Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A survey on the contributions of power electronics to smart

grid systems
Ilhami Colak a,b,c,n, Ersan Kabalci d, Gianluca Fulli a, Stavros Lazarou a
a
European Commission, JRC, Institute for Energy and Transport, P.O. Box 2, 1755 ZG Petten, The Netherlands
b
Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 06500 Ankara, Turkey
c
Istanbul Gelisim University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Mechatronics Engineering Department, Turkey
d
Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli University, Nevsehir Vocational School, 50800 Nevsehir, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The smart grid (SG) as a research area is advancing dealing with a wider range of topics such as power
Received 21 July 2014 systems, energy generation and telecommunication. The conventional utility grid is used to operate in a
Received in revised form passive mode absorbing energy from the substations and delivering it to the customers. This approach is
14 November 2014
well developed but the needs of the state-of-the-art technology require a bidirectional ow of power
Accepted 8 March 2015
and data. Nevertheless, smart grid systems provide more exible, reliable, sustainable, secure and two-
way communication service. Especially, integration of renewable energy sources, electrical vehicles and
Keywords: distributed generations (DG) into network can be achieved in an efcient way in smart grid systems.
Smart grid Moreover, control and monitoring capabilities, automatic conguration of the grid, and active involve-
Microgrid
ment of consumers in energy production extend the importance of smart grids. All these positive aspects
Distributed generation
of smart grids have been attained by integration of power electronics and telecommunication
Power generation and transmission
Power line communication technologies with the grid. This study deals with contributions of power electronics to SG in the
Renewable energy sources context of generation, conversion, distribution, and control of power. The recent power electronic
devices and systems adapted to SG are also introduced in detail with several power control methods.
Moreover, the renewable energy sources (RESs), which are an extensively studied topic of power
engineering and their integration to smart grid, are also surveyed in terms of DG units, control and
management features. Thus, a particular section is dedicated to RES utilization in SG covering almost all
aspects of a monotype and hybrid energy plants. Finally, the survey is carried on by reviewing the most
recent and comprehensive articles to highlight the importance of power electronics in a logical way in
the smart grids for readers.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2. Overview of smart grid concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
3. Involving the power electronics in smart grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.1. Power control in smart grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
3.2. ACDC converter control in smart grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
3.3. DCAC converter control in smart grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
3.4. DCDC converter control in smart grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
4. Smart grid applications in renewable energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
5. Renewable microgrid applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

n
Corresponding author at: Istanbul Gelisim University, Cihangir Mah. ehit Jand.
Kom. Er Hakan Oner Sk No:1 Avclar stanbul, Turkey. Tel.: 90-212 422 70 00.
E-mail addresses: ilhami.colak@ec.europa.eu, icolak@gelisim.edu.tr,
icolak@gazi.edu.tr (I. Colak), kabalci@nevsehir.edu.tr (E. Kabalci),
Gianluca.Fulli@ec.europa.eu (G. Fulli), Stavros.Lazarou@ec.europa.eu (S. Lazarou).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.031
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
1. Introduction
Smart grid (SG) is regarded as the next generation of conven-
tional grids based on the fact of its two-way power and informa-
tion ow capabilities. The term grid is used to dene the energy
facilities that manage all or some of the generation, transmission,
distribution, control, and metering processes of the electricity. The
main components of a conventional grid can be classied into ve
topics: electricity generation plants, transmission grid, distribution
grid, control center, and end-users. The conventional grid is also
required to be improved due to the technology development in the
energy generation and distribution. Although the conventional
grid has area for improvement such as voltage sags, blackouts, and
overloads, the novel technologies are being researched in order to
improve the performance of the current grid technology [1,2].
On the other hand, the SG is intended to perform these duties
but also to facilitate the bidirectional operation of the distribution
system. Furthermore, the modern communication technologies
improved the SG by adding medium or high-speed data transfer
specications that are widely used in Internet and voice data tran-
sfer operations. Besides that, telecommunication infrastructures
make the SG capable to perform remote metering and moni-
toring operations [2,3]. One of the SG denitions has been done by
the Smart Grids European Technology Platform as an electricity
network that can intelligently integrate the actions of all users
connected to it generators, consumers and those that do both
in order to efciently deliver sustainable, economic and secure
electricity supply [4]. In addition to this, the US Congress assigned
several obligations to SG concept via Energy Independence and
Security Act in 2007. Besides the precautions to be followed, there
are several requirements of a modern SG that are also announced
in the 10 mark list with this Act [5]. Moreover, Joint Research
Centre (JRC) of European Commission announced a number of
research and guidelines for smart grid projects. Members of the
Smart Grids Task Force (SGTF) that was set up by the Commission
at the end of 2009 have become expert on SG researches. It is
noted in a report of JRC that the SG employs innovative products
and services together with intelligent monitoring, control, com-
munication, and self-healing technologies [6]. The future demands
directed to SG are
 creating a grid that is more efcient secure, reliable, and
controllable to enhance the communication abilities,
 instant control capabilities and self-healing resources,
 easy integration of individual micro-generation units,
 fast distribution of smart technologies such as remote control,
autonomous operating, sustainable and interactive commun-
ication, and
 integration of smart appliances and consumer devices [5,6].
Some other governmental regulations about SG are also
announced all around the World. The SGTF of JRC denes a
regulatory package named The Third Energy Package that aims
to encourage the long-term modernization of the European grids
across Europe through the introduction of smart meters and SGs.
The initial efforts among regulatory authorities, regulated compa-
nies, end users and technology providers are intended to be co-
ordinated at European level to establish harmonized and cost-
efcient policies and regulations to avoid duplication of work and
exploit synergies among them. These regulations are basically
563
focused on generation, transmission, distribution, control, meter-
ing and communication subjects in order to obtain more reliable,
self-healing, efcient and secure grid infrastructures [1,69].
Almost all aspects of the SG that are mentioned above are aimed
to be reviewed by constructing hierarchical and logical relations
through the subjects in this survey study. Furthermore, the study
is focused on the review of distributed generation with renewable
and their integration to SG, utilization of power electronics in
smart metering and monitoring stages, and alternative commu-
nication applications performed in smart monitoring infrastruc-
ture. Although there are several surveys on existing SG studies,
this paper focuses on power electronics and renewable energy
sources (RESs) integrated to SGs.
The organization of the survey contains overview of SG concept
with detailed introduction in Section 2. Power electronics, device
technologies and their involvements in to SG are comprehensively
introduced in Section 3. Section 4covers the RES integration into
SG with generation, storage, control, smart measurement and
monitoring facilities.
2. Overview of smart grid concept
One of the greenhouse gas emissions' reduction tools is the
increased utilization of production from renewable energy sources
(RESs) fed to the grid. However, the integration of RES brings
several challenges such as dynamic stability issues, the need of
more complicated operating processes, and additional remote
control together. Since the conventional grid has an infrastructure
not ready to accommodate the RES, it is difcult to meet these
requirements where this situation caused to construct smarter
grid structures [1,10,11]. The modernizing requirements of the
actual grid are not only focused to the renewable energy sources
but also to the different types of distributed generation sources
(DGS) that are connected to the current grid and other technolo-
gies such as plug-in hybrid electrical vehicles (PHEV) that would
cause load proles modications [1214]. According to the current
situation, the primary idea of a SG concept is going to be met with
advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) with the aim to provide
an efcient energy management technology. Although the most
widely used remote control and metering interface on the Trans-
mission level is Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
system, there are going to be more widely applied information and
communication technologies (ICT), which are based on wired and
wireless mediums, proposed and installed under the AMI coverage
[15,16].
A comprehensive outlook of a smart grid infrastructure is
illustrated in Fig. 1 that is reproduced from [17]. The distributed
generation (DG) units are represented such as offshore wind farm,
solar plants, fossil fuel based power plants, and power-heat
coupling units that may be usually found in any extended grid
scenario. The SG infrastructure manages the generation parts of
this scenario by remote monitoring and control subsystems that
are considered as an intelligent node where the AMI or SCADA-
like operations are executed. A dedicated data center is usually
operated to supervise the transmission and distribution networks.
Another constituent of SG scheme involves smart homes and
intelligent buildings through smart metering with their microgrids
and several loads such as household electronics and electric
vehicles (EVs) [18]. All these components require an accurately
564 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
managed grid infrastructure from generation sites to consumption
using the communication of measured values or using the trans-
mitted control information more efciently.
Many researchers describe the main differences between SG
and existing grid. However, they all agree on the main contribu-
tions of SG. These are bidirectional data communication, distrib-
uted generation, interaction through the exchange of information
gathered from many sensors, interactive power electronics that
support self-healing, and extended control abilities that are not
seen in conventional grid [1,19].
To be able to perform a detailed survey, the entire SG system
shall be divided into three subsystems. These are the smart
generation, transmission, and distribution (GTD) subsystem, the
smart management subsystem, and the smart communication
subsystem.
The smart GTD system involves wide utilization of power
electronics and power conversion units that constitute the high-
voltage direct current (HVDC) grids and exible alternative current
transmission systems (FACTS) and the large-scale uninterruptible
power supplies (UPSs) [2024]. These systems require some novel
technologies including several internal measuring units that are
based on optically or magnetically operating sensors, power factor
controlling mechanisms, active lters based on dynamic control
algorithms, bidirectional voltage source converters, smart trans-
formers, unbalanced load prediction and self-troubleshooting
algorithms that run on high precise microprocessors and similar
other solutions [2530].
The smart management subsystems are based on automatic
metering infrastructure (AMI) and automatic meter reading (AMR)
interfaces that are utilized to analyse the operation of SG logically.
The measurement systems are not only utilized to determine the
consumed energy by load plants but also used to observe the phasor,
voltage and frequency values supplied to end-users [15,21,3134].
The security of electrical supply is a critical point for all nations. The
latest management approaches for supply infrastructures are chal-
lenging to the conventional GTD systems in terms of reliability,
sustainability, and quality of service. However, the intermittent
energy sources such as solar and wind seriously stresses the
operation [3439]. Beside this, the power plants require increased
information ow like independent agents in addition to actual local
protection systems and central control. Since the central control
Fig. 1. Complete schematic outlook of a smart grid infrastructure [14].
systems may not respond dynamically in each operation interval,
independent agents and processors are required at each substation
and plant. The communication infrastructure is based on agents
associated with sensors that provide instant data to each other and
central control mechanism. Furthermore, the agents integrated to
circuit breakers and connectors can manage the power ow through
loads. The agent-based communication is also essential to manage
the energy demand by updating the central controller when devices
are connected or disconnected from substations in the proposed
operation mode [4045].
An agent is a device, which has articial intelligence, robotic,
and data processing power. Although various classications of
agents are proposed, they are probably reduced to a few main
types such as service agents, system agents, and adaptive agents.
Service agents are responsible with specic operations that are
dedicated to do. System agents operate as a part of operating a
control system in a substation [4042]. They are related to the
supervision of the communication and computer infrastructure
instead of interacting with the loads or users. The system agents
can also be used to manage backup or storage devices. On the
other hand, adaptive agents are developed with their learning
ability based on articial intelligence. They can just respond to
changes by not attempting any reaction or can employ to adapt
themselves to the environmental changes by improving their
abilities [34,41,46]. The load sharing is connected to the environ-
mental and economic dispatch (EED) concept [41]. The EED is a
vital challenge that should be taken into account by using several
optimization algorithms that are referred in [41]. The most widely
preferred solutions are based on algorithms such as genetic
algorithm, particle swarm optimization, bee colony, and differen-
tial evolution. All these algorithms are conveniently used in
centralized controlled systems where several other methods are
proposed for non-centralized control operations.
3. Involving the power electronics in smart grid
The power electronics constitute crucial components of the
energy control applications for several years. The power circuits
including HVDC controllers, FACTS, static synchronous compensa-
tor (STATCOM), inverters, and converters are implemented to
 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
control and facilitate the transmission and distribution of the
power generated. Furthermore, the controllable power electronics
are developed to precisely adjust amplitudes of voltage, current,
and frequency while increasing the quality of the power supplied
to the consumers. The latest implementations of power electronics
are assisted with monitoring, communication, real time simulation
such as OPAL-RT [47] and RTDS [48] and several other autonomous
features that facilitate to install smart grid and power line
communication (PLC) infrastructures. The PLC allows obtaining
the signaling feature over high voltage power systems where it can
be used as a communication medium for remote sites [3,49,50].
The conventional grid structure is being widely studied in order
to move to a more exible, intelligent, and more than just an
electrical carrier with communication features that will meet the
involvements of this century. The recent trends in grid structure
are widely based on the integration of small DG sources and
distributed storage systems where the energy is generated by
energy sources such as wind, solar, fuel cell, and biomass. The
smarter and distributed generation structure of electrical grid that
is dened as SG brings the intelligent communication technologies
together where wired or wireless options can be easily installed.
Thus, the integration of renewable energy sources and microgrids
(MGs) to the utility grid should be handled in a logical way. The DC
and AC MGs tend to supply the generated power under diverse
conditions supported by the quality operation of the power
electronic converters. Several control methods are implemented
in order to eliminate disruptive effects on voltage and current
waveforms, harmonic contents, and to increase the quality of
power transmitted to utility grid. The DC power, control, which
is particularly involved in solar plant or fuel cell based generation,
is performed in DCDC converters. On the other hand, parallel
inverter control that is required in both AC and DC power
conversion is mostly focused on the power ow control [4954].
Droop control is one of the most recently studied methods that
focus on active and reactive power adjustment regarding to
frequency and amplitude values. The parallel inverter operation
that is essential in converting HVDC to HVAC is coped with several
control loops together to increase the reliability and exibility of
the generation sides. Besides these methods, the harmonic current
share or output impedance conditioning is based on the latest
control methods that are implemented to operate with nonlinear
load proles [5557]. Both the grid-tied and islanded DG struc-
tures involve the development of properly controlled converters.
While the power of a dispatchable DG system is controlled by
power control strategies such as droop control or others noted
above, the generated power of undispatchable DG units as solar
plants or wind farms is controlled in a predened optimum
operation range [56].
On the other hand, the DG system transmits the generated
power to both loads and utility grid in grid-tied operation. The
reference voltage of grid and active power control should be
combined in this situation. The optimized control of power ow
between the DG and the grid can be implemented by using agent-
based strategy that sets a communication infrastructure through
generators and loads. However, this strategy cannot operate in
parallel with droop control since it avoids interacting with all sides
at the point of common coupling (PCC). The smart transformer
(ST) that is congured with tap changing feature and located at the
PCC copes with the inadequacy of agents [56].
The ST manages the power ow between grid and DG section,
and can gather the power transfer rates and directions instantly. In
this way, the monitoring section of grid needs to observe only the
ST instead of entire DG elements reducing the overall installation
and operation costs. The ST adjusts the DG side voltage in order to
control the power ow between grid and MG. The primary and
secondary side controls of ST manage the voltage-based control of
565
power regarding the demands directed by the loads to utility grid.
The following parts of this section introduce particular applica-
tions of SG in several MG structures [14,56].
3.1. Power control in smart grid
A complete smart grid can be mapped as shown in Fig. 2 that is
originally given in [57] with power generation, transmission and
distribution (T&D), and customer sections. The diagram illustrates
bidirectional electricity and communication ows. The power gen-
erators' section consists of several sources including renewables. The
generation section may be assisted by energy storage systems (ESS) to
ensure the sustainability of the system. The T&D section is constituted
of substations and control center mechanism in which the generated
and consumed electricity rates are observed instantly incorporating
with wired or wireless sensors together [5759]. The control envir-
onment, which contains switches, meters technical personnel, is now
being managed owing to remote control and telemetry features of
smart grid. To achieve this development, utility grid is equipped with
remotely activated switches, automatic circuit breakers, and reclosers,
which involve power electronics [38,57,6062].
Besides the control center in substations, phase measurement
units (PMU) are also integrated to the system to measure the
phase values of the supplied power to consumers. The T&D section
includes wide power control infrastructure such as remote mon-
itoring and remote control of power circuits as inverters and
converters in MG scale besides switches and breakers. The control
elements of power electronics in a smart grid cover the power
factor controllers, sensors, and other components of a SCADA-like
system [33,6366]. The last section of the diagram consists of
customers in where the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) is
installed to each node in order to perform monitoring and billing
requirements. The AMI infrastructure can be connected to control
center either using wireless communication standards or wired
communication methods over power lines. The PLC technologies
are recently involved for several applications in smart grid that
cover a wide range from domestic energy control to Internet
service supplying known as broadband power lines (BPL). All the
electricity and communication background are bidirectionally
connected end-to-end between power generating section and
customers over control center.
Another smart grid control diagram can be seen in Fig. 3 that is
originally shown in [57] with PLC infrastructure. The power
control sections of the smart grid can be classied according to
voltage levels as high voltage (HV) in where the primary power
generation plants are located, medium voltage (MV) covering the
DG plants and T&D center, and low voltage (LV) section that
includes the consumers with communication infrastructures.
The transformer center decreases voltage level across the
sections in order to supply to customers enabling the interconnec-
tion of DG sources to utility grid. The MV section consists of
storage facilities to ensure the sustainability of the renewable
energy, while the LV section includes individual RESs such as solar,
wind, and fuel cell. The bidirectional communication between HV
and LV sections is performed by BPL technology where metering,
energy management, demand response, and storage controls are
instantly managed. The local distribution system manages the
metering, the tariff, the demand response, the generation and the
storage control of each customer regarding to power control and
communication strategies.
The improvements achieved in smart grid infrastructure rapidly
increased the usage of RESs in where the domestic and industrial
applications are easily implemented owing to convenient management
features for generation and storage processes. A novel term, namely
future renewable electric energy delivery and management (FREEDM)
system building a utility grid by integrating distributable and scalable
566 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
Fig. 2. Power generation, control, and measurement diagram across the distribution network and consumers [50].
RESs to utility grid is proposed in [67]. The FREEDM system is intended
to install an alternative interface for PV converters that holds a 400 Vdc
bus [67].
It is obviously known that the power electronic converters are
more important for power control, energy management and
efciency issues as well as interfacing several circuits across RESs
and utility grid. The interfacing requirements and integration
capabilities of sources dene the power electronics to be used in
control level. A study introduced in [68] presents several require-
ments and control systems for fuel cell (FC) and electrolyzer cell
(EC) based on dynamically slow systems. The transient response of
the sources has a key role in device control and management
operations besides overall efciency. The transient response of the
systems of these types increased by integrating the hybrid gen-
eration systems together. Furthermore, battery or capacitor banks
increase the dynamic performance of ESS. The FC- and EC-based
systems that are similar for PV applications require highly efcient
DCDC converter structures with a wide range of input voltage
variations and high current output. Zhang et al. [68] expressed
that recently implemented power switches of silicon carbide (SiC),
gallium nitride (GaN), and several magnetic materials could
increase the power control stability of these systems.
Arai et al. surveyed and presented the power electronics and
control systems of RES interface in Japan [69] where they intro-
duced the recent developments in power electronic devices. The
power control of a HVDC link in Kii-Channel is performed using
thyristors that have a rating of 8 kV3.5 kA. On the other hand, line
frequency commutated converters of gate turn off thyristor (GTO)
and gate commutation thyristor (GCT) with ratings of 6 kV4 kA
and 6 kV6 kA, respectively, are also used in power control and
interfacing of RESs to utility grid. Another widely used power
device is manufactured with insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBT) that have rating of 4.5 kV1.2 kA used in series connection
in each arms of converter systems. Besides its high-speed switch-
ing capacity owing to SiC structure itself, another advanced power
electronics semiconductor injection enhanced gate transistor
(IEGT) provides rating of 4.5 kV900 A [69]. The Static Var Gen-
erator (SVG) is the recent large power application of GTCs with the
capacity of controlling 80 MVA power and 77 kV bus voltages in
Kanzaki substation [69,70].
The SVG is commutated with pulse width modulation (PWM)
switching signals that reduce the switching losses without any AC
lter requirement. The ESS systems are also involved to compen-
sate the voltage sags in addition to their contribution in load
supplying. The recent advances in battery technology allowed the
implementation of sodium-sulphur batteries, namely NAS battery,
and a pioneer application is performed with voltage compensation
of 3 MW during 10 s wherein the switching response from grid to
battery is less than 5 ms that is considered as a great increment of
transient response in ESS [69].
MGs contribute in the advances of the smart grid by including
several DGs, power converters, ESS and communication systems
together. The MG can be operated with conventional centralized
control of utility grid or decentralized control of islanded mode
wherein both of the control mechanisms increases the efciency
and stability. The power control of a MG is related to voltage and
frequency (Vf) regulation, active and reactive power (PQ) ow
control, synchronization, and energy management between DG
sources and utility grid. The hierarchical control strategy of MGs is
proposed with three control stages that are named as primary,
secondary and tertiary control levels. The primary control level
includes the voltage and current control loops, droop voltage
I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579 567

Fig. 3. PLC based smart grid scenario [57].

Fig. 4. A complete MG structure with DG sources.

568 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
controls, and impedance controls. The decentralized control
operations that deal with Pf and QV droop controls are assumed
in the primary control level with its autonomous power share
processes. Since the primary level control is completely focused on
main power control processes, it does not involve communication
infrastructures in where the secondary level control does [39, 70
75]. The droop control methods are widely analyzed in [74] where
the behavior of the controller is evaluated referring to synchro-
nous generators. The major advantages of droop control are great
exibility, high reliability, and not requiring any communication.
The primary control namely eld level control produces the
deviation values of amplitude and frequency [74].
The secondary level control is based on rst communication
systems that are based on lower bandwidth to measure specic
values in MG and featured control loops. The secondary level
control is also responsible for management of islanded and grid-
tied operation by making decision to shift operation mode
according to demands and requirements [74]. MG Central Con-
troller (MGCC) that provides data feedback to DG system to control
the MG instantly performs the relaying system as seen in Fig. 4.
The MGCC is designed to compensate Vf variations, voltage
unbalances, and harmonic contents caused by input and output
impedances of primary control generated in the MG. Furthermore,
the QV droop control that is affected by the unstable voltage of
MG is also implemented by an external control loop in the
secondary level control. It is extensively studied to perform droop
control in the primary level control by improving virtual inductors
to manage the PQ coupling, Q sharing algorithms, and frequency
droop control [38,72]. The tertiary control operates at the grid
level and calculates the demanded active and reactive power
where the calculation results are transferred to management level
that consists of secondary control loops [74].
Since the voltage along the MG is not stable, the secondary
level control loops employed in MGCC cannot perform completely
managed reactive power sharing. The pricing control and econom-
ical optimization of the MG are carried out in tertiary level control
by including related algorithms to MGCC. Tertiary level control
provides a better communication possibility between MG and
utility due to its centralized control level, while the primary level
architecture is based on decentralized control [72].
The synchronous generators that are essential to compensate
voltage and frequency deviations in conventional grid are not
commonly used in MGs. A complete MG scheme with several
possible DG sources and power electronic interfaces is illustrated
in Fig. 4 where the abbreviations are shown in the legend. The
MGCC is installed in MVLV substation wherein the primary and
secondary level controls are performed owing to its functions. The
tertiary level control is performed in each source and load nodes
by using source controller (SC) and load controller (LC) those carry
out the communication requirements between MGCC and utility
grid by operating each DG unit. The SC controls the PQ generation
and sharing levels at each individual DG unit, while LC interfaces
load connections to DG sources and utility grid [72].
The individual inverter performs the Vf control in islanded
operation mode or PQ control in grid connected modes. On the
other hand, the parallel inverter operation is essential in Pf droop
control, QV droop control and power sharing controls [73]. The
smart grid studies should consider the transportation utilities such
as electrical vehicles (EV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEV) that are integrated to utility grid regarding to the recent
advances. The increased integration of EVs to the utility grid
causes several compensation problems which should be handled
by similar control loops managed by MGCC and LC systems
[18,7578,80]. One of the recent proposals for power control is
related to resonant and isolated converters that focus on decreas-
ing the voltage stresses on the switching devices either in
inverters or in converters [57]. The power converters used in SG
applications including MG and RES are presented in the following
subsections.
3.2. ACDC converter control in smart grid
Although the AC smart grids are commonly used, studies on DC
smart grids are being proposed in the recent years [16,79,80]. The
DC grid eliminates harmonic contents besides providing a con-
venient structure for HVDC systems. Furthermore, DC smart grid
can be easily disconnected from AC grid and can be controlled
individually. The DC grid and EVs are investigated in [80] regard-
ing the smart grid integration of EVs that is accepted as a great
challenge for grid. The EVs are assumed as distributed energy
resources (DER) for energy market with its various power gen-
erating and consuming features. The optimized pricing and control
algorithms for EVs are also introduced in [80] with their energy
saving methods. In [81], a DC and AC smart grid is connected
together to constitute a hybrid power system. The DC smart grid
that is separated from AC grid, and wind turbine of a microgrid
involves ACDC converter. The wind power generation system
(WPGS) that is based on several generator structures can be
classied into four ways such as xed speed with squirrel cage
induction generator (SCIG), variable speed with wounded rotor
induction generator (WRIG), variable speed with double fed
induction generator (DFIG), and variable speed with synchronous
generator (SG). The SG used in variable speed WPGS is imple-
mented with wounded rotor SG (WRSG) or permanent magnet SG
(PMSG) in where the PMSG is the most widely used type [79]. The
multi-pole structure of a generator used in WPGS provides to
construct gearless operation in where it is achieved by using a
PMSG. Fig. 5 illustrates the ACDC converter types that are either
in uncontrolled structure or in bidirectional structure used in a
PMSG wind turbine [82].
The uncontrolled converter seen in Fig. 5a is constituted with
front-end rectier that is built in three-phase full bridge topology.
Moreover, the second block diagram given in Fig. 5b illustrates
bidirectional ACDC converter that provides the power ow between
wind turbine and utility grid [71]. Furthermore, the mechanical load
that affects the tip speed of the turbine can be controlled by the
bidirectional control of converter where energy storage is managed
by a capacitor between rotor side and grid side converters [16]. In
addition to this, matrix converters enable direct conversion without
including any capacitor whether the DC-link allows to implement a
method known as the low-voltage ride-through capability (LVRT) that
specically makes the generator able to operate through lower
voltage periods for critical loads [16].
The DFIG-based WT consists of a wound rotor where the slip
rings build the output connection of rotor circuit, and ACDC
converter controls the electrical frequency of the rotor, while the
stator circuit is connected to the grid without any converter or
power control device as shown in Fig. 6. The ACDC converter
controls the mechanical speed of the WT by decoupling the rotor
speed from electrical frequency of the grid. The DFIG is the most
recent and most widely preferred WT among others owing to its
speed range, which varies up to 60% of nominal speed [16].
Moreover, the power converters used in DFIG are named as
partial-scale since they are designed to control 30% of the rated
power owing to slip power of rotor circuit.
In addition to the WTs, another application area of the ACDC
converter is widely seen in DC islanding operations in AC utility
grid. The DC grid is not only constructed for high voltage but also
for the low voltage that is known as the LVDC grid. The power
injection to the LVDC requires strict voltage regulation processes
wherein the power control should also be performed on the load
side in addition to source-side control. Thus, the communication
 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579 569

Fig. 5. ACDC converters in PMSG wind turbine: (a) uncontrolled converter and (b) bidirectional converter.

Fig. 6. ACDC converters in DFIG wind turbine.

infrastructures should be extended to load-side as done in source-
side. The recent studies about LVDC grid are based on separating a
bus from conventional utility grid over bidirectional ACDC con-
verter that provides a exible way to interact through PV and
several storage alternatives. The islanded LVDC smart grid shown
in Fig. 7 can be obtained separating either the bus between rotor
side and grid side converters of a WPGS or from a conventional
utility grid. The improved diagram enables to connect many small
DG units along the bidirectional ACDC converters, ESS units, and
communication infrastructures together [51,54,83].
Solid-state transformer (SST) that consists of power electronic
devices and provides multiple taps such a distribution transformer
assists a novel ACDC converter structure [84]. The SST is imple-
mented as a high frequency (HF) transformer that is connected to
active converter bridges on primary and secondary sides to build a
DC island from conventional utility grid. The SST makes the
bidirectional communication owing to its structure enabling
additional functionalities as the power control, the current
demand control, and the ESS management opportunities [84].
3.3. DCAC converter control in smart grid
The DCAC converter, namely inverter, has a wide utilization
area containing transportation, heavy-duty railways, electric vehi-
cles, aircrafts besides industrial and power generation plants. It is
noted in [69] that the latest Tsukuba Express has PWM switched
IGBT inverters in its substations wherein the DC-line voltage
generated during breaking is converted to AC. Although the hard
switching voltage source inverter (VSI) based on sinusoidal PWM
(SPWM) or space vector PWM (SVM) is a very old technology,
recent multilevel inverters (MLI) present a wide application area in
medium and high voltage market promoting the multi-MW wind
turbines and individual generators [68,76]. The initial studies of
MLIs are based on three-level hard-switching inverter. The follow-
ing topologies are implemented owing to its lower switching
570 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
losses, decreased common mode voltage, and harmonic elimina-
tion features. The most widely known topologies of MLI are named
as diode clamped, ying capacitor, and cascaded H-bridge. The
most popular usages of MLI cover motor drives are FACTS,
STATCOMs, adjustable speed drives (ASD), and active lters
[85,86]. Fig. 8 that is originally shown in [85] illustrates the most
common MLI topologies in three-level structure in where Fig. 8c
depicts a ve-level H-bridge that is cascaded by using three-
level cells.
A microgrid can include many inverters in different topologies
to interface aforementioned DG units and loads. The most impor-
tant point to gure out is to control the parallel inverters in the
islanded operation to achieve the highest performance for power
and voltage regulations. The parallel inverters require Pf droop
control and QV droop control to manage the power ow, while
the single inverter operation involves Vf and PQ control in
isolated and grid-tied connection, respectively. The main disad-
vantage of parallel inverter operation is that the change occurred
in voltage and reactive power regarding the load deviation. One of
the recent methods to cope with this issue is proposed in [76]
where the control scheme is based on droop control to govern the
active power share of parallel inverters in DG units. In the
proposed method, the reactive power of each inverter could be
adjusted to an exact value owing to reactive power generation
capacity of the DG units in the microgrid. The Q value of a VSI in
the system was unregulated and could vary with the load [87,88].
Fig. 7. Block diagram of an islanded LVDC smart grid.
Fig. 8. Multilevel inverter topologies: (a) diode clamped, (b) ying-capacitor, and (c) cascaded H-bridge [82].
A comprehensive block diagram of AC and DC smart grid with
several DG units, VSIs generating AC bus, ACDC converters
comprising the DC bus by using diesel generator, WT, and ywheel
is shown in Fig. 9. The DC sources are interfaced to DC bus over
DCDC converters that are based on PWM controlled switches to
set the output voltages to a desired value. The DC loads can be
connected to DC smart grid over DC bus similar to AC loads
interfaced in AC bus.
The PQ droop control for a single inverter is illustrated in
Fig. 10 where the compensated outputs of current controllers are
used to generate switching signals of SVM modulator. The phase
locked loop (PLL), current and voltage outputs are decoupled to
obtain actual P, Q, V, Id, and Iq values that are transferred to droop
controller.
The islanding operation of parallel inverters is achieved by
maintaining at least one inverter to generate three-phase output
voltage synchronized with utility grid. At this operation mode,
other inverters are responsible for regulating the active and
reactive power obtained from DG units. Other inverters supply P
that is proportional to Id since the d-axis voltage is kept constant.
The control method of these inverters is based on the following:
 
k

ind kPp Pi P n  P 1
s
where Pn is the reference active power inherited by using refer-
ence angular frequency (ref), active power generated by the ith
inverter (Poi), and angular frequency of the ith inverter (i) as
given below:


P iref P oi ki ref i 2
The active and the reactive powers generated by the inverters
are calculated as given below disregarding the power losses of
inverter:
P 1:5vd id vq iq 1:5vd id 3
Q 1:5vq id  vd iq  1:5vq iq 4
It is obviously seen from Eq. (4) that the reactive power of an
inverter is proportional to iq, where the regulation of the reactive
power is obtained by using the following equation [85]:
 
kQ i

inq  kQ p Qn Q 5
s
where Qn is the reference reactive power that is set by the
controller according to the reactive capacity of the inverter. The
current controllers dene the reference values of the dq axis
currents to generate dq voltages.
 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579 571

Fig. 9. Block diagram of AC and DC smart grid managed by VSI.

Fig. 10. Active and reactive power control of SVM switched VSI [92].

3.4. DCDC converter control in smart grid
The DC power supply in DG units is commonly obtained from
PV panels, ultra-capacitors, fuel cells, and batteries. The PV effect
of solar irradiation produces DC energy and AC power having the
PVs connected to islanded or grid-tied inverters. The batteries or
ESS are commonly used in the islanded congurations to sustain
the energy in the periods that the irradiation is unavailable. On the
other hand, the grid-tied system does not require ESS assistance
since the generated energy is instantly transmitted to the utility
grid [8890]. One of the experimental studies of a PV-based
system is proposed in [86] where the DCDC conversion is done
with boost converter. Several converter topologies are used in
DCDC converters that are the derivations of main buck, boost,
and buckboost topologies. Moreover, bidirectional conversion
that requires various control methods is one of the extensively
studied topics of DCDC converter [8991].
The DCDC converter topologies have become an interesting
research area that is intensely improved in terms of circuit
topology and control methods owing to widespread usage of EV
and DG applications. The bidirectional control involves coopera-
tion of converter with an inverter and an ESS by using the
capabilities provided by communication infrastructure. The imple-
mentation of these devices wherein the DC sources are used
makes the smart grid a compact power source with enhanced
power ow control [90,92]. The smart grid including converters
should manage the bidirectional power ow between ESS and
converter on demand, besides implementing featured charging
algorithms for each battery type as leadacid, NiCd, Li-ion, and
super capacitors in ESS. Furthermore, the DCDC converter should
track and perform the demanded operation that is transmitted
from the control and management center to converter.
The EVs are one of the most popular and available smart grid
technologies in islanded mode where the DCDC converters
integrate the battery packs, super capacitors, and propulsion
system in a high manner technology comparing other power
electronics. The demands for a converter in EVs are similar to a
microgrid that is supplied by several DG units. Thus, the designed
power topology of a converter should meet the requirements in
bidirectional modes [92,93]. Since the circuit diagrams of buck,
572 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
Table 1
Physical parameters, design criteria, and equations of DCDC converters.
Buck
Output voltage V O tTon V S DV S



Min. inductor for CCM Lmin Z TR 2 1  D
 D
Min. CCM load current I LB V S TD1
2L 8 I LB V O D12L DT
Min. capacitor for CCM C min Z V o 1  2D 9 C min Z VVroRfD
8V r Lf
Min.max. load current I L min ; max VRo 7 V O T1
-IL max j  -I L min
boost, and buckboost converters are well known by readers and
can be found in several textbooks [94,95], they will not be
introduced in this section. Besides the widely used topologies,
Taghvaee et al. [94] analyzed several other topologies such as Ck
and Sepic converters in [94]. However, the design criteria that is
related to several parameters such as output voltage (VO), mini-
mum inductor value (Lmin) for continuous conduction mode (CCM),
CCM boundary load current (ILB), minimum capacitor value for
CCM (Cmin), and minimummaximum load current (ILminmax) are
given in Table 1 where the calculations can be easily done using
these equations [92]. VS depicts the supply voltage, while T denes
the switching period while f is the switching frequency, and D is
the duty cycle.
A DCDC converter designed according to one of the topologies
and criteria illustrated in Table 1 is not enough to operate in
bidirectional mode itself. The converter requires a proper control
algorithm that is selected among numerous methods proposed by
researchers up to now. The control algorithms can be classied
according to their loop either in feedback or in feed-forward
structure. The feedback methods are based on tracking the output
current or output voltage where the measured values are evalu-
ated by a decisive algorithm such as PI, PID or soft computing
methods to control the duty cycle of switching device. On the
other hand, the feed-forward methods are responsible to control
the actual state of power supply particularly used in PV or battery
supplied converters. The renowned feed-forward method among
others is named maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm
that generates the switching signals regarding to variations
occurred in the supply voltage [9699].
An islanded solar plant model is proposed in [97] where MPPT
algorithm is implemented to achieve the maximum output power
of solar plant. Authors proposed a PLC infrastructure that is used to
measure the output power of the plant besides implementing a
test bed. The PLC subsection performed the communication by
using binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation technique that
is a digital modulation technique. Such a study can reduce the
remote monitoring and control costs of a RES system that are
commonly performed by using SCADA or GSM [100,101] (Fig. 11).
The presented study [97] promises DCDC converter and smart
grid applications together. Moreover, an improved hybrid system
with increased control and communication features is proposed in
[96] where a WT with PMSG and a solar plant with PV arrays are
designed to couple the generated voltage on DC-bus. The DG units
can be integrated in many ways to comprise a hybrid microgrid
through a bus. The coupling method yields the bus type as
DC-coupled, AC-coupled, and hybrid-coupled [96,97,99]. The pro-
posed studies in [96,97] present DC-bus that couples WT and solar
arrays owing to buck converters supplying 24 V DC-line voltages.
The DC-line voltages coupled on bus are supplied to a full-bridge
inverter that generates three-phase AC-line voltage owing to
switching method and transmission transformer. The voltage,
current, output power values of each DG unit are instantly
Boost BuckBoost
6 V O 1VSD 11 V O 1 D DV S 16


7 Lmin Z TR 2 D1  D
2
12 Lmin Z TR 2 1  D
2
17
13 ILB R1VS DD2  V S2LDT 18
14 C min Z VVrORfD 19
 D VS
2L
I L min ; max R1  D2
7 V 2L
S DT
IL min ; max R1VS DD2 7 V S2LDT
10 -I Lmax j  -IL min 15 -I L max j  -I L min 20
measured and converted to quantized data in Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying (QPSK) [98].
The transmission line that carries the communication data
besides voltage is modeled with 25 km length. The presented
study [98] is assumed as a comprehensive example for smart grid
and power electronics by expressing the utilization of ACDC,
DCAC, and DCDC converters and communication infrastructures
together.
4. Smart grid applications in renewable energy
The improvements seen in the WPGSs became the WT as one of
the most important generator in DG. However, the variations of
intermittent wind speed cause power uctuations that affect the
utility voltage and frequency where the stability should be
ensured by using various control methods reported in the litera-
ture [102114]. Since the generated power of a wind turbine (WT)
is proportional to three power of wind speed, small changes in
wind speed cause extremely high changes in the output power
[102]. Therefore, the uctuations of the generated power should
be controlled by robust and dynamically fast methods. There are
several other approaches improved to control the active and
reactive power transmitted to utility grid by buffering the output
power with ESS solutions. Ge et al. [102] proposed vanadium
redox ow battery (VRB) for multi-MVA applications of WTs
where the ESS systems based on fuel cells or regular batteries
may not be sufcient. The particular specications of VRB are
related to its higher capacity, long life, low cost, low maintenance
requirements, and fast response.
The VRB-based ESS systems were rstly used in Japan and Australia
for large WPGS and hybrid RES plants when they achieved commercial
product brand. An application for PQ control with VRB is proposed in
[102] with the schematic diagram depicted in Fig. 12. The power ow
control of the system is managed by using bidirectional ACDC
converters, while each WT is coupled to bus owing to aforementioned
power electronics that are explained using Fig. 5. The direct drive
methodology of WTs allows operating in unity power factor regarding
control management of grid-side converter. In case of reactive power
required, VRB-based ESS supplies owing to bidirectional operation of
ACDC converter is used to interface the utility grid and VRB [102].
The similar grid-tied inverter operation is proposed in a
renewable PV plant interfacing to utility grid [102]. The controller
of inverter consists of six parts: maximum power controller, ESS
charge controller, voltage controller, harmonic controller, rms
voltage controller, and current waveform generator. The hybrid
energy systems involve a well-optimized energy control and
management infrastructure to achieve the highest possible energy
level. Another study proposing a robust control method is done in
[103] where the hybrid system comprising a PV plant with the
100 kW rated power, a WPGS with 150 kW rated power, and a
I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579 573

Fig. 11. The schematic diagram of a hybrid smart grid [84].

Fig. 12. The schematic diagram of a hybrid smart grid.

574 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579

battery that has a capacity about 500 Ah are available. The demand
power is evaluated according to a database that is constructed
using mathematical models and previous measurements.
In addition to this, fuzzy logic controller (FLC) controls the
power rate that is demanded from battery in order to prevent
power deciency and deep discharge [104]. The denite power
control of hybrid systems requires an exact mathematical model of
the DG units and their integration. However, the conventional
control methods such as PI or PID cannot meet all the control
requirements since the control system gain and parameter varia-
tions restrain the stability of the controller [105,107,108].
Thus, several intelligent techniques like articial neural net-
works (ANNs), hybrid algorithms, Petri nets, and genetic algo-
rithms (GAs) are proposed besides FLC. In addition to their
advantages, each soft computing method brings its drawbacks
together such as membership function limitations in FLC or black
box model based on exact estimations of ANN [109111].
The hybrid soft computing methods are selected to tackle these
disadvantages of pure FLC or ANN by improving hybrid systems as
neural fuzzy or namely neuro-fuzzy networks. A hybrid RES
similar to the proposed one in [105] is introduced in [106] where
a global power ow controller is implemented with fuzzy control

Fig. 13. A double transmission line model with generators and solar plants interface.

Fig. 14. Block diagram of the renewable energy plant with grid-tie [122].
 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
Fig. 15. Implemented renewable energy plant: (a) solar arrays, (b) wind turbine, and (c) control system.
methods. The output voltages of WPGS, PV plant, and storage are
coupled on a DC-bus owing to individual DCDC converters
connected to outputs of each DG units. The constant output power
is ensured by measuring the system output at 15 min intervals.
The bidirectional ow of power and data in smart grid provides
an essential infrastructure for providers and customers in terms of
demand side management [111]. The contributions of smart grid to
customers provide to sell-back the generated energy of residential
microgrid plants. However, this situation creates a great complex-
ity in determining the optimum capacities of each customer's DG
microgrid. Some researchers reported in [111] have improved
determinations on the optimum capacity of RES DG units. Further
reading on DFIG-based WPGS can be found in [112116] where
several proposals on smart distribution systems are concluded.
The PV plant integration to utility grid is another widely study
topic of DG-based smart grid where some researchers proposed
several alternatives and better control methods as noted in [117
121]. The grid integration of plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is
examined in [117] where the effects of PEVs on T&D networks
are incorporated with RES and DG units. The deviations of solar
irradiance forces power suppliers to be more careful to meet
demands against variable generation rates. The operational control
575
is carried out by forecasting the daily power generation and
transmission rates. Thus, the solar plants coupled to smart grid
can be utilized sustainably and securely. A research presented in
[118] proposes ANN based estimation of solar power and max-
imum power generation solution. The latitude and global irradia-
tion are collected as astronomical and geographical data and the
extra-terrestrial radiation is calculated in the proposed algorithm
[118,121]. Moreover, the clearness index and diffuse radiation on a
horizontal plane, beam radiations on horizontal and inclined
planes are calculated to estimate the output power of solar plant.
The intensive research on solar energy showed that it is
possible to construct large solar plants and integrate them to the
utility grid. Numerous countries paid much attention to centra-
lized solar energy generation (CSEG) owing to irradiation capacity
coming from their geographical positions [119]. The integration of
large CSEG requires several stability issues including converter and
inverter controls. The static VAR compensator (SVC) consists of
relatively high current and high voltage devices like thyristors that
comprise of decreased number of devices compared to STATCOMs.
Nevertheless, STATCOM that requires fully controlled switches as
GTO or IGBT provides better and fast response on the contrary of
SVC. Moreover, STATCOM controls the active and reactive power
576 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
Fig. 16. Data acquisition interface and measurements: (a) graphical user interface, (b) voltage and current measurement, and (c) experimental measurements of voltage,
current, and harmonics.
independently that allows improving dynamic stability of the
system compensated by supplying leading or lagging reactive
power to the utility grid [119].
The CSEG substations in multi-MVA ranges that consist of
inverter segments up to 3 MW are now available in applications.
The coupling of these substations to utility grid is supplied
through medium or high voltage lines with incremental transfor-
mers. A two machine system with 100 MW generators and
double transmission line model is proposed in [120] where
30 MW solar plants are integrated to the transmission line in the
middle as the third generator. The rst generator is seen on the left
hand side of diagram that supplies stable voltage and power, while
the second generator provides stable voltage and variable power.
All the parameters and components of system as machine reac-
tance, line parameters, breakers, power angles, and phase angles
regarding the center of inertia are shown in Fig. 13.
The control algorithm of VSI that are supplied by the solar
plants is performed by using synchronously rotating reference
frame (SRRF). The voltage vector is adjusted with the d-axis that is
controlled aligned by DC link capacitor of VSI. The MPPTs coop-
erating with each other in the solar segments provide to generate
available maximum power from PV panels. The current limiter
parameters on the q-axis prevent the solar plant inverters against
inrush currents during non-transient disturbances. Another
similar study is proposed in [121] with improvement of IEEE 13-
bus system that is comprised with 13 separate nodes, 11 line
sections, and 8 load plants. The transmission line that carries
115 kV is distributed to 4.16 kV and 480 V levels by distribution
transformers. The MPPT controller is based on several loops
operating with lookup tables of irradiance values. The inverter
control is implemented with PQ control blocks that are governing
the MPPT control and battery charge system.
The inverter side PQ controller is inherited by modifying the
classical Vf controller that is based on active and reactive power
control at PCC. The transferred Q value is measured at the PCC
where it is compared to reference amount desired to track and the
difference that is the derivation of error signal is provided to PI
controller [121].
5. Renewable microgrid applications
Colak et al. [122125] implemented a clean energy park that
consists of a wind turbine and solar arrays with sun-tracking
feature at Gazi University, Turkey. The block diagram of the
implemented plant is seen in Fig. 14 with its generation, control,
and communication units. The solar arrays are constituted with 14
solar panels where each one has 185 W rated power that yield
 I. Colak et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 562579
Fig. 17. Wind turbine voltages: (a) three-phase voltages and (b) voltage variation of the wind turbine.
2600 W total. On the other hand, the wind turbine is a PMSG with
2.5 kW rated power that also includes sensors to detect the wind
direction and wind speed. The connection unit, seen in Fig. 14, is
used to couple the generated energy on DC busbar, and a control
unit is implemented to charge the batteries and to provide a
connection to grid-tie inverter. The contents of the renewable
energy plant are seen in Fig. 15ac.
The implemented system is also capable to monitor the
generated energy instantly by using RS232, RS485, and USB
connections. The developed data acquisition card includes several
current and voltage sensors where the measured data are trans-
mitted to computer owing to developed Visual C software. The
graphical user interface of the developed software is illustrated in
Fig. 16a where the generated current, voltage, power, and panel
angles can be easily tracked by using the software. In addition to
this, the generated values are also saved to a database to generate
analysis graphics as shown in Fig. 16b. The experimental measure-
ments of the voltage, current, and THD values are seen in Fig. 16c
where the values are sufcient for grid connection [122,123].
The output voltages of wind turbine and the voltage variation
in time axes are depicted in Fig. 17a and b, respectively. Demirtas
et al. [123] implemented a grid-tie system for this wind turbine by
using dsPIC controlled boost converter. The converter control is
based on MPPT control with the P&O method to increase the
energy efciency of the wind turbine up to 35%. In the study [123],
the output voltage ripple of the wind turbine is decreased to 0.72%
that is assumed as a sufcient value regarding IEC 61204
standards.
6. Conclusion
In this study, contributions of power electronics to smart grid
have been reviewed by introducing several example applications.
The SG concept is now a global denition covering many aspects of
power engineering, information technologies, economic and envir-
onmental approaches, and communication technologies. The de-
nitions and standards of smart grid that gained acceptance by
relevant societies are presented in Section 1. A comprehensive
outlook of power systems and communication infrastructures of
smart grid is discussed in Section 2 where the recent advances are
carefully noted.
The power electronics, control methods, and management
requirements are analyzed in Section 3 by evaluating the proposed
studies. Section 3 reveals the recent tendencies of power engineer-
ing that are improved to meet the involvements of smart grid. The
most widely researched subjects on this issue are related to
bidirectional power ow control, droop control, agent-based con-
trol and management, and optimization of fault tolerance. The DG
integration is another important topic that is considered as a
577
milestone in the development of smart grid. The implementations
of MG substations and coupling issues promoted incorporating
RES to comprise large DG plants even in multi-MVA segments.
Thus, the capacities of power converters are increased up to 3 MW
for an individual segment to meet requirements of large plants.
The ESS infrastructures are another signicant power electronics
unit of smart grid that are disclosed in Sections 3 and 4. The latest
battery technologies utilized in large DG units and storage control
methods are presented in Section 5 introducing the pre-
vious researchers. Furthermore, most attractive hybrid RES plants
and their components related to smart grid are acquainted in
this study.
The surveyed researches show that the smart grid is rapidly
improving depending on the advances in power electronics.
Consequently, it should be noted that hardware segment of smart
grid including DG, power control methods, and communication
technologies thoroughly strengthen the smart grids. Thus, power
electronics have great impacts on smart grids and contribute the
grid to make it more smarter in order to serve clean, sustainable,
economic, efcient, exible for integration of multiple renewable
and DG powers, monitor able and controllable energy for the
society and industry by actively involving users in production and
monitoring of energy.
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