Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract - The ongoing evolution of the electric power combining agent-based modeling techniques [5] with clas-
systems brings about the need to cope with increasingly com- sical methods such as Monte Carlo simulation [6]. Ob-
plex interactions of technical components and relevant ac- jects represent both technical components such as genera-
tors. In order to integrate a more comprehensive spectrum tors and transmission lines and non-technical components
of different aspects into a probabilistic reliability assessment such as grid operators. They interact with each other di-
and to include time-dependent effects, this paper proposes rectly (e.g. via the generator dispatch) or via the physical
an object-oriented hybrid approach combining agent-based power flows on the network. By means of long-term simu-
modeling techniques with classical methods such as Monte lations the statistical data is gathered for the calculation of
Carlo simulation. Objects represent both technical compo- system reliability indices and for the estimation of black-
nents such as generators and transmission lines and non- out frequencies.
technical components such as grid operators. The approach The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces
allows the calculation of conventional reliability indices and the conceptual basics of the modeling framework and the
the estimation of blackout frequencies. Furthermore, the in- derivation of the different component models. In sec-
fluence of the time needed to remove line overloads on the tion 3 we present the results of applying the model to the
overall system reliability can be assessed. The applicability IEEE Reliability Test System 1996 and to the Swiss high-
of the approach is demonstrated by performing simulations voltage system. Section 4 concludes.
on the IEEE Reliability Test System 1996 and on a model of
the Swiss high-voltage grid.
2 Modeling Framework
Keywords - Reliability analysis, Monte Carlo simula-
tion, blackout frequency distribution, operator response 2.1 Conceptual Basics
time
1 Introduction The conceptual modeling framework consists in the
abstraction of the relevant technical and non-technical
suming a normal distribution with (t) N (0, 2 ) and actual demand Dk (t) = ik Di (t) within the respec-
standard deviation
Dispatcher k = 0.0192 according to [7]. The tive control area k. Being constrained by the maximum
value of (t) isdisconnect
assumed toConnected
be equal for all loads within power outputs Pjmax , the commitment and economic dis-
the same control area. The term Di (t) represents the ac- patch follows a heuristic priority list method according to
tual amount of power
partially shed load. t
available
i
r
[9] and is implemented in the control object. By using a
Figure 1 shows the FSM as implemented for the load ob- recursive algorithm and starting with the highest priority,
jects. With the exception of the restoration
Disconnected Restoration process all the Dk (t) is equally distributed among the units with the same
transitions of the four-state model are externally governed priority. As their maximum capacity is reached the algo-
by the control object k of the corresponding control area. rithm proceeds to the next lower priority and so forth. In
i
case Dk (t) is larger than the available generation capac-
ity within a control area, the control object analogously
Control object commits available generating units from the other control
k
areas of the system. As a simplification, ramp rates and
maintenance are not considered at this stage of our work.
The FSM for the generator object is made up of a two-
cancel load
shed load disconnect
power state model for repairable forced failures being treated as
shedding available
random events as shown in figure 2.
j
Connected
Control object
k
t im
Partial load Totally
Restoration failed
shedding disconnected repaired
j
Figure 1: Finite state machine for the load objects
Forced
Up state j
down state
Partial load shedding occurs only when the control ob-
ject sheds load due to an operator action for removing a
line overload. As soon as the transmission system can be Figure 2: Finite state machine for the generator objects
operated within its security margins again, the load ob- The repairable forced
j
failures are modeled by an inde-
ject receives the signal to cancel the partial load shedding. pendent stochastic up-down-up cycle assuming stationar-
The load gets totally disconnected if there is not enough ity and constant failure and repair rates j = 1/M T T Fj
generation capacity available within the entire system to and j =Up1/Mstate Down state
T T Rj respectively. Hence, this alternat-
cover its demand or as a consequence of system splitting ing renewable process is characterized by the cumulative
(see section 2.3). If several loads have to be disconnected distribution functions of the failure-free times j and re-
failed
within one control area all loads are given the same prior- 0 repaired
pair times j respectively, and by the probability pj that
ity to be shed and are therefore selected randomly. the generating unit is in upstate at t = 0 [10]:
The restoration process is started once enough generation
capacity is available again to cover the disconnected de- P r{j tu } = 1 ej tu
Fj (tu ) =Operator (2)
mand, and is modeled by a queue technique. The load 0
which has been disconnected first is also restored first, Gj (tu ) = P r{j td } = 1 ej td (3)
the subsequent one waits until the previous is reconnected. j
Based on [8] we assume an incremental overall restoration pj = (4)
j + j
where tu and td are the time spans measured from the uniformly distributed in the interval [P`max , P`max ] with
moment of entering the upstate and forced down state re- =1.4. The line is either reconnected if the phase angle
spectively. All state transitions are reported to the control difference ` (t) = a (t) b (t) becomes smaller than the
object of the corresponding control area. preset value `max = xab P`max or after a time delay of
te` which models the time until a manual attempt to re-
2.2.3 Transmission lines
close the breakers. The parameter is used to avoid an
The time variant line flows are calculated immediate recurrence of the overload, potentially result-
by the DC power flow approximation with ing in a persistently repeating state change cycle, and is
P` (t) = x1
ab a (t) b (t) , where P` (t) is the active set to =0.9. Analogous to the probabilistic failure model
power flow on line ` connecting busbar a with busbar b, of the generating units (equations (2-4)), the time to per-
having reactance xab and phase angles a (t) and b (t). manent outage and the time to repair follow an exponential
The approximate solution of the power flow problem does distribution with failure rate ` and ` respectively.
not allow to analyze voltage disturbances. Nevertheless,
we assume the DC model to be appropriate for analyzing 2.2.4 Busbars
cascading events due to line overloads and for showing Every busbar object continuously calculates its phase
the feasibility of the proposed modeling concept. angle a (t) relative to its neighboring busbars:
A five-state model for the basic behavior of the trans- X
x1
mission line is used considering outages triggered by its Patot (t) + ab b (t)
protection device and by independent random failures, see a (t) = X
ba
(5)
figure 3. Thereby, the protection device is modeled by a x1
ab
separate FSM. ba
Disconnected Idle
Connected t le by overload
< lmax
l overload
l l Alarm d
received
Permanent
outage overload Transmission
tdc line l
cleared
Figure 3: Finite state machine for the transmission line objects Neighboring
Control object
grid operator
k
In our model the protection device has two functions. contacted clear Neighboring
grid operator
tdr overload
Firstly, it continuously measures the power flow P` (t) and
sends an alarm message (overload) to the operator of
corrective
the control area if P` (t) becomes equal to or larger than action
the line rating P`max . Secondly, if P` (t) reaches P`out it
clear
disconnects the line. However, as a consequence of the overload
stochastic time-dependent system behavior or the inter-
Figure 4: Finite state machine for the grid operator
vention of the operator, P` (t) may again fall back to less
than P`max before reaching P`out and the protection de- If a tie-line
Jc< becomes overloaded the protection device
vice returns to the idle state. By following the assump- sends an alarm message to the two operators of both con-
tions made by Zima and Andersson [11] the probability trol areas (compare figure 3). Having the alarm received
for the line outage increases linearly with the power flow, the neighboring operators try to contact each other with
being zero below P`max . Thus, we assume P`out being a time delay tcd . The operator which has been assigned
responsible for the line then needs some time to find a so- In order to include load outages as a consequence of a net-
lution to the overload problem, which is modeled by a time work splitting while avoiding a complicated model with a
delay trd . The corrective action to remove the overload is high amount of parameters to be estimated we make use
subsequently formulated as a conventional optimal power of a highly simplified approach. Thereby, an excess of de-
flow (OPF) problem [9] and implemented within the con- mand within a separated subsystem leads to the immediate
trol object by using the linear programming (LP) method disconnection of a minimum number of randomly selected
minimizing potential load shedding, Di , and the change loads so that the excess is at least reduced to zero. An ex-
in generation, Pj , subject to the transmission line con- cess of generation leads to the immediate reduction of the
straints and the power balance: generator outputs in order to reestablish the balance and
implies no load outages. This strong simplification might
nB
X X X be inadequate to represent the real system behavior and
min z = a |Pj | + W Di (6) the amount of disconnected load thus has to be viewed as
a=1 ja ia
a rather indicative value for the system vulnerability re-
subject to garding the splitting of the network.
nG
X nL
X
Pj = Di (7) 2.4 Blackout Frequency Distributions
j=1 i=1
By means of long-term simulations (i.e. repeatedly
Pj (t) Pj Pjmax Pj (t) (8) over the operation period of one year) the necessary sta-
tistical data is gathered for the calculation of conventional
0 Di Di (t) (9) reliability indices such as the Expected Energy Not Sup-
plied (EENS). Moreover, frequency distributions of ex-
nB
pected blackouts per year are derived. Therefore, let X be
X X X
`
Di P`max
P` (t) + aa (t) Pj +
a random variable counting the number of blackouts per
a=1 ja ia
(10) year greater than a specified size C. The size is thereby
classified by the unserved energy or the maximum amount
where a is the busbar specific distance weighting of demand not being supplied in the course of an event.
factor and set to a =1 for the two busbars at each end The expectation E(X) is approximated by generating N
of the overloaded line, a =10 for the busbars being one realizations of X and calculating their empirical mean,
line further away and a =100 for all other busbars within which represents the observed complementary cumulative
the overall system. The weighting factor W =10000 lets frequency of events related to one year, denoted by Fc (C):
partial load shedding be more expensive relative to the
N
generator redispatch. The linear line sensitivity factor 1 X
dP` E(X) Xi Fc (C) (11)
a`a (t) = dP tot with respect to busbar a is dependent on N i=1
a
the network connectivity at the model time t and is calcu-
lated using the conventional matrix method as described where N denotes the number of simulated years.
in [9]. Equation (10) holds for all lines within the two Assuming that X follows a Poisson distribution, the
neighboring control areas. Similar to the model for the re- confidence interval for E(X) can be constructed by using
connection of a failed line, the parameter is used to delay the central Chi-square distribution [13]:
" #
the potential recurrence of an overload and set to =0.8. 1 2 1 2
The procedure for line overloads within a single control = 1 = Pr E(X)
2N f ;/2 2N f ;1/2
area is basically the same, but without the interaction of
(12)
the operators and by restricting the load control variables
Di to the busbars and equation (10) to the transmission where is the P
confidence level, isPthe probability of
N N
lines within the control area. In order to prioritize the gen- error, and f = 2 i=1 Xi and f = 2( i=1 Xi + 1) are
erator redispatch within the control area concerned, the the degrees of freedom.
distance weighting factor is set to a =1 for busbars inside The blackout events can further be classified into the three
and a =100 for busbars outside the control area. outage causes as implemented in the model:
Generation inadequacy:
2.3 System Splitting Loads are disconnected as not enough generation
The splitting of the network due to transmission line capacity is available to cover the actual demand
outages usually leads to an imbalance between load and within the overall system or within a previously sep-
generation within the separated subsystems. Further, de- arated subsystem.
pending on the total inertia within the separated parts, on System splitting:
the frequency control performance and the protection de- Loads are disconnected as a consequence of the sep-
vice behavior of the generators, and on implemented au- aration of the system.
tomatic load shedding procedures, this imbalance comes
along with a frequency deviation potentially leading to sta- Operator intervention:
bility problems [12]. The consequences range from small Load is partially shed in order to remove transmis-
load losses to a total collapse of the subsystem (e.g., [1]). sion line overloads.
3 Case Studies
101
3.1 Application to the IEEE Reliability Test System 1996
3.1.1 System layout and model parameters
100
The three-area IEEE Reliability Test System 1996
F c (C E ) [ y1]
(RTS-96) has 73 busbars, 120 transmission lines and 96
101
generating units [14]. We use the year-long load data with
102
mand trajectories Di (t). The three areas have a base case
max
peak load Dk,0 of 2850 MW each and are treated as three
103
single control areas with three corresponding control ob-
jects and grid operators. The priorities given to the differ-
101 102 103 104 105 106
ent generator types are shown in table 2. Event size C E [MWh]
Unit Type Pjmax [MW] Priority Figure 5: Complementary cumulative blackout frequencies for four dif-
Hydro 50 1 ferent system loading levels L=1.0, 1.1, 1.2 and 1.37 (circles, stars, tri-
Nuclear 400 2 angles and diamonds, respectively) without operator intervention. The
error bars indicate the 90% confidence interval.
Coal/Steam 350 3
Coal/Steam 155 4 In order to further analyze the differences between the
Coal/Steam 76 5 overall frequency curves the distributions of the underly-
Oil/Steam 197 6 ing power outage causes have to be considered. The log-
Oil/Steam 100 7 arithmic histograms of figure 6 report the impact of in-
Oil/Steam 12 8 creasing the system loading from L=1.0 to L=1.37 on the
Oil/CT 20 9 absolute frequency of blackouts f (CE ) caused by genera-
Table 2: Dispatch priorities for the generating units
tion inadequacy (left hand side) and system splitting (right
hand side).
The failure and repair rates for the generators and the
transmission lines are taken from [14]. The parameter
0.08
1.0
value for the time until the manual attempt to re-close the
0.8
0.06
f (C E ) [ y1]
0.6
Regarding the operator model tcd is set to 2min.
0.04
0.4
3.1.2 Computational results
0.02
0.2
The results of two parameter variation studies are pre-
sented and discussed: 1) the sensitivity of the blackout
0.00
0.0
frequency to an increase of the system loading without 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
any operator intervention and 2) the influence of the oper- Event size C E [MWh] Event size C E [MWh]
ator response time on the Expected Energy Not Supplied Figure 6: Impact of increasing the system loading from L=1.0 (dashed
(EENS). Concerning the first experiment we increment the line) to L=1.37 (continuous line) on the absolute frequencies of black-
system loading level L = Dkmax /Dk,0 max
. The maximum outs caused by generation inadequacy (left) and system splitting (right).
max
generator outputs, Pj , are augmented by the same fac- System splitting is the predominant cause of the ob-
tor. In order to gain statistically significant results (i.e. served blackouts for both loading levels. In comparison
N 1000) about 50 hours of simulation time are needed to generation inadequacy the absolute frequencies for this
on a single desktop computer (Dell Optiplex GX260 with outage mode show a stronger increase and a stronger shift
a Pentium 4 CPU of 2.66GHz and 512MB of RAM). This towards larger events when it comes to an increase of the
time was considerably reduced by running several simu- system loading. Hence, the substantial increase of large
lations in parallel. Figure 5 shows the resulting comple- blackouts as shown in figure 5 is mainly the result of an
mentary cumulative blackout frequencies with respect to increased frequency of line overloads and subsequent sys-
the unserved energy per event, Fc (CE ), for four differ- tem splitting.
ent values of L. Regarding the two lower system loading The results of our second parameter variation study are
levels (L=1.0 and L=1.1) the observed complementary cu- presented in figure 7, showing the influence of the oper-
mulative frequencies follow approximately an exponential ator response time trd on the EENS broken down into
curve. However, increasing L to 1.2 already leads to a re- the different outage causes for the system loading level
markable increase of large events, while the shape of the L=1.37. For the interpretation of the results it should be
curve in the range of the smaller events (up to about 103 reminded that thermal aspects of the line overloads are not
MWh) stays qualitatively the same. The value of L=1.37 taken into consideration. Under our model assumptions
represents the maximum system loading level where no an operator intervention with a delay of 5 hours after the
line overloads would occur without any stochastic compo- occurence of the overload still reduces the EENS due to
nent outages. This loading level can be characterized by system splitting by about 30%. On the other hand, an in-
a high frequency of large blackouts predominantly in the crease of the response time from 15min to 30min leads to
range between 104 MWh and 105 MWh. a significant increase of the EENS due to system splitting
of about 26%. The EENS due to generation inadequacy modeling method to a real system. The computational re-
is increasing with the response time as the system is more sults thus make no claim to quantify the reliability of the
often separated which, in turn, reduces the redundancy of Swiss high-voltage grid in absolute terms.
the generators within the splitted subsystems. The values The estimated blackout frequencies and the histogram of
for the EENS due to the operator intervention are negligi- the different outage causes both with respect to the un-
ble. served energy per event are depicted in figure 8. The
model potentially overestimates the duration of the events
8000
0.15
100
0
15min(N =1467) 30min(N =2844) 1h(N =1002) 5h(N =8724) no action(N =4404)
0.10
101
t dr
F c (C E ) [ y1]
f (C E ) [ y1]
Figure 7: Influence of the operator response time on the EENS due to
generation inadequacy (left, black bar), operator action (middle, dark-
grey bar) and system splitting (right, light-grey bar) for L=1.37.
0.05
102
^
3.2 Application to the Swiss High-Voltage Grid
3.2.1 System layout and model parameters
0.00
103
The Swiss electric power system consists of a sin-
gle control area with an annual energy consumption of 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
62.1 103 GWh and a peak load of about 10 GW. The Event size C E [MWh] Event size C E [MWh]
energy production and installed capacity total to 59.4 103 Figure 8: Left: estimated blackout frequencies for the Swiss system
GWh and 12 GW respectively, consisting of 42.2% nu- with respect to the unserved energy. The error bars indicate the 90%
clear, 52.4% hydro and 5.4% conventional thermal gen- confidence interval. Right: histogram indicating the distribution of the
outages due to generation inadequacy (continuous line), system splitting
eration [15]. The number of components as used in our (dotted line) and load shedding for line overload removal (dashed line).
model for the 380/220 kV transmission grid are shown in The complementary cumulative blackout frequency
table 3. follows an exponential curve. Generation inadequacy is
nL nG nT nB nK the dominant factor regarding the larger events while load
99 34 229 161 1 shedding for line overload relief becomes important in the
Table 3: Number of components of the Swiss system range of the smaller events. The influence of load discon-
Based on a particular system snapshot taken on a Jan- nections due to system splitting is significant but the fre-
uary morning the fluctuating power injections Patot (t) at quency of this outage cause never exceeds the frequency
the different nodes are derived by using publicly available of load disconnections due to generation inadequacy or
statistical data [15]. For each hydro power generator a dif- load shedding due to the operator action. Hence, under
ferent production capacity is assigned for the winter half- our model assumptions, it can be concluded that the sys-
year and the summer half-year respectively. The failure tem reliability is somewhat more sensitive to generation
and repair rates for all hydro generators are equally set to outages than to transmission line failures.
j = 4.42y 1 and j = 0.05h1 , and for all nuclear The benefit of the operator response to line overloads is
units to j = 3y 1 and j = 0.027h1 . Regarding the shown in figure 9 where the frequencies of the events with
transmission lines the failure model parameters are cho- and without operator action are compared. The event size
sen as ` = 0.234y 1 and ` = 0.056h1 . As the phase is thereby measured by the maximum unserved demand.
shifting transformers have considerable influence on the
100
power flows corrective injections were calculated for the
nodes adjacent to a phase shifting transformer. The en-
F c (C P ) [ y1]
101
ergy exchange with the neighboring countries is modeled
by independent positive or negative power injections at the
102
assumed to be te` =1h and trd =15min, respectively. 101 102 103
Event size C P [MW]
3.2.2 Computational results
Figure 9: Blackout prevention due to operator response to line over-
It should be noted that the intention of the analysis was loads. Triangles: no operator intervention, circles: operator intervention
primarily to investigate the applicability of the proposed with trd = 15min. The error bars indicate the 90% confidence interval.
The impact of the operator intervention becomes sig- REFERENCES
nificant in the range of the larger events where a high
[1] U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force, Fi-
fraction of blackouts with a size greater than 200 MW
nal Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout in the
is prevented. A large number of disconnected loads due
United States and Canada: Causes and Recommen-
to system splitting and thus a high value for the unserved
dations, 2004.
demand generally needs a high number of subsequently
disconnected lines due to overload. Such a sequence of [2] Chen, J., Thorp, J. S. and Dobson, I., Cascading
events potentially gives the operator a higher chance to in- Dynamics and Mitigation Assessment in Power Sys-
tervene in comparison to a disconnection of a single load tem Disturbances via a Hidden Failure Model, Elec-
due to the outage of a few lines without further cascading trical Power and Energy Systems, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp.
failures. 318-326, 2005.
The relative overload frequencies for each transmission [3] Rios, M. A., Kirschen, D. S., Jayaweera, D., Nedic,
line, h` , are reported in figure 10. D. P. and Allan, R. N., Value of Security: Model-
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Figure 10: Relative frequency of transmission line overloads (N =2242) [6] Billinton, R., Li, W., Reliability Assessment of
Electric Power Systems Using Monte Carlo Meth-
ods, Plenum Press, New York, 1994.
About 15% of all overload contingencies are occuring
on only two lines. Furthermore, several groups of adjacent [7] Dai, Y., McCalley, J. D., Abi-Samra, N., Vittal, V.,
lines can be identified as being prone to overloads, helping Annual Risk Assessment for Overload Security,
to highlight the most critical system regions. IEEE Trans. Power Syst., Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 616-
623, 2001.
4 Conclusions [8] Kirschen, D. S., Bell, K. R. W., Nedic, D. P.,
We presented an object-oriented hybrid modeling Jayaweera, D. and Allan, R. N., Computing the
framework for a comprehensive reliability analysis of value of security, IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Dis-
electric power systems. The main advantages are the ex- trib., Vol. 150, No. 6, pp. 673-678, 2003.
plicit integration of highly nonlinear, time-dependent ef-
[9] Wood, A. J. and Wollenberg, B. F., Power Gener-
fects and the possibility to include non-technical factors.
ation, Operation, and Control, 2nd ed., John Wiley
The chosen level of modeling detail allows analyzing a
& Sons, New York, 1996.
multitude of different (time-dependent) reliability aspects
such as the identification of weak points and the assess- [10] Birolini, A., Reliability Engineering, Theory and
ment of system upgrades. Although several model refine- Practice, 5th ed., Springer, Berlin, 2007.
ments need to be further developed, the results of the case
[11] Zima, M. and Andersson, G., On security criteria
studies performed on the IEEE RTS-96 and on a model of
in power systems operation, Proc. IEEE Power En-
the Swiss high-voltage grid confirm the applicability of the
gineering Society General Meeting, San Francisco,
approach with respect to mid-period power system plan-
June 2005.
ning purposes. Optimizing the technical implementation
of the models together with the evolution of both hard- [12] Anderson, P. M. and Mirheydar, M., An adaptive
and software will fasten up the simulation speed. Gaining method for setting underfrequency load shedding re-
experience in applying the proposed approach will give in- lays, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., Vol. 7, No. 2, pp.
sight in the parameters to be used, thus lessen the problem 647-655, 1992.
of the high number of parameters to be estimated. [13] Cowan, G., Statistical Data Analysis, Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1998.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank swisselectric re- [14] IEEE RTS Task Force of APM Subcommittee, The
search for co-financing the work, Swissgrid AG for the IEEE Reliability Test System - 1996, IEEE Trans.
fruitful collaboration and for providing the operational Power Syst., Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 1010-1020, 1999.
data of the Swiss electric power system, and Walter Sat- [15] Swiss Federal Office of Energy, Swiss Electricity
tinger (Swissgrid AG) for his helpful feedback on the Statistics 2006 (german), Bern 2007.
manuscript.