Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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A Design Manual
for Water Wheels
with details for applications to
pumping water for village use and
driving small machinery
WILLIAM G. OVENS
VITA, Inc. 1975
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
I Introduction
II Formulation of the Problem
III Design Limitations - Advantages and Disadvantages
IV Theoretical Considerations for Design
A. Stall Torque
B. Power Output vs. Speed; Required Flow Rates
C Bucket Design
D. Bearing Design
E. Shafts
F. Minor Considerations
I Water Pumping
A. Pump Selection Criteria
B. Attachment to Wheel
C. Piping
II Other Applications
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF TABLES
- ii -
LIST OF FIGURES
- iii -
PART ONE: THE WATER WHEEL
I. INTRODUCTION
cost is beyond the capability of many potential users. Some effort has
This paper reports on one such project involving the development of low
Regardless of the final use to which the power is put the natural sources
them:
1. Falling water
2. Animals
3. Sun
4. Wind
5. Fossil fuels
6. Nuclear fuels
7. Organic waste
Sun, wind and water are free and renewable in the sense that by using
- 1-
capital cost consideration hydro-power may be very unattractive. Sun
and wind have obvious natural limitations based upon local weather
the world.
The choice of method depends upon a complex interaction of too many con-
body, the decision was taken based primarily on the obvious abundance of
power, but for reasons mentioned under "Other Applications" in Part Two
- 2 -
this has not been pursued. However, in many places, villages are
The principal intended use for the power generated by the machine dis-
cussed in this manual has been the pumping of potable water for dis-
discussed later.
Limits on the scope of the project were decided based upon numerous
considerations:
or machinery required.
techniques.
simple.
- 3 -
I decided to concentrate on investigating the feasibility of using the
water wheel, it being the device which seemed most likely to optimize
the criteria set out above. There are other types of machines suitable
for creating mechanical power from hydro sources, but none, known to me,
Water wheels are in use in various parts of the world now. Many have
that a workable wheel can be constructed by almost anyone who has the
attests to the fact that designers/builders often have more pluck than
proper sizes required to meet a specific need and to set out design
arranged so that buckets and frame together rotate about a centre axis
undershot wheel, the inlet water flows tangent to the bottom edge of the
wheel. In the overshot wheel, the water is brought in tangent to the top
in the buckets until dumped out somewhat before reaching the lowest point
- 4 -
on the wheel. The breast wheel has water entering the wheel more or
less radially, filling the buckets and then again being dumped near the
bottom of the wheel. Typical efficiency values vary from as low as 15%
for the undershot to well over 502 for the overshot with the breast
wheel in-between.
We shall concentrate on the overshot wheel as being the most likely choice
to give maximum power output per dollar cost, or per pound of machine, or
gating against this choice is the need for a more complex earthworks
and race way with the overshot wheel where the water must be guided in
wheel. The undershot wheel, of course, may be merely set down on top of
many streams the rise and fall with heavy local rainfall is spectacular,
The simplest flood protection is a channel leading from the river to the
anyway, the odds are very good that a suitable location to employ an
overshot wheel can be found for most installations. In the event that
ease with which it can handle trash in the stream. First, the water
shoots over the wheel and so trash tends to get flung off into the tail-
race without catching in a bucket. Secondly, there are not usually the
tight spaces between race and wheel in which trash can jam. Somewhat
- 5 -
closer fitting arrangements are required with breast and undershot
The slow speed is advantageous when the wheel is utilized for driving
hand. Coffee hullers and rice hullers are two which require only
villages normally operates at well under 100 cycles per minute and can
course, has been done for hundreds - maybe thousands - of years else-
where.
Devices of this type have relatively low power output capability. The
power output depends upon the dimensions of the wheel, the speed and
side diameter and with bucket depth of 12 in. operating at 7 rpm, with
flow rate of 28 cubic feet of water per second had an estimated power
- 6 -
output of 18.5 hp (14 kw) (calculated at an efficiency of 100%). Actual
output on that wheel has not been measured but would be less than 10 hp
(7.5 kw). A 3 ft. 0D, 1 1/2 ft. wide model constructed by the author is
wheel can be built almost anywhere that a stream will allow, with the
A. Stall Torque
width of the bottom of the bucket was typically 1/4 of the width
- 7 -
It is convenient to use three of the wheel's dimensions for
radius, r; the wheel width, w, i.e., from side to side; and the
0.05 <t/r < 0.25 are considered. For smaller ratios, the potential
race exit. Also, since the torque and power depend upon having
the annulus width to values exceeding t/r = 0.25. In this way the
0.15.
- 8 -
."SVCKET A N 6 L
t , AwWULUJ Vl*DTH
VL
OvrS'i Ofc ^ o i u j f
Figure 1.
- 9 -
total weight of water doing useful work on the wheel is 1/4 of
the same as the O.D., I.D. and width of the wheel. The actual
annular quadrant shown in Fig. 2b, the stall torque can be esti-
sidered necessary.
Blank spaces are left for t/r ratios outside the limits given above.
B. Power Output
Power output is the product of the torque on the output shaft and
- 10 -
(O
E <D
J <
o m
c
O
(/>T3C
Q.
<D
(V O)
c m
<D
t_ .c
- II
r*
- 12 -
tt 7 B O
- 13 -
The horsepower output per rpm per foot of width is shown in Table
the Table II entry appropriate to the size wheel used times the
The water power input is the maximum power which the wheel could
of the water's specific weight, the volume flow rate, and head and
power per rpm per foot of width of wheel. The volume flow rate is
that required to keep the buckets full and is given in Table IV.
The lower edge of the wheel is the highest elevation permission for
side anyway.
adopted so far can be found by taking the ratio of the power output
from Table II and the corresponding power input of Table III. These
values, for the water weight distribution assumed before, are about
50% for the narrow annulus wheels and drop to just under 45% for
and constructed wheel will give efficiencies better than this. This
- 14 "
^
CNJ CN -
CTi i^\ r
O
CM
- 15 -
- 16 -
- CN
2 (N
O
O r-
s
O
-- ^ ~ CN
is +-
17 "
- 18 -
CM
- 19 -
- 20 -
comparatively modest value is primarily the result of not con-
sidering the effect of the water still in the buckets below the
assumption that the buckets remain full half way down the wheel
and suddenly dump all their water is not accurate. That in-
When the water flow is less than the required to fill each bucket
V = Q/4N
N = speed (rpm)
pgV where
p ** density of water
g gravitational acceleration
hp - 2n NT
33,000
- 21-
rotation axis. It is equal to average diameter, D , of the annulus
av
divided by fi.
Therefore
hp 27TNpgQDav - PgQDav
ATINX33,000 66,000
function of the average diameter, that the efficiency drops off for
may be estimated most easily by the equation for water input power,
diameter.
practical t/r values. The author's prototype with t/r = .17 tested
Blank spaces are left where flow rates are impractical for the
wheel size given. Upper bounds to practical flow rates for various
wheel sizes are found by multiplying the entry from Table I by the
practical upper limit of speed and width for the O.D. and are
- 22 -
O <D o
*- - (N
O - -
23
FLOW RATE (IMP. GAL/MIN)
ADJUNCT TO TABLE V
Be sure to refer to Table V and the text for
instructions on use.
- 24 -
-25 -
construct a wheel of width less than 1 ft. and to operate It at
mated. These are indicated by blank under the 100 gpm and
The upper limit to the speed at which the wheel will operate de-
pends primarily upon the rate at which the wheel slings the in-
upon the speed and radius of the wheel and secondarily upon the
bit high, based on prototype tests. With the larger wheels the
In summary, the type of power vs. speed curve that one can expect
C. Bucket Design
greatest torque on the wheel shaft. The upper limit to this condition
- 26 -
is that the buckets fill completely at the top, carry the full
water weight with no spillage to the bottom and dump their loads
the buckets as they travel from the top, where they are filled,
straight sided bucket the limits on the angle the bucket makes
with the tangent at the O.D. or I.D. (See Fig. 1) are from tan-
process is slow at the top because of the very shallow angle with
bucket passes bottom dead centre. This carries some water up the
extreme, radial buckets are nearly empty by the time they have gone
1/4 turn from the top because the bucket wall is then horizontal.
angle (to the tangent at the I.D.) of about 20. While the amount
- 27 -
shape is about 20% less than for the tangential bucket, the loss
length of the bucket (distance from I.D. edge to O.D. edge) is more
than 30% shorter than the tangent ial bucket. With a 30 bucket,
The use of flat bottomed buckets does not significantly change the
decrease the distance the water must travel to empty the bucket.
cated than that of the straight sided bucket. Bottom widths should
off the side width with the attendant saving in travelling distance
carried up the back side of the wheel. Any water carried up the
back side lowers the efficiency. I cannot give figures for the
- 28 -
hard to imagine as much as ten percentage points.
the bucket wall material. The ideal wheel has closely spaced
bucket material. Typical values for the size wheels discussed here
D. Bearing Design
The wheel itself has only one rubbing or sliding part subject to
wear, viz. the bearings upon which the axle is supported. Standard
- 29 -
ball or roller bearings are too expensive and complicated to satisfy
wooden bearings is, I think, the best alternative for several reasons:
3. Negligible cost.
the wheel. Rock maple, lignum vitae, and various species of oak are
used commercially, but when these are not native to the country of
intended use, substitutes may be found. Among woods with fairly wide-
suggestions.
available wooden bearings would be around 75 psi (for oak) to 150 psi
(for lignum vitae) for orientations with the sliding surface parallel
to the grain and about 150 to 300 psi respectively for end grain use.
- 30 -
100 psi parallel to the grain and 200-250 in end grain usage. It
be, but structurally the figures given can be used with confidence.
equal to the volume of water carried at stall and that the specific
Table VII shows the approximate weight on each bearing per foot of
product of the Table entry and the width of the wheel in feet. This
the shaft and does not allow for additional loads imposed by the
the Table VII values for the purposes of determining bearing size
from Table VIII for the side of the wheel where the machinery is
different, we usually make both the size indicated by the larger load.
Table VIII calculated on the basis of 100 psi in parallel useage and
200 psi for end grain useage and L/D = 1. Values are given to
- 31 -
0.
CL Q ,
(N
- 32 -
TABLE VIII
Load (lb.)
than the required shaft size, a "built up and banded" bearing may be
used. A wooden cylinder is built onto the shaft at the bearing location
such that the cylinder O.D. is the necessary size. Then steel bands
are bent and fastened to the cylinder. The criterion for design in
this case is that the product of the diameter and the total width (sum
of the entry in Table VIII for the corresponding load and grain
orientations.
E. Shafts
upon which material is used and the dimensions of the wheel. Minimum
- 33 -
permissible shaft diameters d, may be estimated from the equation
/ 2 , J.
d3 16 V M + T
TTS
the product of the bearing load (entry in Table VII for the appro-
priate wheel) and the distance from the wheel side wall to the
It must be included only when the external machine load times the
distance along the shaft from the point of application of the load
is larger than the bearing load from Table VII times the distance
along the shaft from the bearing to the point where the wheel is
attached.;
For solid wooden shafts two equations are used and the larger dia-
- 34 -
d 3 - 16T
irS
3
d = 32M
TIB
where S, T and M have the same meaning as before. However, the value
bending stress and has a value of about 1500 psi for typical hardwoods.
For hollow shafting like a pipe, the equation to determine the out-
d3 " 16 4tt2 + T2
irS (l - k4)
The values of O.D. and I.D. are standardized for pipes. For bearing
the bearing is 1 foot from the edge of the wheel, the standard pipe
such a size that the bearing load would be given in Table VIII.
The values are approximate only since exact values cannot be given
until all the details concerning the loads due to the attached pump
or machine are known. The values given should serve as a guide only
- 35 -
TABLE IX
Bearing load (lb) 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000
Pipe Diameter (in) 1" l1/2" 2 1 /2" 3" 4" 6" 8"
VIII, it is obvious that when using pipe or solid steel shaft, the
(and heavier) than necessary but may save some work. With wooden
shafts, the required shaft diameter will usually exceed the required
bearing diameter and then one has the choice of reducing the shaft
bearings. In either case the shaft must be banded with steel, sleeved
in the bearing.
F. Minor Considerations
over which the design/builder has control which may affect the
effiency slightly. The raceway exit should put water onto the wheel
- 36 -
1. flow rate and raceway inclination which affect
approximately tangent to, and at the top edge of, the wheel.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Materials
Most wheels are wood, of course, though they need not be. Among
carpenter can make a proper choice on all these except perhaps the
varies widely around the world. Because even the best grades have
painted, plywood should be chosen only when it can be well cared for
- 37 -
Regarding the framework to mount the wheel on, bamboo might seem a
logical choice in. many countries but the durability is such that
it probably would require more long term care and replacement than
B. Construction Techniques
need and to make sure that prevailing water supplies are, in fact,
Attachment of the wheel sides to the shaft, whether the sides are
is used, a thin flange plate can be welded to the shaft (if such
the spokes are used, the bending in the spokes at the flange must
attached to the flange with two or more bolts and the distance
required between the bolt holes to support bending varies with wheel
- 38 -
wheel, when using radial spokes attached to a flange by 2 bolts
and to the wheel side plate (annular ring) by one, the flange
annular ring of the wheel as with 2 or more bolts, the bolt hole
the flange.
The wheel axis runs through the centre square and the extremities
Any glue used should be highest quality waterproof glue for obvious
the inside of the side wall to fasten the buckets to. There is an
the bucket is accessible from the I.D. This makes closing off the
inserted through the I.D. With solid sidewalls, the buckets must
the bucket bottom into the space between the bucket and the shaft
to let any leakage water out. A solid side wall would not commonly
- 39 -
be used. Spokes offer several advantages.
C. Maintenance
This will obviously extend the life of the wheel. Periodic re-
ances have been made in the figures in Table VIII but the bearing
will still wear. This will drop the wheel from its original position.
Shimming under the bearing block will compensate for this. Bearing
matter.
processed maple, if available. With the other species, we can not make
from the hardest wood available and lubricated as needed. Oils and
grease in small amounts will probably do no harm and may slow the wear
rate. Pig greasa and tallow would certainly be harmless and might help.
- 40 -
PART TWO: APPLICATIONS
WATER PUMPING
Pump Selection
The only type of pump which is reasonable to use at the slow speed
various names such as bucket pump, lift pump, piston pump, windmill
from a few dollars for small capacity pumps to several hundred for
Such pumps may vary in bore size, stroke length and head capacity-
set may be used, but these more complicated pumps and mechanisms,
the criteria of Section II, Part One for simplicity and will not
Even with simple single or double acting pumps there are certain
problems. One single acting pump attached to the wheel will cause
- 41 -
speed surges on the wheel because of the fact that actual pumping
takes place only half the time. The other half is spent filling
Such use of multiple simple pumps will also improve the overall
the capacity of the pump and related mechanism, nor stall the
velocity, the pump bore size, the delivery pipe size, the length
of the delivery pipe and the type of pipe used. When speaking of
- 42 -
pump performance and design requirements, the term "head" is
The head required at the pump outlet will be made up of two main
components:
equation:
L V2
friction loss f
D 2g
Table X
L - length of pipe
g = gravitational acceleration
- 43 -
TABLE X
1 5 10
velocity and the ratio of the pump bore size and the delivery pipe
bore area and the delivery pipe area. That is, piston velocity
times piston area = water velocity in delivery pipe times pipe bore
area.
very long pipes. The peak head required of the pump will be the
The bore size (piston area) and peak head occurring during pumping
will determine the force required at the pump rod since force on an
area is the product of the area and the pressure acting on that
- 44 -
\> ,-
CN
-- (N
m t^ --
- CSJ
- (N
45-
r-
r- co
46 -
area. Figures for force at the rod are given in Table XII. No
allowance is made for rod diameter so the figures given are con-
(if used) and to determine that, if the pump rod is attached directly
to the wheel, that the crank arm length times the entry in Table
XII does not exceed the torque capacity of the wheel as given by
Table I.
at the pump rod still remains as given in Table XII. The velocity
ment.
TABLE XIII
1" .3 .6 1.2 3 6
- 47 -
CN
in
. in
CM
* in CM
CN
in
48-
This inertial force is at its peak just as the piston starts its
the delivery pipe velocity is zero. Hence the total rod force at
the start of the stroke will be equal to the force due to the
the rod force when the friction loss is a maximum and the com-
various conditions of head, flow rate and pump type. These figures
are given in Table XV for steady flow and are adjusted for unsteady
2 1/2 for one single acting pump, by 2 for one double acting pump
or two single acting pumps 180 apart or by 1.5 for 2 double acting
the minimum torque necessary to keep the pump moving. The magni-
- 49 -
m in
o c w m r s i m o i n o m
in O O O * C N f O i A \ ) r ^ r J i r >
OJ o r-- m r^ in m in to
o mm
<D c\j in CN in in in at
L o CNJ vo rsj m r- tsj in in
m o o o ( \ i N " t i n \ o r ^ c \ i i n r
13 O O O O O O O O O . - C M Z
0) d
I
- 50 -
pumps installations and where the mass of the wheel is such that
The volume pumped per stroke varies slightly with the design of
the pump and with the bore and stroke sizes. One commercial
in the rod puts undue side loads on the discharge head seal and
justable by attaching the crank pin to the wheel shaft via a flange
plate with holes drilled at various distances from the rotation axis,
through which the crank pin can be fixed. Unless a double acting
pump is used, the pumping stroke and return stroke will have differ-
- 51 -
o .- (*"!
CN
,- _ CN
-52-
Q-
P^n
~*w
= 2 0
\ , / ^
- 53 -
speed (unless compensated for by other means - such as attaching
(pump axis) offset from the wheel axis. It then becomes a form of
the slider during the return stroke, which necessitates moving the
Packing box style lubrication with oily felt or rags could also
of an intolerable frequency. There are also the crank pin and clevis
of the plane of the slider crank mechanism with the wheel shaft.
One major advantage compared with the next method discussed is that,
- 54 -
pump rod end to the same kind of crank pin as before and let the
pump oscillate side to side as the piston goes up and down. (See
Fig. 4). This eases the difficulty of the alignment problem in-
pin which the pump rod end (at the crank pin) then slides in. The
bearings absorb all the side loads required to cause the oscill-
ation, leaving the pump rod loaded linearly only. Side loads on
these slider bearings would be smaller than the side loads on the
pump colinear with the trunnion axis. In this way a simple seal
to allow the pump exit pipe to oscillate in the delivery pipe will
most durable.
The scotch yoke mechanism (See Fig. 5) is simple and direct but may
- 55 _
t i x 0
V&*
,p=q o
- 56
c
u
o
X
- 57 -
A cam activated pump rod Is an attractive alternative. It
the outboard end of the pump rod would easily absorb it. A
pump rod and the simplest location for such weight would be
to the pump.
A pump bought ready made with a handle can be attached quite simply
by a rod suitably aligned between a crank on the wheel and the free
end of the pump handle. Then force and velocity calculations must
be modified.
that the end of the cable attached to the pump is colinear with
the pump rod. The other end can be attached to the wheel crank
- 58 -
59 -
crank to a sector of a pulley sheave in such a way that the sheave
oscillates as the crank rotates. With the cable wrapped far enough
around the sector so that the cable always remains tangent to the
sector and fixed there, the free end of the cable can be attached
collnear with the pump rod to provide straight line motion. This
The cable, as a part of the drive mechanism, can be made very long
C. Piping
For any water distribution system where the water must be trans-
the iron pipe which comes in short lengths (21 1/2 ft typically).
- 60 -
from bush knives, rocks, pig hooves, etc Its strength is limited
is very rocky, the burying process must be done with great care
Iron pipe can generally simply be laid on the ground with rock
Prices for the two types are competitive in the higher strength
be substantially cheaper.
Polythene has a smoother bore so that friction losses are less than
very remote areas might influence the decision for polythene even
- 61 -
II. OTHER APPLICATIONS
While water pumping is an obvious use for the water wheel, other
section to offset any impression that may have been given by the
amps for long periods of time without gear problems. The small
- 62 -
is better left to the higher speed devices which are more amenable
Note that the use of one universal joint will not give constant
alternately faster and slower than the input depending upon the
angle between the two shafts. The speed variations are small and
other.
- 63 -
Virtually any stationary machine which Is currently hand-powered
in the case owhere the wheel and the machine are separated by long
-64-
APPENDIX I
relating to water wheel for use in water pumping. The decisions made
must be consistent with the bounds placed upon the system by the village*s
needs (how much power is required) and the geography and size of the
supply stream (how much power we can expect to get from the wheel). If
the power required is greater than the power that can be generated by
the wheel, then the system cannot work. This example is taken from
Wau, New Guinea. One of the possible locations for a wheel is in a stream
about 350 feet below the level of the village. The hill is quite steep
and would require about 750 feet of pipe. There is a place in the stream
where the water level drops quite rapidly through a vertical distance
depth and flows about between 1 and 2 ft. per second (estimated by measur-
ing the time for a leaf to travel a fixed distance). That description
The village has about 300 people. Each person now consumes less than
If the water were pumped into the village, experience in other countries
sumption.
- 65 -
1. Total water requirement in gallons per hour
250 gal/hour at approx. 400 ft. head (350 actual ft. rise +
steady conditions.
need to be designed for 2*5 times that for a single acting pump,
2 times that for double acting pump or l*j times that for 2
4. Can we get that much power from a water wheel under the stated
10 ft x H ft x l_ft - 5 ft 3
sec sec
or
- 66 -
the exact t/r values finally chosen.
Had the flow rate been, for example, only 500 gallons per
minute, the task of pumping 250 gal per hour to the village
In the entry under 8 ft. diameter wheels we see that all annu-
now know we can make the wheel less than 4 ft. wide if desired
in Part Two, Section IB), there will be one stroke per revo-
hr 60 min 12 strokes
From Table XVI that means we need 3*5 pump with 12" stroke
-67 -
7. If we limit the velocity In the pipe to 10 ft/sec then the
than the 4" pump) Is related to the peak piston velocity and
Thus the total peak head causing forces on the pump rod
9. Assuming we use the 1" pipe we find the required pump rod
force from Table XII is about 1850 lb. For a 12" stroke a
-68 -
the machine is 925 ft/lb.
annulus. Having done that, the bearing loads are (Table VII)
fairly close to the wheel, say 6" away, the solid steel
d - 1.65 in
- 69 -
APPENDIX II
by R. Burton
This pump was designed by P. Brown (of the Mechanical Engineering Work-
to see that the length is not damaged during construction this system
As can be seen from the cross-sectional diagram, the ends of the pump
body consist of copper pipe reducers silver soldered onto the pump
cylinder. This does make disassembly of the pump difficult, but avoids
The piston of the pump consists of a V thick P.V.C flange with holes
the piston and together with the holes serves as a non-return valve.
In this type of pump the bucket must be made of fairly soft leather,
used as the drive rod and has to be thread cut at its ends using a die.
- 70 -
SIMPLE PUMP
2' DELIVERY PIPE
2' NIPPLE
A' TO 2 COPPER
PIPE REDUCER ;SILVER SOLDER
U DIA. X 12
COPPER PIPE
V2" BRIGHT M/S
~ DRIVE ROD
LEATHER WASHER-
N
6X3/g HOLES
Y2 P.V.C. VALVE'
,SILVER SOLDER
1
/8' DIA. BRASS PEGS
V2" GALVANIZED
FLANGE ~~
\ PLUG
C RUBBER RING - 71.
A galvanized nipple is silver soldered to the top copper reducer of the
An '0' ring seal of the type used to join P.V.C. pipe is used as a
seal for the foot valve. This seal does not require any fixing since
it push fits into the lower copper pipe reducer. A V screwed flange
with a plug in its centre forms the plate for the foot valve. This plate
must be restrained from rising up the bore of the pump by three brass
pegs fitted in through the side wall of the pump above the valve plate.
A parts list for a V bore x 9" stroke pump is set out below together
Parts
1 only V plug
- 72 -
Tools
Silver solder
Hand drill
V Whitworth tap
Hacksaw
Hammer
- 73 -
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wagner, E.G. and Landix, J.N., Water Supply for Rural Areas and
Small Communities. Geneva: World Health Organization (1959)
Cloudburst Manual
Cloudburst Press, Vancouver, B.C., Canada (1973)
Historical:
Evans, 0., Young Hillwrlght & Miller's Guide. 13th ed.. Philadelphia:
Lea & Blanchard (1850). Reprinted by Arno Press, c/o Aris & Phillips,
Ltd., Teddlngton House, Church St., Warminster, England
Ewbank, T., Hydraulics and Other Machines for Raising Water, New
York: Bangs, Piatt & Co. (1851)
- 75 -
Lewis, P., The Romance of Water Power
London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Ltd. (Ca. 1925)
Design Details:
Construction:
- 76 -
Andrews, H.J., An Introduction to Timber Engineering
Oxford, Pergamon (1967)
Materials:
Pumping:
- Pumping Manual
Morden, Surrey: Trade and Technical Press Ltd. (1968)
- 77 -