Shit You Dont Want To See

Introduction to Pattern Recognition
Jason Corso
SUNY at Buffalo
15 January 2013
J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 1 / 41

Examples of Pattern Recognition in the Real World

Hand-Written Digit Recognition


Computational Finance and the Stock Market

Bioinformatics and Gene Expression Analysis

Biometrics

It is also a Novel by William Gibson!
Do let me know if you want to borrow it!

Pattern Recognition By Example
Example: Sorting Fish
Salmon
Sea Bass

Example: Sorting Fish

Pattern Recognition System Requirements
Set up a camera to watch the

fish coming through on the
conveyor belt.
Classify each fish as salmon or
sea bass.
Prefer to mistake sea bass for
salmon.
FIGURE 1.1. The objects to be classified are first sensed by a transducer (camera),
whose signals are preprocessed. Next the features are extracted and finally the clas-
sification is emitted, here either salmon or sea bass. Although the information flow
is often chosen to be from the source to the classifier, some systems employ information
J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition
flow in which earlier levels of processing can be15 January
altered based on2013
the tentative9or/pre-
41
A Note On Preprocessing
Inevitably, preprocessing will be necessary.

Preprocessing is the act of modifying the input data to simplify
subsequent operations without losing relevant information.
Examples of preprocessing (for varying types of data):
Noise removal.
Element segmentation;
Spatial.
Temporal.
Alignment or registration of the query to a canonical frame.
Fixed transformation of the data:
Change color space (image specific).
Wavelet decomposition.
Transformation from denumerable representation (e.g., text) to a
1-of-B vector space.
Preprocessing is a key part of our Pattern Recognition toolbox, but
we will talk about it directly very little in this course.
Patterns and Models

Ideal State Space
The Space of All Fish
Salmon
Sea Bass
Clear that the populations of salmon and sea bass are indeed distinct.
The space of all fish is quite large. Each dimension is defined by some
property of the fish, most of which we cannot even measure with the
camera.
Patterns and Models

Real State Space

Given a Set of Features
Salmon
Sea Bass
When we choose a set of possible features, we are projecting this very

high dimension space down into a lower dimension space.
Patterns and Models

Features as Marginals

Given a Set of Features
Salmon
Sea Bass
Marginal
(A Feature)
And indeed, we can think of each individual feature as a single

marginal distribution over the space.
In other words, a projection down into a single dimension space.
Patterns and Models

Models
Salmon
Sea Bass
Sea Bass Salmon

Of
Models
We build a model of each phenomenon we want to classify, which is

an approximate representation given the features weve selected.
Patterns and Models

Models
The overarching goal and approach in pattern classification is to

hypothesize the class of these models, process the sensed data to
eliminate noise (not due to the models), and for any sensed
pattern choose the model that corresponds best. -DHS

Pattern Recognition By Example Modeling for the Fish Example
Selecting Feature(s) for the Fish
Suppose an expert at the fish packing plant tells us that length is the
best feature.
We cautiously trust this Histogram of the Length
expert. Gather a few examples Feature
from our installation to analyze
the length feature. count
salmon sea bass
22
These examples are our 20
training set. 18
16
Want to be sure to gather a 12

10
representative population of 8
6
them. 4
2
We analyze the length feature 0 length
5 10 15 20 25
by building histograms: l*
FIGURE 1.2. Histograms for the length feature for the two categories. No single thresh-
marginal distributions. old value of the length will serve to unambiguously discriminate between the two cat-
egories; using length alone, we will have some errors. The value marked l will lead to
the smallest number of errors, on average. From: Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, and
David G. Stork, Pattern Classification. Copyright
c 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Suppose an expert at the fish packing plant tells us that length is the
best feature.
We cautiously trust this Histogram of the Length
expert. Gather a few examples Feature
from our installation to analyze
the length feature. count
salmon sea bass
22
These examples are our 20
training set. 18
16
Want to be sure to gather a 12

10
representative population of 8
6
them. 4
2
We analyze the length feature 0 length
5 10 15 20 25
by building histograms: l*
FIGURE 1.2. Histograms for the length feature for the two categories. No single thresh-
marginal distributions. old value of the length will serve to unambiguously discriminate between the two cat-
egories; using length alone, we will have some errors. The value marked l will lead to
But this is a disappointing result. The sea bass length does exceed
the smallest number of errors, on average. From: Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, and
David G. Stork, Pattern Classification. Copyright
the salmon length on average, but clearly not always.


Lightness Feature
Try another feature after inspecting the data: lightness.
count
14 salmon sea bass
12
10
0 lightness
2 4 x* 6 8 10
FIGURE 1.3. Histograms for the lightness feature for the two categories. No single
threshold value x (decision boundary) will serve to unambiguously discriminate be-
tween the two categories; using lightness alone, we will have some errors. The value x
This feature exhibits a much better separation between the two
marked will lead to the smallest number of errors, on average. From: Richard O. Duda,
Peter E. Hart, and David G. Stork, Pattern Classification. Copyright c 2001 by John
classes.Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Feature Combination
Seldom will one feature be enough in practice.
In the fish example, perhaps lightness, x1 , and width, x2 , will jointly
do better than any alone.
This is an example of a 2D feature space:

x
x= 1 . (1)
x2
width
22 salmon sea bass
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14 lightness
2 4 6 8 10
FIGURE
J. Corso (SUNY at 1.4. The two features
Buffalo) of lightness
Introduction and width
to Pattern for sea bass and salmon.
Recognition 15 The dark2013
January 18 / 41
Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition
Curse Of Dimensionality
The two features obviously separate the classes much better than one
alone.
This suggests adding a third feature. And a fourth feature. And so
on.
Key questions

alone.
on.
Key questions
How many features are required?

alone.
on.
Key questions
Is there a point where we have too many features?

alone.
on.
Key questions
How do we know beforehand which features will work best?

alone.
on.
Key questions
How do we know beforehand which features will work best?
What happens when there is feature redundance/correlation?

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition Decision Boundaries and Generalization
Decision Boundary
The decision boundary is the sub-space in which classification

among multiple possible outcomes is equal. Off the decision
boundary, all classification is unambiguous.
count width
14 salmon sea bass 22 salmon sea bass
21
12
20
10
19
8
18
6
17
4
16
2 15
0 lightness 14 lightness
2 4 x* 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
FIGURE 1.3. Histograms for the lightness feature for the two categories.
FIGURENo single
1.4. The two features of lightness and width for sea bass and salmon. The dark
threshold value x (decision boundary) will serve to unambiguouslyline
discriminate
could servebe-as a decision boundary of our classifier. Overall classification error on

tween the two categories; using lightness alone, we will have some errors. shownx is lower than if we use only one feature as in Fig. 1.3, but there will
The value
the data
still be some errors. From: Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, and David G. Stork, Pattern
Classification . Copyright c 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bias-Variance Dilemma
Depending on the available features, complexity of the problem and
classifier, the decision boundaries will also vary in complexity.
width width width
22 salmon sea bass 22 salmon sea bass 22 salmon sea bass
21 21 21
20 20 20
19 19 19
18
?
18 18
17 17 17
16 16 16
15 15 15
14 lightness 14 lightness 14 lightness

2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
FIGURE
FIGURE 1.4. The two features of lightness and width for sea bass 1.6. The
and salmon. decision boundary shown might represent
The dark FIGURE 1.5. Overly
the optimal complex
tradeoff be- models for the fish will lead to decision boundaries t
line could serve as a decision boundary of our classifier. Overall
tweenclassification
performance error on are complicated.
on the training set and simplicity of classifier, therebyWhile
givingsuch
the a decision may lead to perfect classification of our train
the data shown is lower than if we use only one feature as highest
in Fig. 1.3, but thereonwill
accuracy new patterns. From: Richard O. Duda,samples, it would
Peter E. Hart, and lead
DavidtoG.poor performance on future patterns. The novel test po
Classification. Copyright
Stork, Pattern Classification. Copyright marked
c 2001 by John Wiley ? is Inc.
& Sons, evidently most likely a salmon, whereas the complex decision bound
shown leads it to be classified as a sea bass. From: Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, a
David G. Stork, Pattern Classification. Copyright c 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc

width width width
21 21 21
20 20 20
19 19 19
18
?
18 18
17 17 17
16 16 16
15 15 15

2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
FIGURE
the optimal complex
tweenclassification
givingsuch
Simple decision boundaries (e.g., linear) seem to miss some obvious
Pattern Classification David G. Stork, . Copyright
c 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc
trends in the data variance.

width width width
21 21 21
20 20 20
19 19 19
18
?
18 18
17 17 17
16 16 16
15 15 15

2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
FIGURE
the optimal complex
tweenclassification
givingsuch
Complex decision boundaries seem to lock onto the idiosyncracies of
the training data set bias.

width width width
21 21 21
20 20 20
19 19 19
18
?
18 18
17 17 17
16 16 16
15 15 15

2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
FIGURE
the optimal complex
tweenclassification
givingsuch
Complex decision boundaries seem to lock onto the idiosyncracies of
the training data set bias.
A central issue in pattern recognition is to build classifiers that can
work properly on novel query data. Hence, generalization is key.
Can we predict how well our classifier will generalize to novel data?
Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition Cost and Decision Theory
Decision Theory
In many situations, the consequences of our classifications are not

equally costly.
Recalling the fish example, it is acceptable to have tasty pieces of
salmon in cans labeled sea bass. But, the converse is not so.
Hence, we need to adjust our decisions count
14 salmon sea bass
(decision boundaries) to incorporate 12
these varying costs. 10
For the lightness feature on the fish, we 6
would want to move the boundary to 2
lightness
0
x* 6
smaller values of lightness. 2 4 8 10
FIGURE 1.3. Histograms for the lightness feature for the two categories. No single
threshold value x (decision boundary) will serve to unambiguously discriminate be-
Our underlying goal is to establish a decision boundary to minimize
tween the two categories; using lightness alone, we will have some errors. The value x
the overall cost; this is called decision theory. Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition Definitions
Pattern Recognition
First in-class quiz: can you define Pattern Recognition?

Pattern Recognition
First in-class quiz: can you define Pattern Recognition?

DHS: Pattern recognition is the act of taking in raw data and taking an
action based on the category of the pattern.
DHS: Pattern classification is to take in raw data, eliminate noise, and
process it to select the most likely model that it represents.
Jordan: The field of pattern recognition is concerned with the automatic
discovery of regularities in data through the use of computer algorithms and
with the use of these regularities to take actions such as classifying data into
different categories.

Types of Pattern Recognition Approaches
Statistical
Focus on statistics of the patterns.
The primary emphasis of our course.
Syntactic
Classifiers are defined using a set of logical rules.
Grammars can group rules.

Feature Extraction and Classification
Feature Extraction to characterize an object to be recognized by

measurements whose values are very similar for objects in the same
category, and very different for objects in different categories.
Invariant featuresthose that are invariant to irrelevant
transformations of the underlying dataare preferred.
Classification to assign an category to the object based on the
feature vector provided during feature extraction.

Feature Extraction to characterize an object to be recognized by

measurements whose values are very similar for objects in the same
category, and very different for objects in different categories.
Invariant featuresthose that are invariant to irrelevant
transformations of the underlying dataare preferred.
Classification to assign an category to the object based on the
feature vector provided during feature extraction.
The perfect feature extractor would yield a representation that is
trivial to classify.
The perfect classifier would yield a perfect model from an arbitrary
set of features.
But, these are seldom plausible.


Classification Objective Functions
For classification, there are numerous underlying objective functions

that we can seek to optimize.
Minimum-Error-Rate classification seeks to minimize the the error
rate: the percentage of new patterns assigned to the wrong category.
Total Expected Cost, or Risk minimization is also often used.
Important underlying questions are
How do we map knowledge about costs to best affect our classification
decision?
Can we estimate the total risk and hence know if our classifier is
acceptable even before we deploy it?
Can we bound the risk?

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition No Free Lunch Theorem
No Free Lunch Theorem
A question youre probably asking is What is the best classifier?

Any ideas?

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition No Free Lunch Theorem
No Free Lunch Theorem
A question youre probably asking is What is the best classifier?

Any ideas?
We will learn that indeed no such generally best classifier exists.
This is described in the No Free Lunch Theorem.
If the goal is to obtain good generalization performance, there are no
context-independent or usage-independent reasons to favor one
learning or classification method over another.
When confronting a new pattern recognition problem, appreciation of
this thereom reminds us to focus on the aspects that matter
mostprior information, data distribution, amount of training data,
and cost or reward function.

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition Analysis By Synthesis
Analysis By Synthesis
The availability of large collections of data on which to base our

pattern recognition models is important.
In the case of little data (and sometimes even in the case of much
data), we can use analysis by synthesis to test our models.
Given a model, we can randomly sample examples from it to analyze
how close they are to
our few examples and
what we expect to see based on our knowledge of the problem.

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition Classifier Ensembles
Classifier Ensembles
Classifier combination is obvious get the power of multiple models

for a single decision.
But, what happens when the different classifiers disagree?
How do we separate the available training data for each classifier?
Should the classifiers be learned jointly or in silos?
Examples
Bagging
Boosting
Neural Networks (?)

Key Ideas in Pattern Recognition Classifier Ensembles
SO MANY QUESTIONS...

Schedule of Topics
Schedule of Topics
1 Introduction to Pattern Recognition
2 Tree Classifiers Getting our feet wet with real classifiers
1 Decision Trees: CART, C4.5, ID3.
2 Random Forests
3 Bayesian Decision Theory Grounding our inquiry
4 Linear Discriminants Discriminative Classifiers: the Decision Boundary
1 Separability
2 Perceptrons
3 Support Vector Machines
5 Parametric Techniques Generative Methods grounded in Bayesian Decision
Theory
1 Maximum Likelihood Estimation
2 Bayesian Parameter Estimation
3 Sufficient Statistics
Schedule of Topics
6 Non-Parametric Techniques
1 Kernel Density Estimators
2 Parzen Window
3 Nearest Neighbor Methods
7 Unsupervised Methods Exploring the Data for Latent Structure
1 Component Analysis and Dimension Reduction
1 The Curse of Dimensionality
2 Principal Component Analysis
3 Fisher Linear Discriminant
4 Locally Linear Embedding
2 Clustering
1 K-Means
2 Expectation Maximization
3 Mean Shift
8 Classifier Ensembles (Bagging and Boosting)
1 Bagging
2 Boosting / AdaBoost

Schedule of Topics
9 Graphical Models The Modern Language of Pattern Recognition and

Machine Learning
1 Introductory ideas and relation back to earlier topics
2 Bayesian Networks
3 Sequential Models
1 State-Space Models
2 Hidden Markov Models
3 Dynamic Bayesian Networks
10 Algorithm Independent Topics Theoretical Treatments in the Context of
Learned Tools
1 No Free Lunch Theorem
2 Ugly Duckling Theorem
3 Bias-Variance Dilemma
4 Jacknife and Bootstrap Methods
11 Other Items Time Permitting
1 Syntactic Methods
2 Neural Networks
Coding and Experiment Environments
Code / Environments
Course material will be enriched with code examples and problems.

We will use both Matlab and Python.

Code / Environments
Course material will be enriched with code examples and problems.

We will use both Matlab and Python.
Why Python (and Matlab)?
1 Matlab is the language of the PR/ML/CVIP realm. You will get
exposed to it outside of this course. . .
2 Python is maturing and becoming increasingly popular for projects
both within PR/ML/CVIP and beyond. So, I want to expose you to
this alternate reality.
3 Preparation with Python in 555 may be more useful to a graduate in
the job-hunt than some of the 555 material itself, e.g. Google does a
lot with Python.
4 Python is free as in beer.
5 Some of the constructs in Python are easier to work with than other
high-level languages, such as Matlab or Perl.
6 Python is cross-platform.
7 Numpy and Scipy are available.

Python
Introduction to Python Slides (from inventor of Python)

Introduction to NumPy/SciPy
http://www.scipy.org/Getting_Started
http://www.scipy.org/NumPy_for_Matlab_Users
We will use the Enthought Python Distribution as our primary
distribution (version 7.3).
http://enthought.com/products/epd.php
Available on the CSE network. https://wiki.cse.buffalo.edu/
services/content/enthought-python-distribution
Python 2.7
Packages up everything we need into one simple, cross-platform
package.

Python
Introduction to Python Slides (from inventor of Python)

Introduction to NumPy/SciPy
http://www.scipy.org/Getting_Started
http://www.scipy.org/NumPy_for_Matlab_Users
We will use the Enthought Python Distribution as our primary
distribution (version 7.3).
http://enthought.com/products/epd.php
Available on the CSE network. https://wiki.cse.buffalo.edu/
services/content/enthought-python-distribution
Python 2.7
Packages up everything we need into one simple, cross-platform
package.
You should become Python-capable so you can work with many of
the examples I give.

Wrap-Up
Logistical Things
Read the course webpage (now and regularly):

THE BOOK
http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~jcorso/t/
CSE555
Read the syllabus:
http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~jcorso/t/
CSE555/files/syllabus.pdf
Read the course mailing list:
cse555-list@listserv.buffalo.edu

Wrap-Up
Logistical Things
Policy on reading and lecture notes

Lecture notes are provided (mostly) via pdf linked from the course website.
For lectures that are given primarily on the board, no notes are provided.
It is always in your best interest to attend the lectures rather than
exclusively read the book and notes. The notes are provided for reference.
In the interest of the environment, I request that you do NOT print out
the lecture notes.
The lecture notes linked from the website may be updated time to time
based on the lecture progress, questions, and errors. Check back regularly.

Wrap-Up
Grading and Course Evaluation
There will be homeworks posted after each topic. The homeworks are
to be done alone or in groups. Solutions will be posted. No
homeworks will be turned in or graded.
There will be a quiz once a week. Each quiz will have one rote
question and one longer question; ten minutes of class time will be
allotted to quizzes each week.
14 quizzes will be given. 2 lowest will be dropped.
Quizzes will be on Tuesday or Thursday; you will not know in advance.
Quizzes will be in-class, independent, closed-book.
Quizzes will not require a calculator.
Assessments of this type force you to study continuously throughout
the term.
See syllabus for more information.

Wrap-Up
Testimonials (err, Evaluation Comments)
455
Slightly advanced math for an undergrad CSE student; I felt
bombarded with math; This is a statistics class.
I would have liked to see more in depth walkthroughs. . . cemented
with real numbers.
This will rarely happen in the course. First, there is a lot of material to
cover. Second, you can work through these while you study; active study.
Third, there are recitations/hours with the TA to work through these.
I appreciated the balance between powerpoint and blackboard; there
was good reason to attend class.

Wrap-Up
455
Slightly advanced math for an undergrad CSE student; I felt
bombarded with math; This is a statistics class.
I would have liked to see more in depth walkthroughs. . . cemented
with real numbers.
This will rarely happen in the course. First, there is a lot of material to
cover. Second, you can work through these while you study; active study.
Third, there are recitations/hours with the TA to work through these.
I appreciated the balance between powerpoint and blackboard; there
was good reason to attend class.
The (hands-down) most interesting class Ive taken to-date; Very cool
course. Really cool field.

Wrap-Up
555
The course requires a very strong foundation in probability theory. . . it
would have been a lot easier if the professor [reviewed this material in
the beginning of the semester].
Students are expected to be fluent in probability theory and have a fresh
review of the material. Take responsibility.
I need more detailed examples on the course material; More time
should be spent with examples.
High-level examples on plausible data sets are indeed shown throughout the
course. Source code is also given to allow self-experimentation.

Wrap-Up
555
The course requires a very strong foundation in probability theory. . . it
would have been a lot easier if the professor [reviewed this material in
the beginning of the semester].
Students are expected to be fluent in probability theory and have a fresh
review of the material. Take responsibility.
I need more detailed examples on the course material; More time
should be spent with examples.
High-level examples on plausible data sets are indeed shown throughout the
course. Source code is also given to allow self-experimentation.
This is the best course I have taken so far in UB; This course is great;
This class stimulated me to go into the field of Machine Learning.

Wrap-Up
Parting Comments, Online Materials
The nature of lecture courses in higher ed is in flux.

Free, online courses are abundant.
https://www.coursera.org/course/ml

Wrap-Up

So, why are you here?

Wrap-Up

So, why are you here?
I will run this course to best possible embrace the worthwhile material
available yet make good use of my own time.
I pay very specific attention to the material selected in my course and
marry it well with the other courses here at Buffalo.
I will link to online video lectures and related material when possible.
The in-class time will be rich with interactive questions and
discussion, which is crucial to understanding material.

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Introduction to Pattern Recognition

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 1 / 41

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 2 / 41

Examples of Pattern Recognition in the Real World

Hand-Written Digit Recognition

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 3 / 41

Examples of Pattern Recognition in the Real World

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 4 / 41

Examples of Pattern Recognition in the Real World

Bioinformatics and Gene Expression Analysis

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 5 / 41

Examples of Pattern Recognition in the Real World

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 6 / 41

Examples of Pattern Recognition in the Real World

It is also a Novel by William Gibson!

Do let me know if you want to borrow it!

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 7 / 41

Example: Sorting Fish

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 8 / 41

Example: Sorting Fish

Set up a camera to watch the

Inevitably, preprocessing will be necessary.

Patterns and Models

The Space of All Fish

Patterns and Models

The Space of All Fish

When we choose a set of possible features, we are projecting this very

Patterns and Models

The Space of All Fish

And indeed, we can think of each individual feature as a single

Patterns and Models

The Space of All Fish

Sea Bass Salmon

We build a model of each phenomenon we want to classify, which is

Patterns and Models

The overarching goal and approach in pattern classification is to

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 15 / 41

Selecting Feature(s) for the Fish

Want to be sure to gather a 12

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 16 / 41

Selecting Feature(s) for the Fish

Want to be sure to gather a 12

the salmon length on average, but clearly not always.

Selecting Feature(s) for the Fish

Try another feature after inspecting the data: lightness.

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 19 / 41

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 19 / 41

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 19 / 41

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 19 / 41

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 19 / 41

The decision boundary is the sub-space in which classification

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 20 / 41

14 lightness 14 lightness 14 lightness

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 21 / 41

14 lightness 14 lightness 14 lightness

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 21 / 41

14 lightness 14 lightness 14 lightness

J. Corso (SUNY at Buffalo) Introduction to Pattern Recognition 15 January 2013 21 / 41

14 lightness 14 lightness 14 lightness

In many situations, the consequences of our classifications are not

these varying costs. 10

For the lightness feature on the fish, we 6

would want to move the boundary to 2