POSTNOTE
Number 999 January 2015
Social Mobility & Science Education
Social mobility is a measure of how free people
are to improve their position in society. Factors
such as social class, parental education and
income have an impact on an individuals
aspirations and their ability to fulfil their
potential. Allowing individuals to maximise their
potential can, in turn, drive economic growth
through creating a highly skilled workforce.
This POSTnote summarises the role of science
education in improving social mobility.
Background
Science is considered vital for the economic and cultural life
of the UK and has a key role in driving innovation, growth
1, 2
and economic recovery . There are concerns about the
state of social mobility in the UK (Box 1). Reforms in science
education for individuals of lower socioeconomic status
(SES) may provide a path to reducing the socioeconomic
gap between more and less advantaged individuals.
Science education has the potential to improve scientific
literacy as well as enable access to careers in science for
individuals from all social backgrounds. However, the 2012
PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment)
results show a fall in performance in science in the UK
3 6
compared to other OECD countries .
There have been reforms in the national science curriculum
to broaden the appeal of taught science at GCSE level
through growth in vocational and apprenticeship learning
routes, however some feel that the range of post-16 science
qualifications (Box 2) remains narrow. Careers in science
can provide a route to social mobility, but evidence suggests
that many parents and pupils do not see science as open to
1
all . Current UK policies aim to increase participation and
attainment in science, although the impact on social mobility
is yet to be confirmed.
The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 7 Millbank, London SW1P 3JA; Tel: 020 7219 2840; email: post@parliament.uk www.parliament.uk/post
Overview

There are concerns about the state of social
mobility in the UK, and absolute child
poverty is increasing.

Education aims to reduce the attainment
gap between individuals of different
socioeconomic status, but disadvantaged
children perform poorly in science.

Science education teaches analytical
problem-solving skills, and provides access
to stable high-earning jobs.

Childrens early aspirations are affected by
social class. Parents and pupils perceive
science as not for all.

There are schemes in place that aim to
reduce social inequality through science
education, but evaluations of the impact of
such programs on scientific literacy and, in
turn, social mobility are not yet available.
Education and Social Mobility
Education is seen as the driver of social mobility, aiming to
equip citizens with the knowledge and skills needed for
successful working lives. People who have left education
with qualifications above A level standard are more likely to
be employed, more likely to work in highly skilled posts and
achieve higher annual earnings than those who left
education with lower qualifications. University graduates
4
earn twice as much as GCSE school leavers.
Education aims to award credentials based on merit rather
than background. However, childrens academic attainment
5
is linked to parental occupation, income and qualifications ,
. There are a number of current public policies aiming to
improve social mobility (Box 3) and there is evidence to
suggest that educational inequality has reduced for cohorts
born after 1980 due to rising numbers of children from lower
SES backgrounds attaining average levels of educational
achievement. However, educational inequalities for high
7
levels of attainment continue to increase .
Two key elements impacting social and educational
inequality are material capital and social capital. Material
capital is the financial aspect: the ability to afford private
POSTnote 999 January 2015 Social Mobility & Science Education
Box 1. Social Mobility in the UK
Two reports give a picture of the current state of social mobility in the
UK: the State of The Nation report, 2014 9 and OECDs
Intergenerational Social Mobility report, 2010 28.
 Overall, social mobility has not changed since the 1970s.
 The 2014 State of the Nation Report warns of a decline in social
mobility, and that absolute child poverty is increasing.
 GDP per capita, a key indicator of living standards, is lower than
it was before the recession.
 There is a strong link between lack of social mobility and
inequality.
 For the poorest fifth in society, 46% have mothers with no
qualifications at all. For the richest, it's only 3%.
 81% of the richest fifth of the population think their child will go to
university, compared to 53% of the poorest.
 Educational attainment and higher education participation is
improving.
 Entry rates to higher education were up by 8% in 2012.
 However, the most advantaged are 6 times more likely to go to
university than the most disadvantaged.
schooling, educational resources and experiences, to move
to a catchment area of a good school, and to provide
facilities conducive to learning. Social capital is the networks
and experiences which support social progress: parents with
university-level education, the confidence to negotiate the
education system and connections to others who can offer
work experience placements or internships. Children lacking
these types of capital, those with low SES, are behind
advantaged children in terms of cognitive ability when they
begin school and the gaps in achievement widen as they
8
progress through the education system . The 2014 State of
the Nation Report recommended that closing this attainment
gap must be a priority for all schools so that by 2020 more
than half of children entitled to free school meals achieve
five or more A*-C grade GCSEs .
9 students obtained A or B A Level grades .
Academies (failing schools sponsored by businesses) were
introduced in 2000 to increase attainment of children from
disadvantaged backgrounds. Evidence for success of
academies in narrowing socioeconomic gaps for attainment
are mixed, with studies suggesting that the gap is narrowing
10 11
and widening .
Science Education and Social Mobility
There has been little research on the direct link between
science education and social mobility. However there is
evidence for a connection between SES and access to, or
achievement within, science education and, separately, a
connection between science education and beneficial life
outcomes.
Science Education and Social Background
Research suggests that socioeconomic factors influence
science education, as reflected in individual students
attainment and aspirations. Over time, access to further
Page 2
Box 2. Science Education in the UK
Before the age of 14, in Key Stages 1, 2 and 3, science education is
compulsory and follows the national curriculum. The following science
qualification options are available for 14-19 year olds in the UK:
 GCSE science: compulsory, most students work towards one,
two or three science GCSEs.
 AS /A levels: the most common route for 17-18 year olds in
higher education.
 Applied GCE AS/A levels: introduce a vocational area with a
practical focus.
 OCR Nationals/BTECs/HND/HNCs/Vocationally Related
Qualifications: work-related qualifications intended primarily for
preparation for a vocation but can enable access to some forms
of higher education.
 National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs)/Scottish
Vocational Qualifications (SVQs): vocational competency-
based qualifications delivered primarily in the workplace.
 Apprenticeships: work-based placements for people wishing to
train for a vocation.
See POSTnote 430 for a more in depth summary of the traditional and
non-traditional academic options currently available in the UK.
science education and opportunities for careers for students
with a low SES is reduced.
Several studies have found that pupils with a low SES
perform poorly in science GCSEs (more so than in
humanities or social sciences) compared to middle-high
SES students and as a result may be less likely to enter
12
science courses at A level . Low SES children who are
high achievers in GCSE science are more likely to enter
science A levels than their high-achieving middle-high SES
peers, yet are also more likely to subsequently
13
underperform . The greatest difference is in chemistry:
58% of low SES students compared to 68% of high SES
13
Even when differences in educational attainment are taken
in to account, students from low SES backgrounds are less
14
likely to apply to university , less likely to attend a higher
15
status Russell group university , and are more likely to
drop out within the first year of a degree than students from
16
high SES backgrounds . These effects apply to all subjects
although, given that fewer low SES students will meet the
strict GCSE and A level entry requirements for many higher
education science courses, low SES students are likely to
be particularly underrepresented in scientific fields
17
compared to other subjects .
Socioeconomic background has a strong effect on the
likelihood of an individual entering the scientific workforce.
People with better educated parents and people from
middle-income families are most likely to enter science.
Individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds who did
enter the scientific workforce took longer to do so than those
18
from high socioeconomic backgrounds.
POSTnote 999 January 2015 Social Mobility & Science Education
Science capital is defined as science-related knowledge.
Differences in levels of science capital, interest and social
contacts between families may partially account for lower
rates of science participation amongst low SES individuals.
Science capital tends to be highest in the middle classes
and, aged 14, these children seem to hold stronger
aspirations for qualifications and careers in science than
those of low SES. A lack of science capital may contribute
to a narrowed view of the benefits of post-16 science
education, including the perception that such qualifications
are only relevant for specific careers (e.g. scientist, doctor,
or science teacher).
1 graduates were more likely to be employed than humanities
Many young people feel that their identity is not a good fit for
a science career. There is a tendency to perceive people in
science careers as highly intelligent or brainy, to the extent
that even those who perform well in science at school may
be discouraged from post-16 participation. Individuals with
low social capital, no family members in science careers,
and lower academic performance are the least likely to
1
perceive science as a good fit for them.
It remains to be tested whether alleviating early
discrepancies in aspirations, beliefs and achievement
between high and low SES individuals may lead to
increased social mobility.
Box 3. Social Mobility Policy
In April 2011, the government announced increasing social mobility as
the most important goal for social policy 29. Social mobility policies are
integrated into several departments, and monitored by a newly-
established specialised advisory body, The Social Mobility and Child
Poverty (SMCP) Commission. Examples of recent policies 30 include:
 Social Mobility Business Compact: optional scheme for
businesses to encourage fair recruitment, fair pay for
apprenticeship and internship roles, and engagement in
community outreach, with opportunities for special recognition
through Opening Doors Awards.
 Regional Growth Fund (RGF): a fund for businesses that will
create sustainable jobs in the private sector.
 The Pupil Premium: additional funding provided to schools to
improve the attainment of disadvantaged students, and making
schools accountable for progress of these students.
 Further education and skills training: improving the quality,
provision, and relevance to employment of vocational
qualifications.
 Early years education: improving quality and accessibility of
childcare, including improvements to qualifications for early
years teachers and the creation of childminder agencies to train
childminders and match them with parents.
Science Education and Life Outcomes
Academic Achievement in Science Affecting Social Mobility
Approximately 20% of people in the UK workforce require
scientific knowledge and training to do their jobs. Half of
these people work in the private sector, one quarter in the
education system (e.g. primary school teachers require at
Page 3
least a C in GCSE science) and one quarter in other parts of
the public sector. A report by the Royal Society in 2014
found that, as a whole, the scientific workforce is better paid
than those in other occupations. Thus, the attainment of
qualifications in science broadens career opportunities,
providing a path to increased SES. Despite this, research
shows that those from low socioeconomic backgrounds
18
rarely perceive science as a well paid, stable career.
A university degree in science has a positive impact on
employment prospects. In April-June 2013, science
4
graduates . Of all university attendees, graduates of
science, engineering and maths subjects are among the
4
highest earners . Graduates with an undergraduate degree
in medicine or dentistry were the most likely to be employed
4
and had the highest average gross annual pay . However,
businesses are concerned about the quality and quantity of
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)
graduates. Many businesses feel that STEM graduates lack
work experience, and suggest that the content of some
19
qualifications are not relevant to their business needs .
Some universities offer placements in industry during a
degree, which can increase employment prospects .
11
However, there are many careers that do not require a high
level of science education. Academic achievement in
science does not appear to be important for many
employers recruiting non-graduates. Recruiting businesses
do not list science as desirable subject for candidates to
have studied. 66% of recruiting businesses rated work
experience as a critical or significant factor, and 57% rated
core maths and English (GCSE A*-C) as a critical or
20
significant factor .
Scientific Literacy Affecting Social Mobility
Understanding scientific methods and concepts creates a
scientifically literate population able to critically evaluate
scientific, technological and environmental issues. A science
education provides skills in investigation, experimentation,
and observation. Strong science education is characterised
by a process of questioning and exploration, encouraging
10
curiosity and imagination . Scientific literacy implies a
broad functional understanding of science for educational
purposes rather than just for specific technical careers.
Scientific literacy may lead to improved job prospects.
Science education does not necessarily lead to a career in
STEM, but scientific skills such as critical thinking and
efficient use of technology are applicable to many different
types of skilled job. However, non-science subjects can also
contribute to learning these useful transferable skills.
Introducing career ideas, both science related and others, at
primary school is particularly beneficial to disadvantaged
children with little exposure to adults with a broad range of
21
careers . 14-19 year olds with a higher number of
employer contacts in school (provided through career talks
or work experience) have a higher confidence in their
progression towards their ultimate career goals, receive
higher salaries and are more likely to be employed when
POSTnote 999 January 2015 Social Mobility & Science Education
aged 19-24 compared to those with fewer employer
contacts. Evidence suggests that employer contacts can
either complement social advantages or compensate for
22
social disadvantages. Increasing awareness of the breadth
of scientific careers improves scientific literacy by facilitating
recognition and understanding of scientists work.
Furthermore, awareness of scientific careers has a multi-
generational effect, since the likelihood of a child choosing
to enter a career in STEM strongly depends on parental
aspirations and the mothers education .
23
Scientifically literate citizens are able to critically analyse
media stories on scientific and technological subjects, and
12
thus make informed lifestyle choices . Individuals with
these skills may be more likely to make healthy decisions on
their diet, smoking and exercise habits, and are therefore
24
less likely to take sick leave , which may increase the
likelihood of job tenure, productivity and earnings. These
skills are also helpful for active participation in democracy:
enabling the choosing of political alliances based on
environmental and scientific policies. Providing a broad
range of groups with the ability to influence policy may in
turn positively affect social mobility .
25
Box 4. International Comparisons
The number of science graduates in Europe has been slowing down
over the last decade, from 24.3% in 2002 to 22.6% in 2011. In
comparison, emerging countries like China more than quadrupled its
number of STEM graduates between 2000 and 2006.
The European Union has made significant investments in supporting
and promoting STEM education by funding large-scale programs to
train educators, support innovations in teaching, and enhance school
technologies for science and engineering. For example inGenious,
one of the largest science education projects in Europe, brings
together teachers and industry to ensure STEM education is both up-
to-date and relevant to the job skills young people need. inGenious
aims to increase interest in science education and career options by
exposing young students to real-life applications of science.31
Improving Social Mobility Through Science
Education Programs
Childrens early aspirations are affected by social class,
therefore a key route to encouraging young people to
engage with science is by strengthening science education
1
. Due to shortages of proficient STEM educators and
2
socioeconomic disadvantages , science education may
need to go beyond classroom borders to connect young
people to science. The European Union has made
significant investments to address these issues (Box 4).
Many organisations, including academic institutions, offer
science education and outreach programs. These aim to
enhance the science curriculum taught in schools and build
partnerships between researchers and schools. Many
programs offered by museums, charities and institutes of
higher education are free. Nearly all universities in the
POST is an office of both Houses of Parliament, charged with providing independent and balanced analysis of policy issues that have a basis in science and technology.
POST is grateful to ST, EK, MO and KG for researching this briefing, to xyz for funding his/her parliamentary fellowship, and to all contributors and reviewers. For further
information on this subject, please contact the co-authors ST, EK, MO and KG. Parliamentary Copyright 2015. Image copyright XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Page 4
Russell Group offer science outreach programs for school
children and educators alike.
Several charities aim to reduce social inequality using
science education. For example, The Social Mobility
Foundation works with research laboratories, museums, and
companies in science sectors to provide internships and
26
mentors to students . Other programs, such as Generating
Genius, specifically support academically talented students
from disadvantaged backgrounds, providing opportunities in
scientific fields through science leadership, academic
interventions and links to industry. Evaluations of the impact
of such programs on scientific literacy and, in turn, social
mobility are not yet available. Scientific skills are difficult to
measure and social mobility can be measured in a variety of
ways (using the relationship between income, qualifications
or occupation and social background) so results can be
32
varied and conflicting .
Data directly linking science education to social mobility is
currently limited, although an ongoing longitudinal research
project, ASPIRES 2, is gathering data to relate young
peoples background to subject choices, GCSE attainment
and post-16 choices. The first phase of the ASPIRES
project found that most students enjoy science but do not
aspire to science careers. This is possibly due to young
people and their families perceiving science careers as
1
implausible routes to social mobility.
Research indicates that it is possible to make the culture of
science, the school curriculum, and young peoples
experiences of taught science more appealing and inclusive
1
while maintaining the rigor of science education . One
report summarising findings from several STEM education
programs suggested that developing partnerships between
schools, public and private sectors; understanding local
needs; and devising monitoring and evaluation processes
could improve engagement with science, particularly for
27
disadvantaged students .
It has been suggested that improving aspirations, attainment
and participation in science will require a multi-stakeholder
approach working with students, teachers, schools, families,
higher education institutes, scientists and employers as well
as encouraging proficient science educators and supporting
non-classroom science education. The gap in scientific
attainment and employment between individuals with
different SES is evident, yet the impact of science education
1
on social mobility is yet to be seen.