HABITAT DESTRUCTION Causes of habitat destruction include: + natural disasters + pollution + development (structural) + war + man-made disasters (oil spills) + deforestation. Many of the effects of humans on their environment are harmfal. These effects include: + the degradation of soil and atmosphere that accompany deforestation + the effect on animal populations of excessive use of pesticides to maintain agricultural production. 4 Figure 215 Forest clearance forindust'y, ‘The reasons for the destruction of natural woodland and forest are various, but include: + removal of valuable timber for sale as a realisable asset, to meet the cost of imports such as oil + freeing land for alternative use, such as rearing livestock, arable cropping or planting fast- growing species such as conifers, eucalyptus or rubber trees + clearing land for roads, housing, industrial estates or smallholdings + destruction of trees as a consequence of atmospheric pollution (acid rain). Deforestation is defined as harvesting trees for commercial and other uses and burning forest to convert lands for agricultural purposes. Deforestation is a problem because: + it affects the composition of the atmosphere, with possible unfavourable consequences for the climate + it leads to soil erosion and increases the rate of siltation and sedimentation of waterways + the removal of vast areas of the forest destroys the habitats of numerous species of animals and plants. Consequently, these are now in decline and even, in many cases, in danger of extinction The overall outcome is that deforestation threatens to reduce genetic biodiversity Such destruction of habitats could also be a great loss to the pharmaceutical industry, because ‘many plants and animals with as yet undiscovered medical potential could be destroyed. Mitigation measures + Educate people about the effects of deforestatior and how it can affect them. + Enforce laws that prohibit the destruction of large areas of natural forest. POLLUTION Pollution is the process by which something becomes impure, or dirty. It is often used to describe the introduction of harmful substances into the environment by humans. In general terms, any factor that has a harmful effect on living things or their environment is called a pollutant. Sources of pollution include: + liter, dropped on the ground as unwanted garbage ~ some may rot down but much will not + pesticides used on farmland, killing ora and fauna + contaminants that get into the water supply, spreading disease and damaging health + industrial waste products that may be released as ef uent into rivers, or gases into the atmosphere + nuclear waste, including radiation, that can cause mutation and disease. Litter pollution is not just unsightly. Animals, birds and fish may try to eat discarded plastics or be injured by sharp objects that have been thrown away. Pesticides do not just kill the organisms they are intended for, they can kill indiscriminately. Some may seep through the soil to the water table or run off the land into streams and rivers, eventually getting into the water supply used by humans. Industrial waste can cover otherwise useful land. It can be discharged into streams, rivers and seas, causing untold damage to plants and animals. CHAPTER 2 CARIBSEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 67Figee 2.16 Tyre dump —Trnidad released into the atmosphere are carried by ‘wind and can dissolve in atmospheric water d eventually fall as acid rain, many kilometres n where they started out. consequences of pollution include the enhouse effect and global warming. id rain pollutants involved in acid rain are sulphur oxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, ozone and ious volatile organic vapours given off from evrol stations, oil refineries and chemical works d by many industrial and household solvents. ost atmospheric pollutants come from fossil fuels; virtually all our common atmospheric pollutants come from the burning of fossil fuels. for power energy, manufacturing and transport When sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are dissolved in water, a weak acid is formed, Conifers killed by acid rain 6 ‘Some of the effects of acid rain are the decrease of pH in ponds, lakes and even in the seas. This can kill fish and many aquatic organisms. In addition to this, it destroys buildings, statues and other ‘monuments by corrosion. Acid rain also kills trees and increases the acidity of soil, which kills plants and soil dwelling animals. Nuclear waste and radiation Nuclear wastes are unstable radioactive materials that are created by nuclear technology including nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons programmes and medical and industrial research applications. Exposure to nuclear radiation is linked to serious health problems, including cancer. In addition to the danger from direct exposure to nuclear radiation, radioactive materials can also enter ecological food chains. One of the pathways by which radiation affects people is the ingestion of crops or animals that have been contaminated by radioactive materials. Radiation can also affect people through the inhalation of contaminated dust. Mitigation measures Pollution —+ Impact + Prevention + Educate people about the effects of pollution oon the environment and how it can affect them, + Enforce laws that control pollution. INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC SPECIES A species introduced into a new geographic area is called an exotic species. ‘The human introduction of exotic species has had mixed results. The major foods of the world come from only a few species, such as wheat, potatoes, poultry and cattle. These species have been introduced by people into many new environments because of their useful characteristics. Cats and dogs have been intentionally taken into new habitats by their owners as pets, but other species such as rats have been introduced by accident. Exotic plant species can become pests by altering the physical environment or food chains of native habitats. There are many benefits of introducing exotic species to new environments, but there are pitfalls as well# Figure 2.16 7) 3p ~ Trinidad Gases released into the atmosphere are carried by the wind and can dissolve in atmospheric water and eventually fall as acid rain, many kilometres from where they started out. Other consequences of pollution include the greenhouse effect and global warming, Acid rain ‘The pollutants involved in acid rain are sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, ozone and various volatile organic vapours given off from petrol stations, oil refineries and chemical works and by many industrial and household solvents. ‘Most atmospheric pollutants come from fossil fuels; virtually all our common atmospheric pollutants come from the burning of fossil fuels for power energy, manufacturing and transport. ‘When sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are dissolved in water, a weak acid is formed. 8 Some of the effects of acid rain are the decrease of pH in ponds, lakes and even in the seas. This can Kill fish and many aquatic organisms. In addition to this, it destroys buildings, statues and other monuments by corrosion. Acid rain also kills trees and increases the acidity of soil, which kills plants and soil dwelling animals Nuclear waste and radiation Nuclear wastes are unstable radioactive ‘materials that are created by nuclear technology including nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons programmes and medical and industrial research applications Exposure to nuclear radiation is linked to serious health problems, including cancer. In addition to the danger from direct exposure to nuclear radiation, radioactive materials can also enter ecological food chains. One of the pathways by which radiation affects people is the ingestion of crops or animals that have been contaminated by radioactive materials Radiation can also affect people through the inhalation of contaminated dust. Mitigation measures Pollution + Impact — Prevention + Educate people about the effects of pollution on the environment and how it can affect them. + Enforce laws that control pollution. INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC SPECIES A species introduced into a new geographic area is called an exotic species. The human introduction of exotic species has had mixed results. The major foods of the world come from only a few species, such as wheat, potatoes, poultry and cattle, These species have been introduced by people into many new environments because of their characteristics. Cats and dogs have been intentionally taken into new habitats by their owners as pets, but other species such as rats have been introduced by accident. Exotic plant species can become pests by altering the physical environment or food chains of native habitats There are many benefits of introducing exotic species to new environments, but there are pitfalls as well+ Exotic species may introduce diseases to their new environment. These diseases may destroy and kill local species of ora and fauna. + Competition from exotic species for food, mates and nesting sites can reduce local populations. + The harmony existing in local foodwebs and ecosystems may become imbalanced and unstable, especially predator and prey relationships. + Exotic species can interbreed with local species creating super-breeds (hybrids). These hybrids can out-compete local breeds for food and c: cause havoc in the ecosystem. An example of this is the African honey bee, which was introduced in South America to improve honey production, but which escaped and bred with native bees, and is now found as far north as the USA. Hileation mu sures + Educate people about both the ecological and economic effects of introducing exotic species. + Laws can prohibit or control importations of dangerous exotic species, + Large fines can be imposed for violation of the regulations, especially when dangerous exotic species are released into the wild. + Carry out strict inspections of cargo ships and planes that might accidentally transport exotic species to the Caribbean + Impose specialised quarantine measures on all imported plants, animals and fish, in order to prevent the spread of disease. CLIMATE CHANGE ‘The Earth’s climate is subject to constant variation that takes place over periods of thousands of Years. This variation has produced long periods of warmth as well as long periods of cold, called ice ages. In recent years, scientists have noted that the temperature of the Earth is increasing at a rate that is too fast to be consistent with the Earth's natural variation, and have suggested that man’s activities are altering the climate of the Earth The greenhouse effect Greenhouses are made of glass. This enables them to trap the Sun’s heat, which helps to keep the Plants inside the greenhouses warm. In a similar ion, gases that ane found naturally in the atmosphere wap the Sun’s energy and cause the atmosphere co hear up. These gases include carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone, methane and nitrous oxide. Together they are known as greenhouse gases, and cause the greenhouse effec. ‘The greenhouse effect is defined as the insulation of the Earth’s surface by atmospheric gases. Radiant energy from the Sun warms the surfaces of the sea and land. Most of the incoming solar ‘adiation is in the visible part of the spectrum (light). Most visible light passes through the atmosphere without being absorbed As the Earth warms up, it radiates heat (infrared radiation) back out towards space. Much of this infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, in particular water vapour and carbon dioxide. As a result, the lower atmosphere warms up. Some of the energy in the lower atmosphere escapes into space, but most radiates back to the Earth's surface, warming the planet further. It is not the greenhouse effect that concerns scientists, but the enhancement of the greenhouse effect by human-induced increases in the levels of greenhouse gases, Carbon dioxide plays an important role in regulating the Earth's temperature. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would bea frozen planet with an average temperature of about -18°C, but this natural process keeps the Earth’s average surface temperature at a comfortable 15°C. For the last 100 years or so, mankind has been burning large amounts of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, and, as a result, the amount of carbon dioxide in'the atmosphere has increased by 28 per cent in this period (and could rise by more than 40 per cent in the next hundred years) The increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is thought to produce an increase in the Earth’s average temperature, In 1995, a panel of leading scientists, convened by the United Nations (UN), predicted a worldwide rise in average global temperature of 1.0 to 3.5 Celsius degrees (or a rise of 1.8 to 6.3 Fahrenheit degrees), with a best estimate of 2.0 Celsius degrees (3.6 Fahrenheit degrees), by the year 2100, CHAPTER 2 CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 69Climate change Despite its name, global warming does not necessarily mean that everywhere on Earth will get hotter. Some places will in fact, get colder. For this reason, many people prefer to use the term climate change to describe the changes in globel ‘weather patterns that are thought to result from the processes of the greenhouse effect and global warming. The consequences of climate change Although the predicted increase in average temperature is only small, it could have serious consequences. A rapid change in the Earth's temperature may result in hot weather, drought, wildfires, more intense rainstorms, more dangerous and powerful hurricanes, arise in sea levels, shifts in ecosystems, and a die-off of species, cof Hurricane Wa Statistics for both 1998 and 2005 rate these years as the hottest ever recorded, while 2002 and 2003 were rated the second and third hottest years respectively Higher temperatures usually cause an increase in the evaporation of water, especially during hotter times of the year such as summer and the dry season. There isa greater chance of drought which, in turn, results in more frequent and incense wildfires, Higher temperatures also cause deadly heat waves and the spread of disease. There has already been an increase in heat-related deaths in many countries, for example, France. An increase in the incidence of mosquito-borne opical diseases is being blamed on climate shange. The Dengue fever virus has now been setected in high-altitude areas such as the Andes; malaria has been found at high altitudes in Indonesia, Another consequence of the warming of the Earth's surface is the melting of the polar ice caps and of glaciers in alpine regions. This causes the levels of rivers and lakes to increase and produces 4 rise in sea levels. Such rises are likely to result in widespread coding. Floods kill millions of people annually and displace many more. As sea levels have risen, there has been a loss of coastal wetlands, making coastal regions extremely vulnerable. Scientists have found that global sea levels have already risen by four to eight inches (10-20 cm) in the past century and this is expected to increase by approximately 19 inches (38 cm) by the year 2100, Global warming includes a rise in the temperature of the seas. Warmer waters produce hurricanes that are increasingly powerful and dangerous. In recent years, hurricane seasons have been very active and hurricanes have been deadlier than ever: The 2005 hurricane season claimed thousands of lives in the western hemisphere. Fortunatel there is evidence to suggest that the number of hurricanes in each season will be reduced, Global warming has caused shifts in some ecosystems, Changes in sea temperatures have affected plants and animals living in the seas, causing some species to ourish and some to die out. Variations in seasonal temperatures have had similar effects on land; animal migration patterns ‘on sea and land have been affected, ‘There is some concern that the Gulf Stream, the name given to the ow of warm water from the Caribbean to North America and across the Atlantic to northern Europe, may be weakened, ‘Which would have drastic effects on these regions, Shellfish and coral building organisms build their exoskeletons from calcium compounds that are found naturally in the oceans. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, as happens when it rains, carbonic acid is formed. This acid finds its way into the oceans and reacts with calcium compounds to cteate new compounds that are unusable by aquatic life The Caribbean has lost approximately 20% of its coral reefs due to sea temperature changes and increased ocean acidity.International mitigation measures International efforts are being made to halt the rise and then reduce the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In 1997, representatives from 160 countries met in Kyoto, Japan to negotiate an agreement to reduce worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases. The agreement, known as the Kyoto Protocol, obliges 38 industrialised nations to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases. Specifically, by 2012, emissions must be an average of about 5 per cent below the level of 1990 emissions. The United States, which is responsible for 20 per cent of the total global emissions, pledged to reduce its emissions to 7 per cent below 1990 levels, while the European Union pledged to reduce its emissions to 8 per cent below 1990 levels. In the late 1980s the US Environmental Protection ‘Agency (EPA) expanded its mission to include problems of global warming and environmental change. It created a Climate Change Division to develop research into the impact of increased carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. ‘The EPA also initiated an Ecological Mapping Program (EMAP) to delineate vegetation patterns in the USA and, in 1990, established a grant programme to improve environmental education. The effect of deforestation Trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as part of their natural growth processes; however, as human beings have cut down forests, the capacity of trees to remove carbon dioxide from the air has been diminished. In developing countries, with poor economies, people have resorted to clearing the forest and planting crops in order to survive, While there have been efforts to stop deforestation directly, through boycotts of multinational corporations responsible for exploitative logging, the most effective conservation policies in these countries have been efforts to relieve poverty and expand access to education and health care. In the United States and Canada, forests are threatened by extensive logging, called clear- cutting, which destroys plant and animal habitat and leaves the landscape bare and unproductive if not properly reforested. Small pockets of ancient forests from 200 to 1200 years old still exist but are threatened by logging interests. Until the 1990s, the US Forest Service was directed by Congress to maximise the harvesting of timber in order to provide jobs. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, environmentalists sued the government for violating the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), and heavy logging was deemed non-sustainable. ‘As a result, the timber harvest was reduced and foresters were directed to follow a more sustainable policy called ecosystem management. This policy required foresters to focus on conserving natural habitats rather than maximising ‘tree harvests Impact of deforestation in the Caribbean ‘The Caribbean area has suffered greatly from the effects of deforestation. Clearance has mostly been to provide more land for farming. However, the effects have been serious and include: + erosion of valuable top soil + increased sediment load on rivers + denuded landscape + habitat loss + ooding + landslips + disruption of the water cycle THE OZONE LAYER Ina band of the upper atmosphere known as the stratosphere, there is a protective layer of ozone gas. This layer is found at varying levels, between 15 and 40 kilometres above the Earth's surface. It absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. Ultraviolet light is a component of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun reaching the Earth's surface. When sunlight passes through the ozone layer, much of the UV light is absorbed. The ozone shield is essential to life on Earth, since it protects plants and animals from the UV radiation. Over- exposure to UV radiation can be dangerous and damaging to all lifeforms. What is ozone? ‘Ozone is an extremely rate gas. Its rarity is such that in every ten million molecules of air, there are about three ozone molecules. Ozone molecules (©,) consist of three oxygen atoms, When found close to the Earth’s surface, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It is present in the exhaust gases of vehicles and is produced by laser printers and photocopiers. However, 90% of ozone is found in the upper atmospheric layers or stratosphere. CHAPTER 2 CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 71How does the ozone layer function? ‘The ozone layer absorbs the majority of the harmful UV radiation emanating from the Sun. Ozone absorbs the UV rays and each molecule breaks up into an oxygen molecule and an atom of oxygen. These later rejoin to form ozone gas. 0, 20,40 ‘Ozone decays when it reacts with an atom of oxygen: 0, +020, This reaction is speeded up enormously in the Presence of highly reactive particles known as radicals. Two of the radicals that destroy the ‘ozone layer are nitric oxide (NO) and chlorides (Cl. They are formed by the action of UV radiation in the stratosphere with specific pollutants that originate on the Earth's surface. These pollutants are called ozone-depleting substances and are found in many consumer products, including: + reftigerators + air-conditioning units + insulating foams + spray cans + cleaning solvents + fire extinguishers. The most widely known of these chemicals are chloro uorocarbons (CFCs), halons and methyl bromide. Ozone-depleting substances remain in the atmosphere for considerable periods, up to 50 years. They can be transported into the upper atmosphere by air currents and, when they get to the stratosphere, they interact with UV rays and break down into radicals, which reduce the ‘amount of ozone in the ozone layer. Health and other consequences of over- exposure to UV rays + Cataracts in eyes + Weakening of the immune system + Skin cancer + Wrinkling of skin + Destruction of marine ecosystems such as that of phytoplankton in the sea + Reduced plant yields + Adverse effects on animals + Damage to plastics + Reduced fishing yields International action to protect the ozone layer After eleven years of assessment, research and negotiations, the first general ozone agreement was established in 1985. Iris known as the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. This agreement entailed a general pledge by governments to protect the ozone layer. However, it was not until 1987 that specific commitments and objectives regarding ozone-depleting substances were compiled in the Montreal Protocol. The Montreal Protocol came into force in 1989. Developed countries, Particularly the USA and the countries of the European Union, ended the production of CECs in 1996, while China and India were given until 2006 to comply. Due to the implementation of the Montreal Protocol, and its various amendments, there has been a dramatic decline in the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. Scientists predict that ozone-layer depletion will be reduced within the next decade and, as long as the Montreal Protocol and its amendments continue to be implemented by all member countries, the ozone layer should return to normal by 2050. Preventing further ozone depletion The easiest way to prevent damage to the ozone layer is to use products such as aerosol sprays, refrigerators and fire extinguishers that are labelled ozone-friendly or CFC-free. 1 Figure 2.19 depleting To prevent the escape of ozone-depleting substances, unwanted refrigerators and other appliances should be disposed of responsibly. 1e-depletng gases and a green’ nonChloro uorocarbon (CRC) reftigerants should be removed from the appliance before it is discarded, ensuring that the refrigerant is not released or ‘vented’ into the atmosphere. Avoid using fire extinguishers that contain halons or chemicals that contain methyl bromide. Ozone-depleting substances have been replaced by chemicals with similar properties, but without the damaging effect on the atmosphere, CFCs had the Properties of stability, non-toxicity and chemical inertness. Hydrochloro_uorocarbons (HFCs) are currently being used as alternatives, but may be subject to controls in the future (due to their global-warming potential) under the Climate Change Convention and the Kyoto Protocol Hydrocarbons are long-term alternatives to ozone depleting substances, although their ammability causes problems in many applications Pestivides Pesticides are used to control organisms considered harmful to agriculture or horticulture, or involved in disease transmission. Despite pesticides being an economic necessity, they can also be a serious threat to bio-diversity and are Potentially serious pollutants, Today there is a ‘general recognition of the dangers of excessive use of pesticides, both to humans and to the environment. Residues of the pesticides may accumulate in humans and other animals and cause serious harm. These residues pass through the food chain, becoming more concentrated at each stage # Figure 220 Pesticides ae readily avaiable A better form of pest control, known as integrated pest management, involves combining methods such as: + varied cultivation methods + rotation of crops + use of a biological control mechanism + minimal well-targeted application of selective pesticides, Waste disposal Urban communities produce huge quantities of household and commercial waste. The traditional method of disposal is to dump rubbish (or garbage) in landfill sites such as disused quarries and gravel pits, This approach can cause problems because there are insufficient landfill sites to take all the waste. Rubbish containing carbon-based material decays in the absence of air, producing methane gas. which escapes into the atmosphere; this methane contributes to the greenhouse gases and, in some places, has caused fires and explosions. Toxic substances may leach into groundwater and pollute water supplies for humans. Landfill sites also provide a breeding area for pathogens. In the Caribbean, the problems associated with landfill could be reduced by a sustained campaign to cut down the excessive use of paper and plastic in packaging and junk mail. Rubbish that is destined for landfill should be sorted to remove items that could be recycled (Such as glass, paper and metals) from the ‘materials that have no further usefulness. The rubbish that cannot be reused can be burnt in special incinerators in which the heat energy can be reclaimed and used in heating ot to generate electricity Rubbish can also be converted into pellets of tefuuse-derived fuel, which is burnt in the same ‘manner, CHAPTER 2 CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 73# Figure 2.23 Metal for recycling Inaustr stants Some substances released by industry do occur naturally, but are damaging at high concentrations. Among these are the heavy metals, mining waste and crude oil Many industries release toxic emissions from their processes into the atmosphere. Some of these follutants are sulphur dioxide (60,), nitrogen oxides (NO.), CO and CO,. These gases can be corrosive, are dangerous to wildlife and humans and contribute to the greenhouse effect. Noise pollution is very common in industrial sites, where it disturbs wildlife. Practically all industries have some form of ef went. Industries that do not have waste ‘treatment plants release warm waste water that can contain toxic chemicals. These are washed away into drains, rivers and eventually into the sea. Industrial waste and heat can build up into waterways destroying aquatic life and contaminating the water supply for both animals and plants, ” t Figure 2.24 Contaminated river at the Beetham Estate, URBANISATION AND ITS socio- ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS WHAT IS URBANISATION? Urbanisation is the migration of people in large ‘numbers from rural to urban areas, ‘An examination of the Caribbean region will reveal that there are high population densities in the cities and their suburbs, such as Port of Spain in Trinidad, Bridgetown in Barbados, Kingstown in St Vincent, Castries in St Lucia and Nevis, and New Kingston in Jamaica,CAUSES OF URBANISATION Attraction of the urban areas Factors that encourage people to move into the cites are called pull factors. These include: + the availability of white-collar jobs + better infrastructure ~ roads, water, electricity ete + the availability of social facilities - health, education, recreation, postal services and police stations +a wide variety of entertainment and nightlife facilities. Conditions in the rural areas The factors that cause people to move away from the countryside are called push factors. These are typically: + the scarcity of jobs except in agriculture, which most people consider to be low-paying, laborious, risky and menial + a lack of infrastructure, poor roads, irregular water and electricity supplies + poor educational, health and social-service facilities + lack of entertainment and recreational facilities. SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF URBANISATION Problems of urbanisation Increased urbanisation brings problems to the affected towns and cities. As the population rises these areas may become overcrowded, leading toa shortage of housing, which, in turn, causes the development of slums. Typically, slums will not have sufficient educational or recreational facilities, and may become polluted because of a lack of civic amenities such as rubbish collection. Unemployment may rise because there are not enough jobs, and migrants often do not have the necessary skills to take the jobs that are available. People without jobs are more likely to turn to crime to provide themselves with an income. Some additional environmental problems associated with urbanisation + An increase in population size in urban areas results in the production of large quantities of gaseous and liquid pollution and solid wastes. + Urban areas have ooding problems due to the presence of buildings, concrete and asphalt surfaces which promote water run-off + An increase in demand for water causes water to be transferred from rural to urban areas, depriving rural areas of this resource + The increased demand for water in urban areas can lead to groundwater resources being depleted faster than they can be replenished. + As urban areas expand, they consume rural Jand, including prime agriculture land that is lost to infrastructural development. + Heat generated by cars, factories, lights, air conditioners and people in urban areas creates, heat spots, which tend to trap pollutants over urban areas. It also gives rise to thermal pollution, + Urban dwellers are more likely to be exposed to noise pollution, due to increased in traffic ow, crowds, entertainments and industrial operations. Reducing problems associated with urbanisation Push-pull factors can be countered by building industrial sites in rural areas to create jobs and bring increased wealth to the local population. This will lead to the development of a proper infrastructure in rural areas, including the provision of roads, electricity and water to service the industries, and social facilities such as schools, health centres, recreational parks and postal services for the workers and their families. In towns, traffic problems associated with increased population can be dealt with by the construction and management of mass public transportation systems including features such as larger buses, trains and even tramcars. In both rural and urban areas the government should educate the population about pollution and, where necessary, enforce laws to protect the environment. They should encourage recycling and give incentives for separating recyclable materials. from refuse for disposal. ‘See student’ essay on problems of urbanisation on page 82 at the end of this chapter. CHAPTER 2 CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT — 75# Figure 226 Collecting el for recycling ~ Hai MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Sustainable development can be defined as economic growth and social progress that does not limage the prospects of ture generations, Tt requires {hat resources such as raw materials and energy are used and managed in ways that will not create problems in the future. It means ‘maintaining or ‘improving our standard of living withoue cheating on our children’s inheritance’ CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT to Gxamples from forestry that will help explain the idea of sustainability are as follow. + Mf timber is cut ata faster rate than new growth Occurs, this is unsustainable in the long run + If pollution is allowed to kill trees faster than ‘Rew ones can grow, this is not sustainable {both cases, timber ourput will eventually fall because there will be fewer trees. However if new ‘tees are planted and they grow healthily, and timber is cut ata rate equal to 1 of new trees, the output can be long run. Long-term sustainabil that the natural environmes the growth rate sustained in the lity also requires Biodiversity is the variety of and fauna (animals) in an ora (plants) area. Biodiversity is important because it is part of our natural inheritance and it sh hould be protected as a matter of duty. There is als #0 a more selfish reason for 7 ‘maintaining diversity; the natural gene pools of Plants and animals must be maintained because they might contain cures for diseases such as cancer, AIDS and typhoid. Ifthe environment Continues to be damaged by human action, then the Possibility of using the natural environmene for medical purposes will be lost for ever, Ire idea of sustainable development arose during the 1970s and 1980s. It was the main iseue discussed at the Earth Summie in Rio de Janeiro in 1892, officially known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Three main policy documents were produced + the Biodiversity Convention, r Protection of ora and fauna + the Climate Change Conver global warming * Agenda 21, relating to sustainable development in the 21st century; this document proposed that countries should adopt policies to Conserve the environment and resources The environment was defined as the air and water, natural vegetation and wildlife, and {he social and human environmen, inching buildings, historic sites and ways of life, Resources were defined as minerals (ores and fuels), fish and other marine life and forests, "To Some extent, these definitions of environment and resources overlap, Together, though, they constitute the renewable and non-renewable aw ‘materials that people need to survive The ai lating to the intion, relating to im of sustainable development is to: ensure a better life for everyone, now and for Senerations to come’ through Social progress which meets the needs of everyone effective protection of the environment prudent use of natural resources maintenance of high and stable levels of economic ‘growth and employment education How can SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT BE MEASURED? At the Rio Earth Conference, it w. 4 set of sustainable development should be established. These indi measure economic growth, as agreed that indicators icators would social progress andNF measures the output of goods and services, it does not give a complete picture of the standard of emg. The United Nations’ Human Development todex (HDI) attempts to combine economic and ‘social indicators and so give a truer indication of Being standards. However, the HDI doses not give am indication of environmental impact. Development Watch is a United Nations ‘chat monitors progress on sustainable Gevelopment. It has proposed a draft list of Sqnironmental indicators. These measures, Emed below, relate to the key factors that, in the agency's view, are important when assessing the exwironmental impact of development ‘Water 4¢ Annual withdrawals of ground and surface water as a percentage of available water 4 Industrial and municipal discharges into freshwater lakes and rivers 4 Household consumption of water per capita 4 Catches of fish and other marine species Land + Land development + Area affected by soil erosion + Area affected by desertification 4+ Deforestation rate and annual timber production 4+ Arable land per capita and use of fertilisers and pesticides per km? + Rate of extinction of protected species ‘Atmosphere + Emissions of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides 4 Production of ozone destroying substances ‘Waste + Quantity of waste recycled as a proportion of total municipal and industrial waste 4+ Generation of toxic wastes and area of land contaminated by toxic waste. Development Watch also monitors international agreements on environmental issues that have been ratified (incorporated into national law). Tt monitors environmental indicators, ensuring that statistical measures are in place to predict future trends. It uses this information to establish sustainable development strategies and tries to ensure that representatives of indigenous peoples are included in national decision making. cn _ HOw CAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT BE ACHIEVED? Sustainable development requires: + less wasteful use of energy and raw materials + more recycling of waste + greater energy conservation 4+ more use of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power + more use of clean, and non-polluting, production methods. ‘some of the policy issues ate outlined below. Urban dwelling ‘The traditional view of urbanisation is that the process is destructive. Big urban centres are geen as growing explosively and causing great damage to the environment. However, there is some evidence that, contrary to the mainstream ‘ew, urban living can provide solutions to environmental problems. Cities can accommodate large numbers of people ‘on relatively small areas of land. In the Developing World, fertility rates are significantly lower in cities than in rural areas and statistics have shown that turban poor people are three to ive times better off than rural poor people. Energy ‘At the 1992 Rio summit, high-income countries agreed to bring thei fossil-fuel emissions back to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The aim was to cut carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Only the UK and Germany managed to achieve this target. + In Germany, it was achieved by closing down the dirty and inefficient coal power stations of the former East Germany. 4+ In the UK, it was achieved by running down the coal industry and switching from coal to gas- fired power stacions. Burning gas emits much Jess pollution than coal. Whether this ‘dash for gas’ is sustainable in the long run is very much open to doubt, because the North Sea gas reserves, on which the UK achievement was ‘based, will one day be exhausted. In the future, the European Union, America, China, Asia and the rest of the world need sources fof energy that are environmentally friendly and Sustainable. These will include solar power and energy from wind and ocean (waves and tide), InpTER 2 CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 7 * eG RS Aad MP RRR ARAM RRR Pe RB RK aEinstaling a solar pane! Government policies Many governments have started to promote sustainable development through a range of policy measures. These involve taxation, legislation, setting up environmental protection areas and also direct action. ‘Green’ taxation is the name given to taxes that are ‘environmentally friendly’. For example, in its 1996 Budget, the UK Government introduced a landfill tax. This tax, levied at a fixed rate per tonne, is paid by businesses and local authorities, which dump waste in landfill sites. At present, most UK household waste is still dumped as. landfill The tax aims to encourage councils to recycle a greater proportion of paper, metal, glass and plastic, The more that is recycled, the less tax has to be paid In Norway, a ‘carbon tax’ was introduced in 1991 This raises the price of fossil fuels according to the amount of CO, they emit when burnt. The result has been to reduce carbon emissions by 12.5 per cent. ‘Throughout the EU, the law now requires that an environmental impact assessment be carried out before any large-scale civil engineering projects can be started Many countries have established Environmental Protection Agencies, which have a legal responsibility to monitor and control pollution and other forms of environmental damage, There is always tension between those who wish to promote new developments, perhaps creating jobs and increasing incomes, and those who wish to conserve the environment. This tension is greatest in Developing World countries, where many people live in poverty. 78 ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES IN THE CARIBBEAN TRINIDAD AND ToBAco: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, AUTHORITY (EMA)) ‘The EMA was established by the Government of ‘Trinidad and Tobago to address the environmental problems. It was established in June 1995, under the Environmental Management Act No. 3 of 1995, The Act is concerned with the protection conservation and enhancement of the environment. Among its aims, it clearly states: ‘polluters should be held responsible for the costs of their polluting activities.” hetp://s ywema.co.tt BARBADOS: CARIBBEAN CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION (CCA) This agency manages and controls economic development in the country. Ir also protects and conserves the natural resources and the environment. hitp://www.ecdpm.org GUYANA: GUYANA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONSERVATION ORGANIZATION (GEMCO) This organisation protects environmentally. " sensitive species and also helps to conserve natural resources, hep:/Avww-guianashield.org DOMINICA: DOMINICAN CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION (DCA) ‘The DCA helps to preserve and improve landmarks in the country. It also develops and establishes environmental standards and criteria, herp://www.fao.orgANTIGUA AND BARBUDA: ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS | GROUP (EAG) This group educates the public about the nation’s environmental issues, using resources such as awareness programmes and tours, huip://www.eag.org.ag/ ST LUCIA: CARIBBEAN NATURAL RESOURCES INSTITUTE (CANARI) The institute focuses on minimising the degradation of the country’s resources by investing in the protection and conservation of the environment. bep://www.canari.org GRENADA: GRENADA COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (GRENCODA) ‘This agency helps to protect marine life and to conserve natural resources. hetp://wwwatcde.org JAMAICA: NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND PLANNING AGENCY (NEPA) This agency was established on 1 April 2001 It promotes sustainable development by ensuring the protection of the environment. The aim is to conserve natural resources and to develop and implement strict policies in order to maintain a healthy environment, http://www.nepa.gowjm QUESTIONS 1 Explain how sustainable development can lower the growth rate of Caribbean countries. Give relevant ‘examples in your answer. 2 List four negative impacts of urbanisation on the ‘environment, Discuss four mitigation measures for ‘each of the factors that you have listed. 3 Using the four terms below, explain how human. activity negatively impacts the environment. a Overexploitation b Habitat destruction © Pollution d_ Introduction of exotic species 4 Explain how recycling can help preserve the Caribbean's natural resources. Give relevant examples. 5 Discuss four ways in which humans depend on the ecological systems and processes. 6 Discuss how changing consumption patterns affect the environment, with reference to the following factors. a Waste b Water Fossil energy d_ Food 7 Describe how the trends in human population growth may lead to the degradation of the natural 8 Discuss five factors that can affect the population {growth rate in the Caribbean, 9 Caribbean countries are known to the world as. developing countries. How can Caribbean countries ‘change their status from developing to developed? 10 Discuss the relationship between population growth and poverty, using the following indices. a Access to family planning b Access to education © Access to health care dd Access to water, electricity, food and housing fe Access to work CHAPTER 2 CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 79 a