thus,
geologists should immediatelyrecognizethat the problem is an exploration effort to
find the oil within the reservoirwhen the floodsaredone.Ifawaterfloodwere
carefully monitored it would be easierto findcompartments,orifa3-Dseismic
survey was run before the water flood was completedit would also be easierfor a
later 4-D survey to define the bypassedoil. The reality is eachcaseneedsto be
examined individually but we need to year this new explorationgameas we go
along. Reasonsfor bypassedoil comesdown to somelack of fluid communication
and include a variety of stratigraphiccomplexities,channels,in addition to faulting.

The recognition that oil is often left behind after a field has been developedis not
new and it has beenpart of many companiesformal programbefore abandoninga
field to look for areas of oil not yet produced (Harhnanandpaynter, 1979).In
addition to blpassed oil within old reservoirsthereare oil accumulationsaround,
below and sometimesabovethe producingzone.They may not have beeneconomic
or even possible using old techniquesbut they are also waiting to be discovered
and/or developed.

The evolution of drilling technology now allows extendedreach wells to be drilled

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 338 CH. WI FATARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

from existing platforms or from onshoreat lessexpensethen setfinga

new pratform
as was done years ago in the southernGulf of suez. This new technology
allows
one to drill up to 3 to 3.5 longer than they are deep.Suchwells, like
horizontal
wells allow a reductionin the numberof wells needed,thus, allowing savings
by the
use of smaller offshore platforms. However, with extendedreachwells
or when
drilling horizontally near the edge of a field or away from a field, which
is where
the high density of data points for a mapsare located,then the use
of azimuthal
measurements,direction porosity, garnmaray, andlorresistivity is almost
becomine
mandatory.

7.1.6Faulting ResultsIn BypassedOil

Early productionof oil thatmightnotbedrainedor verymuchlaterasindicated

by
reservoir simulation studies is being targetedfor horizontal drilling in the
Middle
East and elsewhere.In the future it is dearthat many horizontaland extended
reach
wells will tie drilled into attic oil objectivesto producewhat otherwisewould
be by_
passed oil. A description about drilling along the edges of a fault
to increase
ultimate recovery by A. U. Laznus para (1992) providesinsight and ideas.
This
effort is one of the first of thesewells drilled by Lagovenin venezuela.
Gllpco
also describedtheir effort in drilling along the edgesofa fault block in the
July field
in theGulfof suez(Ezzatetal.,1994)andanearlierpaperbyEssodrillingtheEast
zeit freld was particularly revealing as to the problem of interpretingfaults
while
drilling wells in the past. It is exactlythesetypesof problemsfor which
dip and
imagery while drilling has been introduced. Evidence for a greater amount
of
faulting than is accounted for in the seismic mapping of the Gulf of
Suez is
discussedin the recentEgypt WEC (Nurmi, 1995).

Faults are present in nearly every petroleum reservoir and their presencegenerally
results in either earlier water production or compartinentalization of the reservoir.
If
a few faults are clearly defined in seismic mapping then one can conclude that, in
fact, there are many more present that cannot be detected as their distribution
generally follows a power law (Belfield, 1996;castaing et al., in press)although
more careful studies need to be done to more thoroughlydefine the controlling

Dn M. S. Farohat
 CE. WI FUTARE OF HORIZONTALDRILLING IN EGYPT 339

parameters(Nicol et a1.,1996)it appearsthat someclaims(Heifer andBevan, 1990)

of fractal distributions mav be incorrect.

From the examination of 3-D seismic data, 3-D borehole imageryin horizontal
wells and relatedto pressureandproductiondataNurmi et d (1995) concludedthat
nearly all reservoirs in Arabia were faulted,althoughthe earlier2-D seismicand
vertical wells did not reveal it. Depending on the type of fault and reservoir
characterthe result was either openpermeablefaultscausingthe early productionof
either early water or gas within an oil reservoiror the creafionof compartments
with blpassed oil. The early productionof unwantedgasandwater whetherfrom
faults or not results in oil being bypassed.In both cases,strategically placed
horizontalwells can be usedto producethe otherwisebypassedoil.

of faults andtheir deformationas seen

Some of the basic geometricalcharacteristics
in imagery and especially horizontal and highly deviatedwells are describedby
Nurmi et al., (1994),however,the I I yearsof interpretingfaultsin imageryaround
the world have provided a wealth ofexperiencemuchofwhich is notpublished.
Our experiencehas shownthe value of integratedall dynamicinformation available
and pressureprofile of a horizontalwell revealsthe undrainedcompartmentswith
bypassedoil (seeFigure 4.4).

In using azimuthal porosity or gammaray measurementswhile drilling one can also

determine whether the well has entered an upthrown or downthrown block and,
thus, determinewhich way to drill to get back into the targethorizon.

7.1.7 Stratigraphic Complexities Too

The studies in Venezuela were an out growth of the experiencesin the North Sea
(Bryant and Livera, 1991) where some of thebeststudiedreservoirsweremuch
later found to contain large reservesofunproduced oil because offaultingnot
recognized earlier (Speers and Dromgoole, 1992).The nature of the faulting in the
three major producing regions of Egypt (Gulf of Suez,Nile Delta region,andthe
Western Desert) although different are still tikd to produce reseryoir

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. WI FLTTUREOF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

compartments(Nurmi, 1995). Also in some of the North Sea fields

therewere
reservoirs that also had shatigraphic complexities, such as the Ness
Formation
(Keijzer and Kortekaas, 1990) which also resulted in considerable
oil being left
behind.

In some casesit is not immediately recognized that opportunitiesfor

horizontal
welts to collect by-passedoil exists.Ian Bryant andB. Baygun(1996)
describethe
integrated studies to strategically locate horizontal wells onc:
modeling
demonstratedthat horizontal wells could be cost effective.Theft studywas
of the
Lower Lagunillas(Bryant et at, 1996)reservoirsof Mioceneagediscovered
in 1955
as part of the Bachaquerofield in Lake Maracaribovenezuela.The pilot reservoir
charactenzationstudy of part of a reservoirwasjointly undertakenby Maraven
and
schlumberger with the objectives of increasingboth offtake rates and
urtimate
recovery from this mature field by re-developmentwith horizontal wells.
They
describethe way in which old and new data were combinedto build predictive
ibservoir modelsto guide and optimize strategicin fill drilling in this highly
faulted
and stratigraphicallycomplexmultiple layeredsandstonereservoir.

In most wells a tlree sand units separatedby shaleswere recognized

by standard
well logs, but an integratedgeologyandpressuredatarevealedthat
in somewells
some of the sandswere not in communicationas waspreviouslyassumed
that all of
the Lower Lagunillasreservoirsandswere in communication.The old
well log and
pressuredata precluded a detail characterizationofthe bestobjectives
within this
old reservoir. However,by maximizing the useof existingdataandmaking
critical
new measurementsit was possible to build a numericalreservoirmodel
of a pilot
area to quantifiedthe incrementalbenefit that could accruefrom infill
drilling with
horizontal wells. In addition, it the detail characterizationof the thin
bedded
reservoir zones significantly increased the calculatedKH as well
as the oil
saturation. using high resolution logging and detail core analysisthey were able
to
increasethe recoverablereserve estimates.The first of the wells recommended
by
this study was drilled under an integratedservice contract in which membersof the
Maraven and Schlumbergerstudy teamsparticipatedin geosteeringthe horizontal
section of the well. And perhaps this is an indicateof the future of parhrershipof

Dr. M. S. Faruhat
 CH. WI FUTTJRE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
341

expertiseand experience.

ft is recommendedthe following: 'll

From the experience around the world (Fig. 7.5 and 7.6) it is clearthat there are a
host of opportunities in Egypt for horizontalwells and eventuallyevenextended
reach wells. The team approachtakenby Gupco is certainlythe path to follow as it
has been the most successfulfor us and for otherselsewhere.To short circuit the
long learning curve ofusing horizontaldrilling companiesin Egypt can benefit by
others mistakes, such as not using geologists to participatein guiding horizontal
wells into their objectiveas well as originally picking the objectiveandplanningthe
trajectory. our experiencealso made clear to us that using the most appropnate
technology to geosteer the well into the reservoir and using the appropriate
technology to keep it with the selectedreservoir position is cost effective.New
applications will continueto rise for this peholeum industrytechniquenew ro most,
although irs us in solving groundwater problemswas usedthousandsof yearsago
in Iran, Jordan,Oman, the Emiratesand Egypt.

How engineersand geologiststhink aboutreservoirproblemsis changingbecause

applications. Explorafionistswill increasinglyuse horizontalassessmentholes from

vertical discoverywells. If is clear that the assessment
phaseof offshorediscoveries
will include the use of horizontalassessment
wells in the determinationof whether
the size of the discovery warrantsa platform and how many wells are likely to be
needed to develop the field. Geosteeringwill have an increasinglylarger role to
play in thesewells and also the extendedreachwells, which will be drilled to more
poorly definedflanks ofdeveloped fields.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 342 CH. WI FUTARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

!hard
GOC

+10'
:-_-_:-+-
== Ito'
-s--'i
oil/water contact owc
Sandstone

Case 1. +10 feet target tolerance

betweengas cap & oil/water contact structuraldip

'- '
1
coc

S+, owc

Case2. +3 feet target tolerancebetween

gas cap & oil/water contact structuraldip

-r7
figuri("Geosteering is valuable in both placing tire horizontal drainhole in the
reservoir and just as important, in keeping the drainhole on objective within the
reservoir as well. In some casesit may be to parallel the top of the reservoir, as in
figure 1 or as in this case to tread a small taiget tolerance so as to maximize the
producing life o! the well making geosteering cost effective. LWD imagery for
steering would also provide indications of any perrreability anisotropy present.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. MI FI]TIIRE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
343

producing

Horizontal
drainhole

B e ds d i p p i n g e a s t Flat beds p in g wsar - -

D:F,
3-D view of
3-D View of Borehole borehole

Fault Fault

Fault Compartments C o n t a l n l n gB y - p a s s e d
Olt

Orop In preSauls ss a 4000psi

result ot produc on O r i g i n a l r e s e r y ol r
p ress urg
3950 psl

14 LWD
Figure' Geosteering ,o"J in this
horizontal well reveals reservoir
rl}:"ely cutting-thjwe[- 3ragary
Thei J"ur"i"ili.]lrrts resultin eirherby-passed
Ssre
ou or early wa6erproduction Reservoircompartrene
profiling atong rlre tprizonta,t p;;;;fi;""d
;*;;;y-;ffiL
draini oie. near the originar reservoir
pressureswhile associatedby2"s"ed oil
.or,firu,J-Uy- n,ua sampting.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 344 - rH. VIT FTJTI]RE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

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Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. WI FUTURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING
IN EGYPT
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Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH. WI FUTURE OF HORIZONTALDRILLING IN EGYPT

N
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Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH. WI FUTURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING
IN EGYPT
347

Placing a horizontal well into the reservoir

objectiveis one of the most important
geological efforts and critical to the success
ofany horizontalwell project.Thereis
more to that thanjust pointing the drill bit
it the supposedright direction,which
is
called geometrical drilling. Unlessa vertical
or deviatedpilot horeis usedto place
the startingposition in or very near to the reservoir
objectivethen geologistmust be
involved in drilling horizontar or future
extendedreach welrs. Fortunatelynew
technology hasbeenintroducedwhich greatly
aidsthe geologistand drilrer guiding
and placing the well into the objectiveis producing
interval for a horizontalwell is
rhe key to maximizing return on investment
(RoI) for a given we'. control of the
placement of a drainhole inside of
the reservoir is improved by an order
of
magnifudewhen using At the Bit and azimuthal
measurements, ratherthan averaged
measurementslocatedbetween40 and 100
feet behindthe bit. The incrementarcost
of using this technology to place a wellbore
is very small when comparedto the
potentialproductionand revenuegains.

^ thoroughassessment or characterization ofearlypilotsandstrategicallypraced

horizontal wells arounda reservoirmay be considered
expensivebut when balanced
against potential investments in nonproductive
acreage,a costly dry hole or two, a
misplacedplatform, incorrectassumptionsabout
reservoirextent,heterogeneityand
geomeby' or perhaps early premafure
field abandonment,the useof appropnate
high technologyis money well spent,clearly
cost effective.

Geologists need to be involved in the

interpretation of these new detail
measurementsrevealingthe changesin dip and porosity
andInterpretingwhich way
to drill when encounteringone of those every
present small faults invisible to
seismic' The easy work of the well site geologist
in picking formationtops,coring
and testing points, and whether TD has been
reachedis over when switchingto
horizontaland extendedreachwelrs.Thesewells
increaseproductionwhen properly
steeredinto and along the optimum reservoir
traiectorv.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
348 CH. WI FATURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

7.2 Gulf of SuezPetroleumCompanyHorizontal wells .

GUPCO s fir St horizontalwell wasdrilled in the July Field,July 62-69STl. This

well was drilled to recover attic oil trappedbelow two approachingfaults.Zonal
perpendicularto the faultswas key
isolation between the sandand shalesequences
to successof the well. The secondwell, Badri A-16, required penetratingand
isolating the Kareem gas cap from the horizontalsectionthroughthe oil bearing
zones. The GS 365 horizontal well was GUPCO s first mediumradiushorizontal
well. A pre-perforatedliner with externalcasingpackerresults(ECP) isolationwas
designed for GS365, however after the drill string became stuck a drill pipe
completion was utilized to salvagethe well. The four horizontalwells in the Sidki
Field proved the most challenging.The Nubia s deepandhot atl0800 ft TVD in
temperaturesof 295 deg F staticat the end of a hook or designerwellpath is at the
edgeofthe envelop.

7.2.1JuIy Field Horizontal WelI

The first horizontal well drilled by GUPCOin the GOS was July 62-69 STl. This
well was a 1200ft 87 deg lateralsectionparallelinga fault penetratingthe attic oil
trapped against The fault. The key challenge in this well was zonal isolation
between the various sands exposedby the lateralsection(Figure7.7).In orderto
improve the isolation along the lateral section, a 5 in liner wasplannedfor the 8
l12
the lateraland a rotating liner hangerwas usedto improvethe cementdisplacement.

The well was drilled in conjunction with INTEQ as an incentiveproject.INTEQ

had personnel in the (GUPCORasShukheiroffice assistingin the decisionmaking
along the way. The simple incentive was based on a drilling time curve,where
INTEQ would get a bonus if the curvewasbeat or loserevenueif the curvewas
exceeded.Both the bonusandpenaltywere limited to 10 daysmaximum.Although
the well was drilled trouble free for the most art, 47 days was required to total
depth,9 daysmore that projected.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. VII FUTARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
349

An oil basemud systemwas utilized to drill the 8-l/2lateral section.

Hole cleaning
and cuttings transport were monitored by comparing the acfual hole
drag and torque
with prediction from the drag and torque model. when deviations
betweenthc
predicted and actual were observed,a back reamingtrip
was conducted.Lodrrigh
viscosity sweeps were routinely pumpedyielding most of the
time. Minimizing or
eliminating a cuffing bed was imperativein this well, sincezonal
isolationwaskev
to successof the well.

After reaching total depth, the 5 riner and rotating sidki and
drilling a6_1/2in
horizontal wellbore at liner hanger wererun into prace.Thejob appeared
to have
goneasplanned,rotatingthe liner throughout the job. Upon
tripping out after the
cement job, the liner hanger-finningtoor had not releasedfrom the
liner hangerand
the 5 ft liner was unintentionallypulled out of the hole.A review
thejob and liner
hanger design revealed a liner hanger running toor shortcoming.
The slick joint
Special and free traver to determineif the liner hangerrunning tool
was free from
the {iner hanger short, 3 ft. It was Impossible to determine if
the liner hanger
running tool was free with the short light weight 5 liner. The liner
hangerrunning
tool since was modified, extending theslickjoint tor2ftandafterre-drillingthe
lateral sectiona secondtime the 5 in liner was successfullycemented
againrotating
throughout the cementjob.

7.2.2 Badri Field Horizontal ll/ell

Again zonal isolation was a key concernin the lateralsection
of GUpco second
horizontal well, Badri A-16. A gascap exist in the Kareemobjective
of the Badri
Field. Typical Badri Field wells incrude two external casing packer
on the
production liner to isolatethe gascap from the oil bearingzones.
It would be more
imperafive to obtain this isolation in 4-16, sincethe gascap would be
exposedto
lateralwellbore.

Again torque and drag modelingwas usedto evaluatehole cleaning Back reaming
trips were madeto ensurea cuttingsbed was not being depositedon the low
sideof
the hole. The oil basemud systemprovedeffectivein transportingthe cuttings
and
providing a useablewellbore.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
350 CH. WI FATURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

The well was drilled to total depthin 26 days(Figure7.8), onemorethan projected

drilling 2000 ft of 8-llZin horizontalwellbore.Incorporatingthemodificationsof
the July 62-69 STlrotating liner hanger,a 5in liner {uu, *n andcementtroublefree,
rotating the liner through out the cementjob. Two ECPswere successfullyplaced
andinflatedwith cementaboveandbelow the Kareemgascap.

7.2.3GS 365Fietd HorizontalWell

A 3000 ft lateralsectionin the Nubia formafion*1, the obiectiveof this well. The
targets were located just below the platform, ,o u -"di,r* radiuscurvaturewell
path was selected,GUPCO s first 13.5deg/100ft build rate.GS 365 is similarto
Sidki with one major difference, the Nubia at GS 365 is not depleted, so the
resultingcasingprogramyieldeda8ll2 inch lateralsection.
Drilling to the plannedbuild-upsectionwasplaguedwith problems,however
none of which of were associatedwith the fact that the well wasa horizontalwell.
During the 13.5 deg/100 ft build- up, severalmotor failures slowed progress.
Special medium radius motors were brought in for this job, was too however
conventionalsteerable motorswereusedto completethebuild sectionwithout any
significant problem.The lateralsectionwas drilled with slow speedmotorsandTri-
cone bits, every time a PDC bit wasutilized on a motor the motor would fail. The
temperature at GS365 is similar to Sidki, 290 deg F, causing rotor/stator
;
interferencefit problems. i
Approximately 2056 ft of the planned3000-ft'lateralsecfionrvasdrilled, when
a self-inducedkick was taken. Low/High viscosity sweepshad beenusedvery
effectively to maintaina cleanwellbore.An 9.0 PPGoil basemud wasbeingused,
drilling nearthe balancepoint of the reservoirpress[re(8.8 PPGEMW). Dieselwas
being used as a low viscositysweepfollowedby a viscosifiedsweep.A loiltrigh
viscosity sweep was pumped while drilling, however before the sweep was
circulated to the surface, a tip was initiated. Without the added benefit ofthe
equivalent circulating density, the light weight of the diesel pill resulted an
underbalancecondition, thus the kick. During the kill operation the drill string
becamestuckin the lateralsection.
 BADRIA. 16

ili -^o*'P r o p o s e d
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ri
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o z 41 1 6 o o z l o e o z r
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DAYSFROMSPUD

Figur" 7-8

Dr. M. S. Farohat
352 CE. WI FUTURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

The completion plan for GS 365 includedan uncementedpre-perforatedliner with

9-ECPs separatingthe perforatedsectionsof liner (Figure7.9).After the drill swing
becamestuck, economics for the well would notjustifu a sidetrackandre- drilling
of the lateralsection,so a uniquecompletionwas configuredutilizing the stuckdrill
string (Figure 7.10). As in Badri and Sidki, it was necessaryto isolatetheoil
bearing zone from a gascap.The 5in drill pipe hadbeenseveredtimesthroughthe
lateral sectionin an effort to recoverthe stuckdrill string , providing a flow areafor
producedfluid to enterthe 5 in dill pipe.The gascapwas isolatedby spottinga acid
solubleplug inside and below the severeddrill pipe at thebaseofthegascap,
cement was circulated behind the drill pipe from below the gascapinto the 9 5/8
inch casing. Since all the isolation work wasvia coiled tubing,coiled tubingwas
imperativeto the successof this operation.

It was necessaryto tie the 5 in drill pipe backto a 7in scabliner, so an assembly
was designedto allow the 7in scabto be tied backto the 5 in drill pipe, a 7in ECP
inflated and a 7 in scabliner installed(Figure.7.10).Oncethe uniquecompletion
was in plate, a motor and mill wasusedon coiledtubing to cleanout the cement
remaining inside the drill pipe. Acid was spotted acrossthe acid soluble plug
openingthe 5

Although thoughtto be a completeloss,creativethinking anduniqueapplicationof

off the shelf equipment, the drill pipe completionon GS 365A-4 yieldedan PI of
7000BPD well from a total loss.

Dn M. S. Farahat
 cH. mr FaTAREOFHORTZONTALDRILLINGINEcypT _
353

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354 CH. WI FATURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

FrcuRE
F.

TOP OF 7" LINERHANGER@ 1,929',

13 3/8"@ 2,092'

GS 365 A4 ST2
ACTUAL COMPLETION

EXT.CSG.PACKER@ 8929'

TtE BACK SLEEVE@ 9,01s'

EXT.CSG.PACKER@ 9,036'

scREW lN SUB W/ STANDINGVALVE@ 9,100'

s s/8"@ss17'

5" HWDPX DP
@ r0,070" 46.5o
HORTZONTAL6 TD @12,184',
10,647'(10,128'wDl

GAS OIL CONTACT

5s'
@ 10,143"

SEVERED @ 10,421' SEVERED SEVERED

(10,113'TvD,
77.2'1.
@ 10,540'
 CH. WI FUTURE OF HOMZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
355

7.2.4Sidki Field Horizontal Wells

The Sidki horizontal wells have beenthe most challenging

lateralwells drilled to
date by GUPCO in the GoS. Thereareseverardifferences
betweenthe first three
lateral wells discussedaboveandthe Sidki lateralwells. Since
the Nubia is depleted
in the sidki field, an additional casing string is requiredresulting
in a slim hole
lateral section. The t4ubit is deep and hot in the sidki
fierd, exceedingthe
limitations of The tools availableto effectthe desiredhajectories.
Eachhorizontal
well was a hook or designerstyle weilboretrajectory,increasing
the torqueanddrag
in the deeper lateral section. And sincethe Nubia is depleted
at sidki, differential
sticking trout the lateralsectionwas initially a significantproblem.
As with all the
previous 608 horizontal wells, the Sidki wells
alsorequiredzonalisolation.The
Nubia gascap must be isolatedfrom the oil zones.

A eompositeof a[ ihe drilling time curvesfor the four Sidki

horizontalwells shows
the performanceof the wells (Figure 7.l l). A missedcasingpoint
and7 5/g inch
leak resulted in poor perfonnancefor this well, howeverif
thesetwo instancesare
normalizedout, the performanceon B-7 is in line with the other
threewelrs.

7.3 Nile Delta First Horizontal Gas lltells

(well EL QARA -9 is the first horizontal weil by petrobel

in Egypt (NIDoce
concession),located on the homonymousstructure, closeto
the main gasfield in
ABU MADI of which form in practicean appendix.The feasibility
of horizontal
drain hole in the main level III reservoir(Figure7.l3)
The benefit of the horizontalwell in respectofthe vertical
one,in EL eARA
can recognizednot only in the higherproductionpotentialbut
alsomainly in the
possibility of producing with lower pressuredrawdown,reducing
coning andsand
problems,and with higherratesuntil the waterreachesthe top of
the reservoirwhile
in a vertical well the availablepay and Its production potential decrease
with time
accordingto waterrise.

Dr. M, S. Farahat
 3s6 CH. VII FATURE OF HOR]ZONTAL DRII.I,TNG IN P,GVPT

rf
COiIPOSTTE
DRILUNGCURVES
SIDKIHORIZONTAL
WELI.S

;IDKIB-7: TWOKEYEVENTS
IEMOVED.

I. MISSEDCASINGPT.
I.7.5/8'CASING
LEAK

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Figare 7 ll

Dr. M. S. Farahat
CH. MI FUTURE OF HOMZONT)L D'MLLING IN EGYPT

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Dn M. S. Farahat
358 CE. VII FUTARE OF HOMZONTAL
DRILLING IN EGYPT

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Dr. M. S. Fard.hat
 CH, WI FUTAREOF HORIZONTALDRILLINGIN EGYPT 359

In the light of above it is recommendedto drill the well from surfacelocation

adjacentto well QARA-I on its eastsideto sharethe samewell productionfacilities
(Figure7.14)

The plan developedby Pefrobeldrilling engineeringdepartmentforesawfirstly the

drilling of a pilot hole in order to precisely investigatethe top of the largest
reservoir (main level III of ABU MADI formation).Following the achievementof
this identification the pilot hole would be plugged back up to a certaindepthin
order to preciselycut the horizontalsectionofthe drain hole exactlyat the position
found to be the most suitable according to the results from the pilot hole
investigation.

Concerningthe drain hole plan outlineswere to locatedrain hole verticalposition

10 mts below the top of level Ill main, with vertical toleranceof drain +/- 7 mts,in
327bazimuthorientationwith average200 nuts drain targetlength(lateralsection).

7.3.1 Pilot Hole Drilling Procedure and Related Problems

The pilot hole (pro-penetration)hole in welt QARA-9 washighly considereddueto

the fact that geological markerscan not be relied on, well targetzoneis relatively
thin andlateralsecfionmustbe placedcloseto a water contact.

The well was spudedin on July 12, l995.Theupperpartofthewellwasdrilled

vertically without problems down to 9 5/8in casing point at 2900 m. Drilling
continued with 8 li2in hole startingto kick off the pilot hole at 2194mts with BUR
of 2 degi3Omts.
The building ratewas scheduledto achievethe maximuminclinationof 400at 3158
mts (3140 TVD). The subsequent400hold sectionwould crossthe reservoirto T.D
3406 mMD) (3330 mVD). First unresolvedstuck pipe was experiencedWhile
making connection at 3148 mMD (bole bottoma8l50 mMD, 3l3l mVD),the
correlationidentifiedthe stuckpoint in good correspondence
with ABU MADI

Dr. M. S. Farahat
360 CH. WI FUTAKE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

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Dr. M. S. raiiiai
 CE. WI FI]TARE OF HORIZONTALDRILLING IN
EG,YPT 361

level II formation.The sidetrack wasperformed

from 3035mMD, drilling theg r/2
in pilot hole cotinued down to 3324mMD.where
3, coreswere cut fiom 3324to
3360 mMD through main ABU MADI level III,
and then drilling g l/2in was
continued to TD at 3420 mMD (3341mVD) with
inclinationof 46.30andazimuth
of 323'f wherethe secondstuckpipe was experiencedat
the bottomof 3420mMD
with bit at 3407 nuMD (3332 mvD), the stuck
wasrocaredagainstABU MAUI
level III main (depletedgasbearingmain level).

The pilot hole logging performedinsidestuckpipe

which affectedthe evaruationof
the reservoirandthe preciseidentificationof the
targetzonein which to cut in drain
hole, unsuccessfullyto flee stuckpipe, severed
stringat 3236mMD (3214 myD),
the pilot hole was then pluggedjustabove topoffish at3200mMD,cementprug
was repeatedthree times due to excessive
hole enlargement,succeededto set
cementplug no 4 from 2976 to 2g46 muMD.

Basedon the abovementionedproblemswhich

encounteredwhile driiling pilot hole
(experiencedtwo pipe stucks pius tight hole,partial
circulationlossesand drilling
with over balance press) in order to solve
shale wash out problems and hole
enlargementand also to reducethe threatof differential
stickingproblemsdecided
to replacewater basemud with oil basemud while
drilling the drain hole.

According to logging data achievedwhile drilling

by LWD and from core data
analysisa most suitabledrain hole plan was issued.

7,3,2Drain Hote Drilting procedureand Relatedproblems

washed down the cementplug at 2gz2 mMD,the

hole was almostlyverticalat that
depth,displacedwaterbasemud in hole with oil base
mud weight l.lg kg / lit

The side trackingof the pilot hole wasperformed

with steerablesystem from2922
to 3054mMD in verticalmode,wherethe kick off point
was startedthe actuarbuild
up trajectorywas then carriedout, featuringavg pUR
of 7o/30mts,reachedlevel III

Dr, M. S. Farahat
 CH. WI FATURE OF HOMZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

sandof top A,rMadiat 3338mMD (3270mVD) with drift angle690.

The build up continuedinto level IU to reachthe planned90 inclinationat main

level III gas producingstrataandtargetofthe drainhole.The entrypoint recorded
at 3455 mMD and 880inclination,accordingto the correlation.Drilling continued
with inclinationof 880.Hold to the 3544mMD (g9 mts lateral).

Unresolvedstuck pipe experienced(d'-leto drilling with overbalancereached210

.q
bar), severedstring at 3455 mMD. An openhole sidetrackwasperformedin low
side of horizontalsectiona depth3390mMD. By steerablesystemdroppedangleto
76.5DEG (gained3 mts of verticalgap).

The build up inclination to 900toavoidinterferencewith first hole and fish, slight

azimuth correction from 338 to 340.80was applied.Drilling continuedto TD at
3594mMD (Figure7.15).
a

The target reservoirwas loggedwith the LWD gammaray in a secondtime. with a

purposelyrun trip in hole.

7.3.3RevisedPilot and Drain Hole

Basedin the experiencegained from drilling pilot hole the folllowing pointsshould
be consideredin the forthcomingwells in future.

Kafr El sheik formation should be isolatedby the intermediatecasing. The

instability and sloughing tendencyof these shale may be attributedmoreto the
mechanicallyinducedstresses
ratherthanchemical(Hydrocarbon).
.. ,. .

Also, a condition of overpressureexists, this is quitecontrolledby mud wt 1.35-

1.38 kg/lit, in our casethe lowe.rmost 150mts of Kafr El sheik formationremained
exposedto 1.18kg/lit mud density,which causedoverpressuredshaleproblem.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. VII FATURE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING
IN EGYPT
363

'ELLretnl-g
PETR{lEEL FIELDr Et 0rfll
LDClttOI I llu fltl

t olflr-9 P I L O T
2 0AR^-9P I L O TS T E
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3 OARA-9H0RI Z0ltTAL
1 SARA-9
[0ntz.9T G
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Fr3 7.15

Dr. M. S. Farahat
364 CH. WI FATARE OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT

From the Abu Madi formationlithology andpressureprofile it is found two water

bearing sand of Abu Madi level II andLevel III A, its recommendedto setin order
to drill bottom Kafr El Sheikhformationwih Abu Madi waterbearingzonesin one
phaseusing 1.30kg/lit mud wt which consideredgood of compromisebetweenthe
balancing of overpressureshale of Kafr El Sheikformation,andits low enoughto
prevent any water flow andminimize an1'partialcirculationlossesthat may happen
in oermeablesandof Abu Madi formationdown to bottom of level III.

If the aboveisolation is positionalyachieved,drilling throughtargetAbu Madi main

level III will be possibleto drill with light weight mud, which being beneficialfor
reducing drilling hazard such as differential sticking formationdamageandwill
increasingpenetrationrate. (See attachedrevised casing profile with horizontal
programme)(Fig. 7.l6).

7.3.4ConpplaionSystem

Over the past few years Petrobel has devoted significant resourcesto the
developmentof equipment and techniquesfor drilling andcompletinghorizontal
wells, the following series of compositecase histories was gleandedfrom the
combinedexperiencesof companiesthat drilled and completedhorizontalwells.

The caseprovide an overview of completionprinciplesanddemonstrated

advantage
and disadvantagesof technology available today, planning considerationfor
idealizedcasesare examined.

The technology being developedandappliedfor completinghorizontalwells must

be balancedthe risks ofusing unproventools andtechniqueswith the increasedcost
alone(figure7.17).
ofachievingtechnicalsuccess

f:

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 CH. WI FATURE OF EONIZONTAL DRILLING IN EGYPT
16{

REVISED CASING SETTING DEPTH

DRAIN HOLE HoIRzoNTALPROGRAM

9 5/8' CSG.

PrLOT KOP@2920MT

rOP r,/M

'. HORTZONTAL
KOP @ 3242 MMD.
LEVE! Il

LEVEllth
9s/8'CSG.@3242tr'r
t.
EVEUII T.I/IIN
TD @ 3547Itfl/D. ANGLE 90 DEG.

o
ct
ro
{

rrc -7.l6
H
366 .- .. cH.wIFUTUREOFHORIZONTALDRTLLINGTNEGWT

{{69 m.
13 3/8'

TOPCMT
Theor.@2130m

EICP 3591m
@3250MD 7'SLOTTED LINEAR
'v
CTIID
@3241MD

orgl'FcoslNc sKETcH, ELQAR'A- 9 HoRIzoNTAL

Dr. M.-S. Farahat
 CH. WI FATARE OF HOMZONTAL
DRILLING IN EGYPT
367

7.3.4.1 Completion Techniq

ues and Consideratio ns

As noted earlier, it is possible

to completehorizontalwells as
openhore,slotted
liners and external packer (ECps),
or conventionalliner assembry.
completionmethodcan havea significant The choiceof
influenceon welr performance.

Successfulliner installafionand
cementationil
completion
of horizontar
wers,
inourcase
r-.;;:TH:Hi:r:::il_HlJl;
zone (drain horesection)from water
flow top part formationAbu Madi
LevelIII A. leverII and

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 ., 1:

368 REFERENCES

RnnTnNNCES

l. Noteson Drilling Cowse,MurchisonDrilling Schools,Inc., pp. 34-38.

2. IHRDC. lntsnucturalPrograms r:, r. .

3. Leach,C. : "Overviwe",JPT(Jan.2001),pp. 30.

4. Carmichael,F. R. : Offshore Drilling Technology,NoyesData Corporation,

London,England,1975.

5. Davenport,B. : HorizontalandVertical DrillingMc.Graw-Hill, Inc. 1992.

6. Gas ResearchInstitute(GRI): "Underbalanced

Drilling Manual",Publishedby
-
GasResearchInstitute,Chicago,Illinois, USA, 1997.

7. Tarek, A. : " New Technique to Minimize Drilling Problemsin the Offshore

Mediteranean Concessions",paper was presentedat the 13tl'Petroleum
Conference by EGPC,Proc.Vol. I, CairoOct.2l -24 , 1996
organized

8. Fouad,A., andFayed,M. A. : "New Techniqueof OneTrip CompletionSystem

Application in the First HorizontalWell in Nile Delta",paperwas presentedat
the 13"' PetroleumConferenceorsanizedbv EGPC"Proc.Vol. I. Cairo Oct. 2l-
24 , 1996.

9. Holt, C. A., and Mansour,S.: "Gulf of SuezpetroleumCompanyHorizontal

Drilling Challenge",paper was presentedat the 13ft PetroleumConference .
organizedby EGPC.Proc.Vol. I, CairoOct. 2l -24, 1996.

Dr. M. S. Farahat
 REFERENCES 369

10. Nurmi, R. D. et al.: " Geological Applications and Characterization

of
Horizontal and External Reach wells", paper was presentedat the l3rh
PerroleumConferenceorganizedby EGpc, proc. vol. I, cairo oct.2r -24
.
1996.

ll. Holt, c. A. et al.:"Re-Development of theSidkiField-Drilling

caseHistory",
paperwaspresented at the l3'l' petroleumconferenceorganized by EGpc, proc.
Vol. I, CairoOct.2l -24. 1996.

12. Sherwin, T. et al.: "Case Study from Oman for Coiled Tubing Deployed
Completion Techniques" paperwas presentedat the I 3tl'PetroleumConference
organized
by EGPC,Proc.Vol. I, Cairo Oct.2l _24 . 1996.

13. Dickinson, w. et. Al. : "coiled-Tubing Radialsplacedby water-JetDrilling:

Field Results,Theory,and practice",SpE No. 2634gpaperwas presentedat the
68'r' Annual rechnicar conference andExhibition of SpE herdin Houston,TX
3-4Oct. 1993.

t4. world oil's Handbookof Horizontal Drilling and completion Technorogy,

Gulf PublishingCompany,Houston,TX. USA. l99l

r,
Dr. M. S Farahat