See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.

com

ANSWERS FOR LEXICOLOGY....................................................................................................2

PART A. THEORY........................................................................................................................2
Q.1. What are lexicology, word and vocabulary?......................................................................2
Q.2. State the origin of English words?.....................................................................................2
Q.3. What is the assimilation of borrowings?...........................................................................2
Q.4. Classify borrowed words according to the degree of assimilation?..................................3
Q.5. What is morpheme? Classify morphemes?........................................................................3
Q.6. Whats allomorph? State the kind of allomorph? Classify the morphological conditioned
allomorph?.................................................................................................................................5
Q.7. What is compound? Classify English compounds?...........................................................6
Q.8. What is clipping? State the kinds of clipping?..................................................................7
Q.9. What is conversion? State the semantic relationship in conversion?................................7
Q.10. What is meaning?............................................................................................................8
Q.11. Lexical meaning of the word?.................................................................................................8
Q.12. What is metaphor? Types of metaphor?..........................................................................8
Q.13. What is metonymy? Types of metonymy?......................................................................8
Q.14. What is homonym? Classify homonym? State the origin of homonym?........................9
Q.15. What is synonym? What are the criteria of synonym? State the types of synonym?....10
Q.16. What are the types of connotation?...............................................................................10
Q.17. What is euphemism? State the reasons for euphemism?...............................................11
Q.18. What is antonym? What are the types of antonym?......................................................11
Q.19. What are the main characteristics of Phraseological units (Pus)? How can PUs can be
distinguished from Free word groups (FWGs)?......................................................................11
Q.20. Principles of classification of PUs?...............................................................................12
Q.21. Structural classification of PUs?....................................................................................12
PART B. EXERCISES................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER I. FUNDAMENTALS..........................................................................................13
CHAPTER II. THE ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS................................................14
CHAPTER III. MORPHEME STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS.................................15
CHAPTER IV. WORD BUILDING.....................................................................................15
CHAPTER V. SEMANTICS MEANING............................................................................20
CHAPTER VI. HOMONYMS................................................................................................21
CHAPTER VII. SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS...............................................................21
CHAPTER VIII. SET EXPRESSION - PHRASEOLOGY....................................................23

1
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

ANSWERS FOR LEXICOLOGY

PART A. THEORY

Q.1. What are lexicology, word and vocabulary?

- Lexicology is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of language and the properties
of words as the main units of language.
- Word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a
group of sound, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized
by formal and semantic unity.
- Vocabulary is the term used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words that
the language possesses.

Q.2. State the origin of English words?

2.1. Native words:
- Definition: Native words are words belonging to original English stock
- The native element in English comprises a large number of high frequency words like the
articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries, and, also, words denoting everyday
objects and ideas.
- Native words are sub-divided into 3 groups:
+ Indo-European element: are meant words of roots common to all or most languages of
the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary notions without which
no human communication would be possible.
Eg. Father, mother, brother, son, daughter, foot, heart, cow, day, night, sun, moon, star,
sheep, wolf, man, two, three, tree, etc.
+ Germanic element: are words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages.
Eg. Head, arm, bear, oak, rain, winter, spring, sea, land, house, boat, green, blue, earth,
little, strong, long, etc.
+ English proper: are words having no cognates in other languages. English proper
element can be approximately dated.
Eg. Bird, boy, girl, lady, woman, lord, apple, dog, bread, etc.
2.1. Borrowed words (borrowing / loan words):
- Definition: Borrowed words are those taken from other languages and modified in phonetic
shape, graphic, morphologicalaccording to standards of the English language.
- Borrowed words can be taken from various languages such as: Latin, French, Russian, Greek,
Spanish, etc.
Eg. + Latin: butter, plum, beef
+ Spanish: tomato, potato
+ French: desire, adore, baron, count
- The reasons for borrowings from a language to another may be:
+ It serves to fill a gap in vocabulary
+ It represents the same notion in some new aspect, supply a new shade of meaning or a different
emotional coloring.
2.3. International words:
- International words are words of identical origin that occurs in several languages as a result of
simultaneous and successive borrowing from one ultimate source: Football, email, internet.

Q.3. What is the assimilation (s ng ha) of borrowings?

Def: The term assimilation of loan words is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the
phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic
system.

2
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Q.4. Classify borrowed words according to the degree of assimilation?

- Def: The term assimilation of loan words is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the
phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic
system.
- According to degree of assimilation, borrowed words can be classified into: completely
assimilated words, partially assimilated words and unassimilated words.
- Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers of older borrowings.
Eg. + Latin: cheese, street, wall, wine
+ Scandinavian: husband, fellow, gate, root, wing
+ French: table, chair, face
- Partially assimilated words are sub-divided into 4 subgroups:
+ Loan words not assimilated semantically: denote the objects, notion of country theyre from
Eg. Kimono (Japanese), rickshaw (Chinese)
+ Loan words not assimilated grammatically:
Eg. Formula formulae; index indice; phenomenon phenomena (plural form is kept
constant).
+ Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically:
Eg. machine, cartoon, police (stress / accent is kept on original syllabe)
+ Loan words not completely assimilated graphically:
Eg. Caf, clich (li ni so rng) (keep a diacritical mark)
- Unassimilated words / barbarisms: are words from other languages used by English people in
conversation or writing, but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding
English equivalents. (additional)
Eg. ciao (Italian) good bye
Q.4* What is etymological doublets/tripplets.
- Etymological doublets are two words originating from the same etymological source, but
differing in phonemic shape and in meaning. A doublet may also consist of a shorten word and the
one from which it was derived
Eg: history-story, shirt (E)-skirt (Sc)
- Etymological tripplets are groups of three words of common root. They occur more rarely.
Eg: hospital(Lat.)- hostel (Norm.Fr)- hotel ( Par. Fr)

Q.5. What is morpheme? What are the properties of morphemes. Classify morphemes?
- Definition: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a given language. It can not be devided
without altering or destroying its meaning.
Eg: understand, butcher, grocer,stand, look, etc.
- Properties of morpheme;
+ Morpheme is the smallest unit associated with a meaning
+ Morpheme is recyclable unit, eg: perceive, receive, etc.
+ Morpheme can not be confused with syllable, eg: understand: 1 morpheme but 3
syllable,
+ Morpheme may take phonetically different shape: eg: record (N, V)
- Classification:
5.1. According to its function:
- Grammatical morphemes: are morphemes which show grammatical meanings
Eg. books -s is grammatical morpheme
- Lexical morphemes: are morphemes which show principle meanings
Eg. books book is lexical morpheme
5.2. According to its distribution:
- Free morphemes: can stand alone as independent words
- Bound morpheme: cant stand alone as independent words, can only be added to other words to
form new forms of word or new words.

3
 See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Eg. booked book free morpheme; -ed bound morpheme

5.3. According to word-buiding:
- Affixes cant stand alone as independent words. Affixes are bound morphemes that occur before
or after a root and somewhat modify the basic meaning of the root.
According to position, affixes can be subdivided in to prefixes, suffixes, infixes
+ prefix: unhappy, inexpensive, etc.
+ suffix: careful,happiness, etc.
+ infix: statesment, salesman, etc.
According to function affixes are sub-divided into inflectional and derivational morphemes.
+ Inflectional morpheme is used to add to the root to form new form.
Eg. translated, flowers, etc.
+ Derivational morpheme is used to add to the root to form new word.
Eg. Teacher, commitment, etc.
According to etymology, affixes are sub-divided into native affixes and borrowed affixes
+ Native affixes are those that existed in English in the old English period or were
formed from old English words. Eg: -dom, -hood, -ful, etc.
+ Borrowed affixes are affixes that are borrowed from other languages. Many of the
borrowed affixes are international and occur not only in English but in several other
European languages as well. Eg: -ate ( Fr), -ism (Greek), -able (Lat.)
According to productivity, affixes can be classified into productive and non-productive affixes.
+ Productive affixes are the ones which take part in deriving new words in this
particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive
affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words. Eg: -er,-ed,-
ly (forming adverbs), -ize, un-
+ Nonproductive affixes are the ones which have restriction in combining with other
words to form new words. Eg: -hood, en-, -some,-ly (forming adjective)
According to part of speech, affixes are subdivided as follows:
+ Prefixes: - prefixes that gives negative meaning: Eg: un-, in-, dis-, etc.
- prefixes that form Verbs. Eg: en-, em-
- prefixes that change the part of speech of the word without changing the
meaning ???
+ Suffixes: - Noun-forming suffixes
* from verb. Eg: -ing, -ion
* Agent noun from verb: -er, -or, -ee, etc.
* from Adj. Eg: -ness,
- Verb-forming suffixes:
* from Adj: -en, -ize
* from N: -ify, -ate.
- Adjective-forming suffixes:
* from N: -al, -ly, -ful
* from nationality: -ian, -ese,
* from V: -ent, -ive, -able
- Adverb forming suffixes: -ly, -ward, -wise
- Numeral forming suffixes: -fold, -teen, -th, -ty
- Root (base): is the lexical morpheme that constitutes the core of word. Base is the morpheme
which carries the principle meaning in the word and to which a suffix or prefix can be added.
Eg. happy (base) happiness
Root can be free base morpheme or bound base morpheme. Free base can stand by itself while
bound base must be preceded by prefix or followed by suffix.

5*) What are the differences between free morphemes and bound morphemes?
Free morphemes are morphemes which can stay alone as independent words. Eg: stand, like, etc.

4
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Bound morphemes are morphemes which can not stay alone as independent words. They only
modify the meaning of the words. Un-, -ness, etc.
Free morphemes and bound morphemes are different in terms of distribution. Free morphemes
can stand alone as independent words while bound morphemes can not.

5**) How to cut the constituents of a word ( IC Immediate Constituent division):

Each hierarchy is the layer or structure by which a word has been composed, we can make
successive division into parts, each of which called IC and this division is called IC division. IC
division has to follow these rules:
- If a word has an inflectional suffix, the first cut is between inflectional suffix and the
word,
- One of the IC should be a free form
- The meaning of the IC should be related to the total meaning.
Eg: un//happy/ness
Q.6. Whats allomorph? State the kind of allomorph? Classify the morphological
conditioned allomorph?
Definition:
Allomorphs are various phonemic shapes that represent the same morpheme. An allomorph is a
structure which is similar semantically but phonologically or morphologically different.
Eg. /z/, /s/, /iz/ - are allomorph of {s}
6.2. Kinds of allomorph:
- Phonologically conditioned allomorph (PCA): a morpheme is phonologically conditioned when
its distribution depends on the phonological nature of the preceding phoneme.
Eg: {-ed}-/id/; /t/;/d/
- Morphologically conditioned allomorph (MCA): a morpheme is morphologically conditioned
when it is determined by a specific morpheme. It occurs in the case of irregular verbs and
irregular nouns
+ Classify MCA:
- Zero allomorph: no change in writing
Eg. sheep sheep
{-s}={-}
- Additive allomorph: {-s} = {-en}
Eg. child children
- Replacive allomorph:
+ Vowel: v vEg. man men // /e/
Eg. tooth teeth /u:/ /i:/
+ Consonant --> consonant Eg: advice- advise /s/ ->/z/
Q.7. What are processes of making new words?
There are 4 processes of making new words:
Derivation/ Affixation: is the formation of making new word by adding affixes to the root
morpheme.
D= root+ affixes Eg: work-worker, happy- happiness, luck-unlucky
Composition: is the combination/formation of at least two free bases
C= FB+FB Eg: icecream, railway, workforce,etc.
Shortening may be represented as significant substraction, in which part of the original
word is taken away. Shortening includes clipping, blending and abbreviation:
Eg: + Clipping: Ad, Advert : Advertisement, fend : defend, flu: influenza, etc.
+ Blending: Telecast : television postcast, smog : smoke and frog, etc.
+ Abbreviation: WHO, NATO,
Conversion: is a process by which word extends its grammatical function
Eg: Lunch- to lunch, elbow- to elbow, etc.

5
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Q.7. What are compounds? Their specific features?Classify English compounds?

- Compound words are words containing of at least two stems which occur in the language as free
forms. In a compound word, the ICs obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make them
function in sentence as a separate lexical unit.
- Features:
+ Both ICs of an English compound are free forms. Eg: afternoon, birthday,
+ The regular pattern for the English language is a two-stem Eg: mother-in-law,
wastepaper-basket, etc.
+ One more specific feature of English compounding is the important role the attributive
syntactic function can play in providing a phrase with structural cohesion and turning it into a
compound. Eg: the records are out of date out-of-date records
- Classification:
According to the structural aspect of ICs: Compounds can be subdivided in to neutral,
morphological and syntactic compounds.
- Neutral compounds: are compounds produced by the process of compounding without any
linking element, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems.
+ Simple neutral compounds: consist of simple affixless stems.
Eg. blackbird, ladybird, windshield, etc.
+ Derivational compounds: are compounds which have affixes in their structure. One of the
constituents is derivational stem.
Eg. lady-killer, air-conditioner, chainsmoker, etc.
+ Contracted compounds: are compounds which have a shortened( contracted) stem in their
structure.
Eg. V-day, H-bomb, U-turn, etc.
- Morphorlogical compounds: are compounds in which two compounding stems are combined by
a linking vowel or consonant.
Eg. handicraft, spokesman, handiwork, etc.
- Syntactic compounds: are words formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure
numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: article, preposition, adverb. Eg
mother-in-law, lady-in-waiting, good-for-nothing, lily-of-the-valley, etc.
According to semantic aspect of compound words: compounds can be subdivided into
idiomatic and non-idiomatic compounds
- Non-idiomatic compounds: are the compounds whose meanings can really be described as the
sum of their constituent meanings.
Eg. bedroom, earthquake, etc.
- Idiomatic compounds: are the compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate
meanings of their constituent parts. Idiomatic compounds are subdivided into two types: partial
semantic change and total semantic change
+ Partial semantic change: one of the components has change its meaning: Eg.
blackboard,blackberry, lazy-bone,etc.
+ Total semantic change: all the components have changed their meanings. In the
compounds, the process of deducing the meaning of the whole from those of the constituents is
impossible. Eg: tallboy, butterfly, etc.
According to parts of speech: compounds can be subdivided into compound Ns, compound Adjs
and compound Vs
- Compound Ns: +) N+N: eg: waste paper, milkman, etc
+) Ving+ N: dining room, working class
+) N/V + Prep: day-off, sale-off, knock-out, drop-out, etc.
+) V+N: dare-devil ( k liu lnh), pick-pocket, etc.
+) Adj+N: Tallboy, blackboard, lazy-bird
- Compound Adjs: +) N+ P2: heart-broken, heart-shaped, pig-headed
+) N+Adj: world-wide, homesick, love-sick, etc.

6
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

+) Adj+Adj: light-blue, red-hot, etc.

+) Adj+Ned: absent-minded, bad-tempered
+) Adj/N+ Ving: easy-going, hard-working, good-looking, summer
flowering, freedom loving, etc.
- Compound Vs: proof-read
Q.7*) What is blending? State the kinds of blending?
- Def: Blending is the fusion of words into one usually the first part of a word with the last part of
another. Eg: chunnel, smoke, etc.
- Kinds of blending:
+ Additive blending: is transformable into a phrase consisting of the respective complete stems
combined by the conjunction and. Eg: smog (smoke and fog), camcorder (camera and recorder)
+ Restrictive blending is transformable into an attributive phrase where the first element serves as
modifier of the second. Eg: Telecast = Television broadcast, motel = motorists hotel

Q.8. What is clipping? State the kinds of clipping?

- Def: Clipping is the cutting-off of the beginning or the final or the middle part of the word or
both, leaving a part to stand for the word.
- Kinds of clipping: according to the position of the cut part
+ Initial clipping: retains the final part of the word (the initial part is cut).
Eg. telephone phone; violoncello cello, etc.
+ Final clipping: retains the initial part of the word (the final part is cut).
Eg. advertisement ad; examination exam; laboratory lab, etc.
+ Inito-final clipping: retains the medial part of the word (the initial and final parts are cut).
Eg. influenza flu; refridgerator fridge
+ Medial clipping: retains the initial and final parts of the word (the medial part is cut).
Eg. mathematics maths; spectacles specs, etc.
Q.9. What is conversion? State the semantic relationship in conversion?
- Conversion is the process by which a word is extended its grammatical function.
Eg. book (n) to book (v)
- Semantic relationship:
+ N name of tool or implement; V denotes action performed by it.
Eg. hammer to hammer, comb to comb, brush to brush, etc.
+ N name of animal; V denotes action or aspect of behaviour considered typical of it.
Eg. dog to dog, ape to ape, etc. (except: fish to fish _try to catch fish).
+ N name of part of human body; V denotes action performed by it.
Eg. head to head, eye to eye, leg to leg, etc.
+ N name of a profession of occupation; V denotes an activity typical of it.
Eg. cook to cook, nurse to nurse, etc.
+ N name of place; V the process of occupying it or put sb/sth into it.
Eg. room to room, table to table, etc.
+ N name of container; V the act of putting sth within the container.
Eg. can to can, bottle to bottle, etc.
+ N name of meal; V the process of taking it.
Eg. lunch to lunch, etc.
Q.9*) What is abbreviation, state the kinds of occupation?
- Def: Abbreviation is a process by which a word is formed from the inital letter or beginning
segment of a series of words. Eg: NATO, ASEAN, WHO, etc.
- Kinds:
+ the abbreviated written form can be read as an ordinary English word: Eg: UNESCO, ASEAN,
etc.
+ the abbreviated written form can be read as separate letters. Eg: BBC, WTO, etc.
+ the abbreviated written form can be read in both ways: UFO, UNO, etc.

7
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Q.10. What is meaning? What is semantic?

- Meaning can be more or less described as a component of the word through which a concept is
communicated.
- Semantics is the branch of linguistic which specializes in the study of meanings

Q.11. Lexical meaning of the word?

Lexical meaning of a word is the relization of the notion by mean of the definite language system.
The notion content of the word is expressed by the denotative meaning and the emotional content
of the word is expressed by the connotative meaning.

Q.12. What is metaphor? Types of metaphor?

- Metaphor is the transfer of name based on the association of similarity and thus is actually a
hidden comparison.
- Types of metaphor:
+ Similarity of shape or function.
Eg. head of cabbage, the key to a mystery
+ Similarity of position.
Eg. foot of a page, foot of mountain
+ Similarity of behaviour.
Eg. a bookworm, a fox, etc.
+ Analogy between duration of time and space.
Eg: a short path - a short time
+ Transition of proper name into common one.
Eg. Don Juan, Vandal

Q.13. What is metonymy? Types of metonymy (Hon d)?

- Metonymy is the transfer based upon the association of contiguity. It is a shift of names between
things that are known to be in some way or other connected in reality. The transfer may be
conditioned by spatial(khng gian), temporal, causal, symbolic, instrumental, functional and
other relations.
- Types of metonymy:
+ Spatial relations:
the name of place is used for the people occupying it.
Eg. the pulpit
the name of container is used instead of the thing contained
Eg: the kettle is boiling
+ Causal relations:
State or properties serves as names for objects and people possessing them.
Eg. youth, authoritied, forces
Name of action serves to name result of the action.
Eg. kill (O.E means hit on the head)
Emotion may be named by movements that accompanied them.
Eg. to start, to frown
+ Symbolic relation: the symbol is used to replace the thing symbolized
Eg: crown for monarchy
+ Intrumental relation Instrument is used for action or the doer.
Eg. saxophone, violin are used to denote not the instrument but the musicians who play
them.

8
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

+ Functional change: the shift is between names of things substituting one another inhuman
practice. Eg: steerman was called pilot, the man operating the flying controls of an aircraft
was also called pilot.

+ Common name derived from proper one, named after the inventor.
Eg. macadam, diesel
+ Physical, technical units are named after great scientists.
Eg. volt, watt, ohm, ampare, farad
+ Name of establishment is used not only for the establishment itself but also its staff or the
policy.
Eg. the White House, the Pentagon, the Downing Street
+ Geographical names used for goods originating where there are axceedingly numerous.
Eg. china, bikini, boston
+ Garments came to be known by the name of those who brought them into fashion.
Eg. mackintosh, wellingtons, CK
+ Material for particular article.
Eg. glass, iron, nickel

Q.14. What is homonym( t ng m khc ngha)? Classify homonym? State the origin of
homonym?
14.1. Definition:
Two or more words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution and (in
many cases) origin are called homonym.
14.2. Classification:
- According to the sound: (sound form)
+ Homonym proper: same sound and spelling, but different meaning.
Eg. back (adv) back (v)
+ Homophone: same sound, but different spelling and meaning.
Eg. by buy bye
+ Homograph: same spelling, but different sound and meaning.
Eg. row (n) /rou/ - row (v) /rau/; lead (n) /led/ - lead (v) /li:d/
- According to lexico-grammatical criteria:
+ Full homonym: same sound, spelling and grammatical function (part of speech), but different
meaning.
Eg. match (n): in football match and matchbox
spring (n): wound wire device and first season of the year
+ Partial homonym:
Simple lexico-grammatical homonym: same sound, spelling and part of speech, but different
meaning.
Eg. found (v): PP of to find
to found: to build, to establish
Complex lexico-grammatical homonym: same sound and spelling, but different part of speech
and meaning.
Eg. rose (n) rose (v)_past tense of rise
Partial-lexical homonym: same sound, spelling and part of speech, but different meaning and
change in part of speech.
Eg. to lie lay laid
to lie lied lied
14.3. Origin of homonym:
Convergent development of sound form:

9
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

- Homonyms through convergent sound development when 2 or 3 words of different origins

accidently concide in sound.
- It may consist of:
+ Phonetic change.
+ Phonetic change combined with loss of affixes.
+ Independent formation from homonymous bases by means of homonymous morpheme.
Devergent semantic development:
- Homonyms developed from polysemy through devergent sense development, both may be
combined with loss of ending and other morphorlogical process.
- It may be:
+ Limited within lexico-grammatical class of words.
+ Combined with differences in lexico-grammatical class and therefore different in
grammatical function and distribution.
+ Based on independent formation from the same base by homonymous morpheme.

Q.15. What is synonym(t ng ngha)? What are the criteria of synonym? State the types
of synonym?
- Definition: Synonym can be defined as 2 or more words of the same language, belonging to the
same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational
meaning, interchangeable, at least in some contexts, without any considerable alteration in
denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of
meaning, connotation, affective value, style, valency and idiomatic use.
- Criteria of synonym:
+ Interchangeability: only in some contexts synonym can be changed without any
alteration in denotational and connotational meaning.
+ Substitution: only in some contexts without changing the denotational meanings, and in
others the substitution may destroy the precision.
+ Notional criterion: synonyms convey the same notion but different shade of meaning or
stylistic charateristic.
- Types of synonyms:
+ Absolute (total) synnonym: the member of synonymic group can replace each other in
any given context without any alteration in denotational meaning. This is rare in vocabulary.
+ Contextual synonym: is similar in meaning only under some specific distributional
conditions.
Eg. to buy ticket to get ticket.

Q.16. What are the types of connotation?

- The connotation of degree or intensity.
Eg. to surprise to astonish to amaze to astound
to like to admire to love to adore to worship
- The connotation of duration.
Eg. to stare: quick look to glance: longer look
- Emotive connotation.
Eg. daddy (emotion) father; mum (emotion) mother
- Evaluative connotation.
Eg. well-known, famous, celebrate positive meaning
notorious negative meaning
- Causative connotation.
Eg. to shiver: to shake (with cold) to shudder (with fear)
- Connotation of manner.

10
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Eg. to stare to glare to gaze to glance to peep : # ways of looking at sth.

- Connotation of attendant circumstances.
Eg. to peep: to look at sth quickly, secretary (through a small opening)
to peer: to look at sth carefully when it is unable to see well
- Connotation of attendant feature.
Eg. pretty: delicate feature
beautiful: classical feature
- Stylistic connotation.
Eg. snack, bite (colloqual); snap (dialect); refreshment (formal)
Kid (slang); child (neutral); infant (literature)

Q.17. What is euphemism (uyn ng)? State the reasons for euphemism?
- Definition: A source of synonyms from social linguistics is euphemism in which by a shift of
meaning, a word of more or less pleasant or at leasr inoffensive connotation substitutes one harsh,
obsence, indelicate or unleasant.
- Reasons for euphemism:
+ To avoid social taboos: eg. in the family way (pregnant).
+ To avoid getting hurt someones feeling: eg. to die is replaced by to pass away
+ Religious taboos: eg. Devil replaced by the Prince of Darkness, Old Nick
+ For mental diseases: eg. mad described as unbalanced, insane.
The use and existence of euphemisms are caused by social conventions or by certain
psychological factors.

Q.18. What is antonym(t tri ngha)? What are the types of antonym?
- Antonyms may be defined as 2 or rarely more words of the same language belonging to the same
part of speech, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and use together so
that their denotative meanings render (form) contrary or contradictory notions.
The antonyms are used to increase the positive or nagative aspect.
- Types of antonyms:
+ Absolute antonyms: formulae (A,B antonyms; X,Y the words they serve to qualify
respectively).
A and (or) B = all. Eg. good and bad; pros and cons
Not A but (on the contrary) B. eg. it is not big but small
A or B. eg. right or wrong
X is A, and Y (on the contrary) is B.
eg. unity is strong, and seperation is weak; the whole is big, onself is little
+ Derivational antonyms: the affixes in them serve to deny the quality stated in stem.
Negative prefixes: dis-, il-, im-, in-, un-, ir-.
Eg. polite impolite; courage discourage
Suffix -less.
Eg. useful useless; hopeful hopeless

Q.19. What are the main characteristics of Phraseological units (Pus)? How can PUs can be
distinguished from Free word groups (FWGs)?
19.1. Charateristics:
- Double sense: the current mening of constituent words build up certain picture but the atual
meaning (hidden one) of the whole unit has little or nothing to do with that picture, it creates an
entirely new image.
- Using PUs with care especially to foreigner to aviod misunderstanding.

11
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

19.2. The differnces between the PUs and FWGs:

- Semantic criterion:
+ FWG has one sense meaning which can be total meaning of the constituents expressing in the
utterances.
+ PUs has double sense (real and imagine), it can be total or partial change with the meaning of
the constituents.
- Strutural criterion:
+ Restriction in substitution:
PUs convey single notion, the constitution cant be changed if they are changed, the total
meaning will be changed.
FWGs: the constituents can be changed without any considerable change in total meaning.
+ Reatriction in introducing any additional components:
FWGs: such change can be made without affecting the general meaning of the utterance.
PUs: no additional components can be introduced.
+ Restriction in grammatical invariability:
FWGs: grammar can be changed
PUs: grammar cant be changed.

Q.20. Principles of classification of PUs?

- Traditional principle:
+ Based on original content of PUs, may be alluded as thematic.
+ Has real merit but it doest take into consideration the linguistic charateristic feature of PUs.
- Semantic principle:
+ Phraseological combinations: are word-group with a partially changed meaning.
Eg. to be good at sth
+ Phraseological unities: are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, the meaning of
the unit doesnt correspond to the meaning of its constituent parts. The whole meaning of the unit
can be duduced from its components.
Eg. to stick to ones gun
+ Phraseological fusions: are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, but in contrast to
unities, their meaning cant be deduced from the meanings of the constituents.
Eg. neck and crop (entirely)
- Structural principle:
+ Verbal: eg. to run for ones life
+ Substantive (noun): eg. cat and dog
+ Adjectival: eg. safe and sound, brand new
+ Adverbial: eg. high or low, for love or money
+ Interjectional: eg. my god!, good heavens!

Q.21. Structural classification of PUs?

- Functioning like nouns:
N+N eg. maiden name, calf love, brain trust
Ns + N eg. cats paw (personized)
Ns + N eg. ladies man
N + preposition + N eg. the day after the fair (miss the chance)
N + adj eg. brand new, knight errant
N + and + N eg. lord and master (husband), neck and crop (completely)
Adj + N eg. brown study, green room (the general reception room of a theatre)
N + subordinate clause eg. the ship that pass in the night
- Functioning like verbs:

12
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

V+N eg. to take advantage

V + postpositive eg. to give up
V + and/or + V eg. to pick and choose, to kill or cure
V + (ones) + N + (prep) eg. to snap ones fingers at
V + one + N eg. to give one the bird to fire smb
V + subordinate clause eg. to see how the land lies (to discover the state of affairs)
- Functioning like adjectives:
Adj + and + adj eg. safe and sound, high and mighty
(As) + adj + as + N eg. as old as the hills, as mad as hatter
- Functioning like adverbs:
N+N eg. tooth and nail
Prep + N eg. by heart, of course
Adv + preposition + adj + N eg. once in a blue moon
Prep + N + or + N eg. by hook or by crook
Conj + clause eg. before one can say jack Robinson
- Funtioning like prepositions:
Prep + N + prep eg. in consequence of
- Functioning like interjections: eg. god bless you, take your time

_________________________The End_________________________

PART B. EXERCISES

CHAPTER I. FUNDAMENTALS
E 3. What is the external structure (morphological structure) of the word irresistible? What is the
internal structure (semantic structure) of this word?
The external structure of the word irresistible consists of morphemes: the prefixes ir-, re-,
the root sist, and the adjective-forming suffix ible.
The internal structure of the word: ir- means not, re- means again, sist meaningless, -ible
means capable. The word means so strong that it cant be stopped or resisted.

13
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

E 5. Explain why the word blackboard can be considered a unity and why the combination of
words black board doesnt possess such a unity?
The word blackboard, which is characterized by unity, possess a single grammatical
framing: blackboard. The first constituent black is not subjected to any grammatical changes. In
the word-group black board each constituent can acquire grammatical forms of it own: the
blackest board. Other words can be inserted between the components which is immpossible so far
as the word concerned as would violate its unity: a black wide board.
In the word-group black board, each component conveys a separate concept: black a
colour, board a flat abject.
The word blackboard conveys only one concept: a type of board.

CHAPTER II. THE ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS

E 1. Explain the origin of the following words:
father, mother, brother, dog, cat, sheep, wolf, house, home, life, earth, man, apple, bread, live, go,
give, begin, come, quick, strong, long, wide, to, for, two, three, well, much, little.
- All the above words belong to native English origin, but they are divided into such group:

English proper Indo-European Germanic

dog, bread, apple, come. father, mother, brother, wolf, house, cat, sheep, home,
man, live, go, give, quick, life, earth, begin, strong,
wide, for, two, three, much, long, to, little.
well.

E 2. - State the origin of the following doublets

- Comment on the different formation of the doublets and on the difference in meaning if any.
1. abbreviate (L) abridge (Fr) 2. hospital (L) hotel (Fr) hostel (Fr)
3. cavalry (L) chivalry (Fr) 4. major (L) mayor (Fr)
5. cart (Scand) chart (Fr) 6. senior (L) sir (Fr)
7. fragile (L) frail (Fr) 8. canal (Fr) channel (E)
9. suit (OE) suite (Fr) 10. legal (L) loyal (Fr)
11. shade (OE) shadow (OE) 12. skirt (Scand) shirt (OE)
13. dike (OE/Ger) ditch (E) 14. screw (Fr) shrew (OE)

E 3. Give adjectives of Latin origin corresponding to the following nouns: eg. lip labial.
Noun Adj Noun Adj
Mouth Oral Horse Equine
Eye Ocular Ox Bovine
Tongue Lingual Sheep Ovine
Nose Nasal Mother Maternal
Tooth Dental Father Paternal
Body Corporal Brother Fraternal
Head Capital Woman Feminine
Ear Auricular Husband Marital
Hand manual House Domestic
Sight Visible Town Urban
Mind Mental Moon Lunar
Life Vital Sun Solar
Youth Juvenile Sea Marine
Book Literary

14
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

E 4. Classify the following words:

- According to their origins
- According to their meanings
ox, cow, beef, calf, veal, sheep, mutton, pig, bacon, deer, venison, chase, hunt, begin, commence,
baker, tailor, weaver, butcher, shoemaker, painter, fish-man, mason, shepherd, lord, baron, lady,
count.
- According to their origins, these words are divided into such groups: Native English and French
and Latin
English French Latin
Ox, cow, calf, sheep, pig, bacon, Veal, mutton, venison, chase, beef
deer, hunt, begin, baker, fish-man, commence, tailor, weaver, butcher,
shoemaker, shepherd, lord, lady. painter, mason, baron, count.

- According to their meanings we have such groups:

Animal Meat Occupation & title Verb
Ox, cow, calf, pig, Veal, mutton, Baker, tailor, Chase, hunt, begin,
sheep, deer, bacon, venison weaver, butcher, commence, count
shoemaker, painter,
fish-man, mason,
shepherd, lord,
baron, lady

CHAPTER III. MORPHEME STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

E 1. Analyze the structure of the following words: eg. misuse
B F
Convene dislike preface foresee darkroom subway
B B B F B F B F F F B F
Recut supervise postwar policeman friendship typist
B F F B B F F F F B F B
Loneliness assistant intervene
F B F B B B

E 2. Separate word form into its constituent morpheme:

Eg. expression = {ex-} {-press} {-ion}
- State whether the base is bound or free and what it means
- Give at least two English words containing the same base.
Detachment = {de-} {-tach} {-ment}, the base {-tach} is a bound one; eg. attachment
Expectation = {ex} {-pect} {-ation}, the base {-pect} is a bound base, eg. pectize
Portable = {port-} {-able}, the base {port} is free base, eg. import, export
Correspondent = {cor-} {-respond} {-dent}, the base {-respond} is free base, eg. irresponsive
Revise = {re-} {-vise}, the base {-vise} is bound base, eg. supervise
Eject = {e-} {-ject}, the base {-ject} is bound base, eg. inject, project
Retainer = {re-} {-tain} {-er}, the base {-tain} is bound base, eg. maintain, contain
Contradic = {contra-} {-dict}, the base {-dict} is bound base, eg. predict, dictionary
Telephone = {tele-} {-phone}, the base {-phone} is bound base, eg. homophone, headphone
Apprehensible = {ap-} {-pre} {-hens} {-ible}, the base {-hens}is bound base, eg.
comprehensive, comprehensible
Regress = {re-} {-gress}, the base {-gress} is bound base, eg. congress
Deceiver = {de-} {-ceiv} {-er}, the base {-ceiv} is bound base, eg. receive, perceive
Department = {de-} {-part} {-ment}, the base {-part} is free base, eg. apartment
Intervene = {inter-} {-vene}, the base {-vene} is bound base, eg. convene, subvene

15
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Consent = {con-} {-sent}, the base {-sent} is bound base, eg. resent, assent

CHAPTER IV. WORD BUILDING

IV. 1. Affixation
E 1. Give examples of nouns with the following suffixes. State which of the suffixes are
productive?
-tion, -dom, -ness, -ism, -ship, -er, -or, -ist, -ess, -ing, -th, -age
Suffixes Productiveness
- tion: nation, derivation, station productive
- dom: kingdom, freedom -
- ness: homelessness, loneliness productive
- ism: criticism, terrorism productive
- ship: friendship, scholarship -
- er: worker, teacher, lawyer productive
- or: actor, professor, vendor productive
- ist: impressionist, specialist productive
- ess: lioness -
- ing: wedding, functioning productive
- th: sixth, eighth -
- age: leakage, advatantage -

E 2. State the origin and explain the meaning of the suffixes in the following words
Childhood, friendship, freedom, toward, backward, brotherly, rider, granny, teacher, aunty,
hierling, village, hindrance, drunkard, limitation, reinforcement, cheerfulness.
1. Native suffixes:
- hood: state or quality of , condition
- ship: state or quality of , condition
- dom: condition or state of
- ward: in the direction of
- ly: in the way mantioned, having the quality of
- er: denoting agent, residence of, device
- y: full of, having quality of
- ing: denoting agent, action, fact
- ness: the quality, state or charater of
- ard: having the quality
2. Borrowing suffixes:
- age: action or result of action (Latin)
- ance: state or charater (Latin)
- ion: action or process (Latin)
- ment: action, process (Latin)

E 3. Give adjectives or adverbs with the following suffixes:

- y: sleepy, cloudy, sunny, windy
- ed: talented, interested
- ward: backward, onward, upward
- long: age-long
- wise: clockwise, likewise
- ly: windy, manly, brotherly, slowly

E 4. Give verbs with the following suffixes:

- ize: legalize, civilize, industrialize

16
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

- en: lengthen, darken, widen

- fy: clarify, testify, modify
- ish: poverish, publish, polish
- ate: generate, activate, demenstrate

E 5. Form some adjectives from noun stems by adding the suffix ish. Explain the meaning of the
derivatives.
Child childish girl girlish baby babyish cat cattish
In this form, suffix ish is added to the noun to make the adjective have meaning similar to or
behave like. (use antonyms or synonyms to explain)

E 6. Form some adjectives from adjective stems by adding the suffix ish. Explain the meaning of
the derivatives.
Cool coolish red reddish yellow yellowish fool foolish
When suffix ish is added to adjective stem to make adjective it will add an depreciation to the
meaning of the stem.

E 7. Pick out the productive and non-productive prefixes:

Un-, be-, pre-, al-, non-, mis-, post-, a-, anti-, out-, ex-, for-, re-, up-, counter-, extra-, super-, dis,
trans-, inter-, ante-, ultra-, infra-, under-, intro-
Productive prefixes:
Un-: unhappy unhappily, uneasy uneasiness uneasily
Be-: beget begetter
Pre-: preheat preheating
Al-: allocate allocation, almighty almightily almightiness
Non-: non-productive non-productiveness
Mis-: misunderstand misunderstanding
Post-: postposition postpositional
A-: achromatic achromatize achromatism
Out-: outfight outfighting, outfit outfitter
Ex-: ex-service exserviceman
For-: forbidding forbiddingness
Re-: rearrange rearrangement
Up-: upland uplander
Super-: supercharge supercharger
Dis-: disable disability
Trans-: transact transaction
Inter-: interact interactive interaction
The rest in bold are non-productive prefixes.

E 7. Classify the following prefixes according to their origin:

Re-, under-, with-, in-, over-, trans-, anti-, a-, non-, pre-, de-, dis-, inter-, mis-, co-, ex-
Native prefixes: under-, with-, over-, a-, mis-
Borrowing prefixes: re-, in-, trans-, non-, pre-, de-, dis-, inter-, co-, ex- (Latin).
anti- (Greek)

IV.2. Composition compound

E 1. Arrange the compounds given below into grooups: idiomatic and non-idiomatic. Say whether
the semantic change within idiomatic compounds is partial or total.

Idiomatic
Non-idiomatic
Total change Partial change

17
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Light-hearted Homebody Medium-size

Butterfly Bluebell Wolf-dog
Tallboy Free-way Earthquake
Bluestocking Highway Looking-glass
Dragonfly Blackberry Necklace
Lazy-bone Greengrocer
Good-for-nothing

E 2. Identify the neutral compounds in the word combinations given below and write them out in
three columns: simple neutral compounds, neutral derived compounds and neutral contracted
compounds.

Simple neutral Neutral derived Neutral contracted

A cars windshield
A heavy topcoat
A snow-white handkerchief
A howl long and wolf-like
An air-conditioned hall To fight against H-bomb
A high pitched voice Big A.A. guns
Thoudsands of gold- To go into frantic U-turns
seekers To fix M-day
A lightish-colored man
A glass-walled room
A radio-equipped car
A big hunting-knife

E 3. Analyze the structure of the following words:

Get-at-table, undertaker, looking-glass, sea-coast, fountain-pen, stay-at-home, red-hot, will-to-
live, heart-broken, hairs breadth, birds eye, penny-a-liner, butter-fingers, mother-of-thousands,
sunfish, ladybird, no-longer-young, mother-in-law, non-stop-flight, up-to-date, gaslight, office-in-
charge, workday.
These above words are compounds, and they can be divided in to 3 groups according to
the structural aspects: neutral, morphological and syntactic compounds.
Neutral compounds Morphologica
Syntactic compounds
Simple Derived l compounds
Sea-coast, Undertaker, Get-at-table, stay-at-home, will-
fountain-pen, looking-glass, to-live, penny-a-liner, mother-of-
red-hot, sunfish, heart-broken, thousands, no-longer-young,
#
ladybird, hairs breadth, mother-in-law, non-stop-flight, up-
gaslight, birds eye, to-date, office-in-charge
workday butter-fingers

E 4. - Comment on the meaning and the form of the following compounds

- Compare the meaning of the compound with that of its components.
+ butterball, butterfinger: N + N, idiomatic, total change
buttermilk, butter-woman: N + N, idiomatic, partial change
+ dustman, motorman, milkman, fisherman, shipman, postman, oilman, woodman: N + N,
idiomatic, partial change
nobleman, madman: Adj + N, non-idiomatic.
+ craftsman, salesman, batsman, oarsman, kinsman, herdsman, statesman, sportsman: N + infix +
N, idiomatic, partial change.
+ pot-boy, stable-boy, post-boy, cowboy, doughboy: N + N, idiomatic, partial change.

18
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

+ ladybird, lady-in-waiting, lady-killer, lady-love: mixed up, idiomatic, total change.

+ hot-blooded, cold-blooded, thick-headed, woodened-headed, pig-headed: Adj + N_ed,
idiomatic, total change.
+ cross-eyed, eagle-eyed, sharp-eyed, single-eyed, wild-eyed, green-eyed (idiomatic, total
change), round-eyed: Adj + N_ed, idiomatic, partial change.
hollow-eyed, dim-eyed, sleepy-eyed: Adj + N_ed, non-idiomatic.
+ black-hearted, lion-hearted, stony-hearted, chicken-hearted, cold-hearted, light-hearted, cruel-
hearted: Adj + N_ed, idiomatic, total change.

E 5. Form as many compounds as possible, using the follwing stems as their first component:
Grass-, hand-, ink-, horse-, mother-, pack-, steam-, steel-
Grass-: grassroots, grasswidow, grasshopper
Hand-: handwriting, handicraft, handbag, handball, handbrake
Ink-: inkpot, inkbottle, inkpad, inkwell
Horse-: horsepower, horseback, horsebean, horse opera, horse race, horse-tail
Mother-: mother-in-law, mother-of-thousands, motherland, mother tongue, mother-to-be
Pack-: pack horse, pack saddle, pack job, pack rat, pack train
Steam-: steam engine, steam bath, steamturbine, steam jacket
Steel-: steelworker, steel band, steelhead

E 6. Form as many compounds as possible, using the following stems as their second
components:
-man, -berry,- woman, - boy,- room, -looking
-man: salesman, policeman, businessman, spokesman
-berry: blackberry, strawberry, cranberry
-woman: policewoman, businesswoman, chairwoman
-boy: pot-boy, cowboy, post-boy
-room: livingroom, bathroom, bedroom
-looking: good looking, forward-looking

IV.3. Words formed by special processes:

IV.3.1. Conversion:
E 1. State the relationships in conversion of the following words:
Noun Verb Relationship
- ape to ape
Nouns are the names of animals, verbs denote typical
- ass to ass
actions or behaviour.
- duck to duck
- fish to fish Try to catch fish
- eye to eye
N name of part of the human body, V an action
- finger to finger
performed by it.
- shoulder to shoulder
N name of place, V the process of occupying the
- top to top
place or of putting sth/ smb in it.
- dress to dress N name of container, V act of putting sth within the
- pocket to pocket container
- line to line
- square to square N name of symbol, V process of making it.
- star to star
- cork to cork N name of tool, V action performed by the tool.

E 2. Compare the meaning of the words in the bold type with that of the corresponding nouns.

19
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

- to head an army: means to lead the noun head part of body.

- to toe a mark: means to make or press
- to eye a foe: means to watch
- to chair a candidate: means to point
- to table a resolution: means to discuss
- to foot a stocking: means to wear
- to mind a command: means to notice
- to fish a compliment: means to try to get
- to stone a martyr: means to kill
- to dress a wound: means to cover or wear
the noun toe part of body.
the noun eye part of body.
the noun chair name of place.
the noun table name of place.
the noun foot part of body.
the noun mind part of body.
the noun fish name of animal.
the noun stone name of tool.
the noun dress name of container.

IV.3.2. Shortening
Write out in full the following shortened words. Define the type of shortening.
- N.C.O: Non Commissioned Officer acronym
- pub: public house ellipsis
- ad: advertisement final clipping
- fancy: fantasy contraction rhythm
- H-bomb: Hydrogen bomb initial abbreviation
- V-day: Victory day initial abbreviation
- USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics acronym
- UNO: United Nations Organizartion acronym
- UNESCO: United Nations Educational, acronym
Scientific and Cultural Organizaton
- mike: microphone shortening spoken language
- lab: laboratory final clipping
- FIFA: International Football Association acronym
(Fdration Internationale de Football Association)
- USA: United Nations of America acronym
- ml: millilitre acronym
- UFO: Unidentified Flying Object acronym
- TEFL: Teaching (of) English as a acronym
Foreign Language
- UEFA: Union of European Football Associations acronym

CHAPTER V. SEMANTICS MEANING

V.1. Metaphor
E 1. Pick out the metaphors from the following word combinations:
- a green bush, a green man, a green apple, green with envy.
- seeds of a plant, seeds of evil.
- a fruitful tree, fruitful work.
- a fruitless tree, a fruitless effort.
- the root of a tree, the root of a word.
- a blooming rose, blooming health.
- a fading or faded flower, fading or faded beauty.

E 2. What do we mean when we say a person is:

Like a fox, like a bull in a china shop?
- When we say a person like a fox, we mean he/she is a cunning or smart one and if we say
someone like a bull in a china shop we imply that he/she is a very careless person who always
break every thing.

20
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

V.2. Metonymy
E 1. Comment on the type and meaning of the following cases of metonymy:
- sandwich, mackintosh, boycott, hooligan: thing known by the name of person who brought it to
public/fashion.
- cheviot, madeira, champagne, bordeaux, Havana: geographical name is used for goods
originating from place where they are exceedingly numerous.

E 2. Discuss the following cases of metonymy:

- He is the hope of family: states and properties serve as names for objects and people possessing
them.
- She was the pride of her school: states and properties serve as names for objects and people
possessing them.
- I have never read Balzac in the original: common name derived from proper name.
- My sister is fond of old china: geographical name is used for goods originating from place
where they are exceedingly numerous.
- the coffee pot is boiling: symbol for thing symbolized instrument for the product.

CHAPTER VI. HOMONYMS

E 1. Find the homonyms proper for the following words:
- band: a company of musician band: a thin flat strip of cloth
- seal: a warm-blooded fish-eating animal seal: close
- ear: part of human body ear: plant part containing grain
- cut: the result of cutting cut: change scene
- to bore: to make a long round hole bore: to make somebody uninterested
- corn: a hard, horny thickening of the skin, esp. on the foot corn: a type of cereal
rd
- fall: the act of falling fall: autumn the 3 season in the year
- to hail: to greet hail: pellets of ice
- ray: a kind of fish ray: single line or narrow beam of light
- draw: something that attracts attention draw: finish with equal score (sports).

E 2. Find the homophones to the following words. Explain meaning in English.

- heir /e(r)/: person entiled to property air /e(r)/: mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
surrounding the earth.
- dye /dai/: substance used to change color of hair or cloth die /dai/: stop living.
- cent /sent/: common unit of currency scent /sent/: smell, perfume.
- tale /teil/: story tail /teil/: rear part of animal body.
- sun /sn/: star around which earth revolves son /sn/: boy in relation with parents.
- meat /mi:t/: edible animal flesh meet /mi:t/: to see another.
- steel /sti:l/: an alloy of iron and carbon steal /sti:l/: to take sth illegally.
- knight /nait/: honoured military man (hist) night /nait/: daily period of darkness.
- sum /sm/: total some /sm/: several.
- hare /he(r)/: mammal like rabbit hair /he(r)/: strands growing on the head or body.
- write /rait/: put words on paper with pen right /rait/: true, correct.
- sight /sait/: seeing site /sait/: place.

E 3. Find the homographs to the following words and transcribe both

- to bow /ba/: to bend the head of the body
bow /b/: looped knot
- wind /wind/: air in motion
wind /waind/: wrap sth with coil
- to tear /tr/: to pull apart by force

21
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

tear /ti/: single drop of fluid from eyes

- bear /bi/: a large, heavy animal
bear /be/: to carry, bring
- to dessert /diz:t/: to go away from a person or place
desert /dezt/: arid area
- row /r/: number of person or things in a line
to row /ra/: noisy quarrel.

CHAPTER VII. SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

VII.1. Synonyms
E 1. In the following groups of synonyms, find the synonymic dominant:
- exact, precise, accurate
- salvage, uncivilized, barbarous
- hide, conceal, disguise
- agree, approve, consent
- recall, recollect
- cry, weep, scream, sheirk
- clever, able, intelligent, keen, sharp
- uneducated, ignorant, illiterate, misinformed
- agile, nimble, alert, quick, brisk, active

E 2. Arrange the following synonyms according to their degree of intensity:

- ask, implore, beg
- longing, desire, wish
- wither, decay, fade
- handsome, pretty, beautiful
- irritate, annoy
- pierce, penetrate
- alarmed, frightened, terrified
- happiness, pleasure, delight
- affiction, despair, sadness
- astonishment, surprise, consternation
- excuse, pardon, forgive
- accident, disaster, misfortune
- malicious, naughty, nasty, wicked
- genius, capability, talent
ask beg implore
wish desire longing
fade wither decay
pretty handsome / beautiful
annoy irritate
penetrate pierce
fightened alarmed terrified
pleasure happiness delight
sadness dispare affiction
surprise astonishment consternation
excuse pardon forgive
misfortune accident disaster
naughty nasty malicious wicked
capability talent genius.

VII.2. Antonyms
E 1. Give antonyms to the following words. Arrange them in three columns: derivational
antonyms (eg. careful careless), absolute antonyms (eg. slow fast) and mixed (eg. correct
incorrect, wrong).

Alert, discord, alive, ugly, artless, appearance, assist, arrange, courage, attentive, descend, safety,
consistent, aware, convinent, competent, continue, preceding, correct, sufficent, frequent, distinct,
expensive, hostile, faithful, wet, enemy, temporary, legal, lower, kind, normal, painful, encourage.

Derivational antonyms Absolute antonyms Mixed antonyms

Artless artful Discord accord Aware unaware, ignorant
Appearance disappearance Alive dead Continue discontinue, stop
Attentive - inattentive Ugly beautiful Correct incorrect, wrong
Arrange disarrange Assist hinder Expensive inexpensive, cheap

22
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Descend ascend Courage cowardice Faithful faithless, disloyal

Consistent inconsistent
Convenient inconvenient
Competent incompetent
Sufficent insufficent
Frequent infrequent
Distinct indistinct
Legal illegal
Normal abnormal
Encourage - discourage
Safety danger Kind unkind, cruel
Preceding following Painful painless, pleasant
Hostile friendly
Wet dry
Enemy friend
Temporary permanent
Lower higher

E 2. Give derivational antonyms to the following words:

Just, justice, use (v), use (n), fortunate, fortune, grateful, like (v), like (adj), lovely, movable,
moved, related, relative.
Just unjust Like (v) dislike
Justice injustice Like (adj) anlike
Use (v) misuse Lovely unlovely
Use (n) disuse Movable immovable
Fortunate unfortunate Moved unmoved
Fortune misfortune Related unrelated
Grateful ungrateful Relative - irrelative

CHAPTER VIII. SET EXPRESSION - PHRASEOLOGY

E 1. Analyze the structure of the following phraseological units. Give Vietnamese equivalents.
1. It is the last straw that breaks the camels back.
Function like noun. N + that clause. Gi no t dy.
2. Can the loepard change his spots?
Sentence. nh cht ci nt khng cha
3. To put all ones eggs in one basket.
Function like verb. V + ones + N + preposition. c n c ng v khng.
4. Burnt child dreads the fire.
Sentence. Chim phi n s ln cy cong.
5. To set the Thames on fire.
Function like verb. V + N. Kinh thin ng a / Bn tri khng vn t.
6. It is not the grey coat that makes the gentleman.
Funtion like noun. N + that/ subordinate clause. Mc o c sa khng hn l s.
7. As well be hung for a sheep as for a lamb.
Function like Adj. As + adj + as + N. m lao th phi theo lao / trt th trt.
8. To let no grass grow under ones feet.
Function like verb. V + N. ng nc n chan mi nhy.
9. To give somebody a piece of ones mind.
Function like verb. V + N. Mng cho mt trn / Thng thn ph bnh.
10. A stitch in times saves nine.
Sentence. Dit c dit tn gc / Nh c nh c gc.
11. The game is not worth the candle.
Sentence. Li bt cp hi / Thu khng chi.
12. To look for a needle in a bottle of hay.
Function like verb. V + postpositive. M kim y b.
13. A skeleton in the cupboard.
Funtcion like noun. N + preposition + N. p tt ph ra, xu xa y li.
14. To have a finger in the pie.

23
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

Function like verb. V + N + preposition. Dy mu n phn.

15. To skate on thin ice.
Function like verb. V + postpositve. Liu lnh / D gy st m.
16. He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet.
Sentence. Mun n th ln vo bp.
17. To bring water to someones mouth.
Function like verb. V + N + preposition. M ming mo.
18. Like fish out of water.
Function like noun. N + preposition + N. Nh c mc cn / Chim chch vo rng.
19. To take the bull by the horns.
Function like verb. V + N + preposition. ng mi chu so.
20. To let the cat out of the bag.
Funtion like verb. V + N + preposition. l b mt / Ci kim trong bc lu ngy cng li
ra / Giu u h ui.
21. A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
Sentence. Ch th mi bt bng.
22. Like a cat on hot bricks.
Function like noun. N + preposition + N. Bn chn / Lo lng / Nh ngi trn ng la.
23. Once bitten twice shy.
Funtion like verb. V + N. Phi mt ci th vi n gi.
24. On the horns of dilemma.
Function like adj. Preposition + N. Tin thoi lng nan.
25. Beauty is only the skin deep.
Sentence. Tt g hn tt nc sn / Ci nt nh cht ci p.
26. Better luck next time.
Function like adj. Adj + N. Thua keo ny by keo khc.
27. A big fish in little pond. (In the kingdom of the blind, one-eyed man is the king)
Sentence. Thng cht lm vua s m
28. A game that two can play, two can play at that game.
Sentence. Gy ng p lng ng.
29. Give the game away.
Function like verb. V + N. Tit l b mt.
30. The devil looks after his own.
Sentence. Mo m v c rn.
31. Where there is a will, there is a way.
Sentence. C ch th nn / C cng mi st c ngy nn kim.
32. To be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth.
Sentence. Sng t trong trng nc.
33. Necessity is the mother of invention.
Sentence. Ci kh l ci khn.
34. One good turn deserves another.
Sentence. hin gp lnh.
35. The worm will turn.
Sentence. Con giun xo mi cng qun.
36. Play it by ear.
Function like verb. V + N. Tu c ng bin
37. Fish in trouble water.
Function like noun. N + preposition + N. c nc bo c / Tha nc c th cu.
38. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
Sentence. Lm thy nhiu ma / Lm si khng ai ng ca cha.
39. Two heads are better than one.
Sentence. Mt cy lm chng nn non, Ba cy chm li nn hn ni cao .

24
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

40. Heap coals of fire on somebodys head.

Function like verb. V + N. Ly on tr n / Gp la b tay ngi.
41. The devil makes work for idle hands.
Sentence. Nhn c vi bt thin.
42. To talk of the devil and he will appear.
Function like verb. V + postpositive. Nhc ti To Tho th To Tho n.

E 2. Explain whether the semantic change in the following phraseological units are complete or
partial.
1. Cast pearls before swine.
Complete change. n gy tai tru.
2. Go on a fools errand.
Complete change. C ting m khng c ming.
3. To eat humber pie.
Partial change. Ngm b hn lm ngt / Nm mt nm gai.
4. To be in the same boat.
Partial change. Cng hi cng thuyn.
5. Tell it to the marine.
Complete change. Ni cho ma nghe.
6. To stick to ones gun.
Partial change. Gi vng lp trng.
7. To beat about the bush.
Partial change. Vng vo tam quc.
8. To throw cold water on smb.
Partial change. Di go nc lnh.
9. To pour oil on fire.
Partial change. thm du vo la.
10. Like father, like sun.
Partial change. Cha no con ny.

E 3. Complete the following phrases so that they make English proverbs and phraseological
units.
1. a bird in hand
A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. Ch th mi bt bng.
2. the devil makes work
The devil makes work for idle hands. Nhn c vi bt thin.
3. kill two birds
Kill two birds with one stones. Mt mi tn trng hai ch.
4. theres no fool
Theres no fool like an old fool. Chng c ci di no nh ci di no.
5. to eat ones cake
To eat ones cake and have it. Vn c i ng.
6. the die
The die is cast. Bt sa g cht.
7. the early bird
The early bird catches the worm. Tru chm ung nc c.
8. between the cup and the lip
There is a many slips between the cup and the lip. Ming n n ming cn ri mt.
9. the cap
If the cap fits, wear it. C tt git mnh.
10. spilt milk
Its no use crying over spilt milk. Thi ng tic r con g qu tha.

25
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

E 4. Complete the following similes, using words from the list below.
a ditch-water, a post, a bear, day, nails, thieves, fiddles, bee, egg, bat, brass, fish, needle, gun,
grave.
1. as dull as As dull as a ditch-water. (Nht nh nc c)
2. as fit as As fit as a fiddle. (Kho nh vm)
3. as sharp as As sharp as a needle. (Sc nh dao)
4. as surly as As surly as a bear. (Gt nh mm tm)
5. as silent as As silent as grave. (Kn nh bng / Lng nh t)
6. as deaf as As deaf as a post. (ic c ic li)
7. as mute as As mute as a fish. (Cm nh hn)
8. as clear as As clear as day. (R nh ban ngy)
9. as thick as As thick as thieves. (n / Ho hp)
10. as busy as As busy as a bee. (Bn rn)
11. as sure as As sure as a gun. (Chc nh inh ng ct)
12. as bold as As bold as brass. (Tr tro nh go mc du / Mt dy my dn)
13. as full as As full as an egg. (Cht nh nm)
14. as hard as As hard as nails. (Cng nhc)
15. as blind as As blind as bat. (M tt)

E 5. Compare the meaning of the expressions given in the two columns below. State which of them
are phraseological.
# Phraseological units
1. to have fling at smb/sth: speak in a
To have ones fling: to be a playboy.
ironical voice.
To lose ones heart to smb: to fall in love
2. to lose heart: to be cowardice.
with smb.
3. to take care: careful. To take care of : to look after, mind.
4. to have a word with: to talk to smb. To have words with smb: quarrel with smb.
5. in a family way: natural. In the family way: to be pregnant.
6. in and out: to go in and out. Ins and outs: specific.
7. a matter of fact: an obvious thing. As a matter of fact: obvious.
8. before long: not long. Long before: very long.
9. behind time: late. Behind the times: backward.
10. nothing in common: different. Nothing out of common: exactly the same.

E 6. Translate the following proverbs and idioms into English:

1. Trng i khn hn vt.
To teach ones grandmother to suck eggs.
2. Khu pht tm x.
A woft in a sheeps clothing.
3. Trnh v da gp v da.
Out of the frying pan into the fire.
4. Vng ch nh g vc niu tm.
When the cats away, the mice will play.
5. Liu cm gp mm.
To cut ones coat according to ones cloths.
6. V qut dy c mng tay nhn.
Diamond cuts diamond / To set a thief to catch a thief.

26
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

7. ng ni ny trng ni n.
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence/hill.
8. Ch ma ru qua mt th.
Never offer to teach fish to swim.
9. Nc u vt.
Like water off a ducks back.
10. D trng xe ct.
To build castle in the air.
11. Yu cho n cho vt, ght cho n cho chi.
To spare the rat spoil the child.
12. Ch th mi bt bng.
A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
13. Ngu tm ngu m tm m.
Birds of a feather flock together.
14. Mt git mu o hn ao nc l.
Blood is thicker than water.
15. Cm n chy trc t.
To put the cart before the horse.

E 7. Give as many phraseological units as possible, using the followingwords:

a. to beat, to catch, to draw, to keep.
To beat:
- to beat about: khuy.
- to beat ones brain: vt c suy ngh.
- to beat about the bush: vng vo tam quc.
- to beat up: nh cho nh t.
- to beat it: go way.
To catch:
- to catch ones meaning: hiu .
- to catch out: tm thy im yu.
- to catch up: bt kp.
To draw:
- to draw back: rt lui.
- to draw in ones horns: mt t tin.
- to draw out: gng hi.
- to draw ones last breath: trt hi th cui cng.
To keep:
- to keep way: xa, trnh xa.
- to keep smb add some words: bt ai lm g.
- to keep up: duy tr, tip tc.
- to keep an eye on: mt n, .

b. bone, mind
Bone:
- to be on ones bone: tng qun.
- to be bred in the bone: ngm su vo mu.
Mind:
- to cause smb to mind: nh li.
- to keep ones mind on doing sth: ch lm g.
- to change ones mind: thay i kin.

------------------The End-----------------

27
See more documents at http://www.soflstudent.weebly.com

28