MANGROVE INDONESIA: Berkas fakta: Kekayaan

nasional dalam ancaman

Mangrove merupakan lumbung besar penyimpan karbon. Bagi Indonesia,
mangrove merupakan kartu negosiasi penting dalam menghadapi
perundingan perubahan iklim di Paris, Desember 2015, demikian arahan
dari riset terbaru Pusat Penelitian Kehutanan Internasional (CIFOR).

Berikut ini adalah fakta-fakta penting tentang pentingnya mangrove,

sebagai berikut:

Indonesia memiliki salah satu wilayah hutan mangrove luas di

dunia
1. Sekitar 3 juta hektare hutan mangrove tumbuh di sepanjang 95.000
kilometer pesisir Indonesia. Jumlah ini mewakili 23% dari keseluruhan
ekosistem mangrove dunia (Giri et al., 2011).
2. Hutan mangrove ditemukan di banyak wilayah Indonesia, dan ekosistem
mangrove regional penting ada di Papua, Kalimantan dan Sumatera
(FAO, 2007).
3. Tinggi pohon mangrove di Indonesia dapat mencapai 50 meter.
Kelompok pohonnya padat, dengan akar berkelindan keluar dari batang
pohon. Ketika laut pasang, hutan mangrove dibanjiri oleh air. Dan saat
laut surut, lumpur tebal melapisi permukaan mangrove, menyimpan
material organik yang sangat kaya (FAO, 2007).

Mangrove Indonesia merupakan salah satu hutan kaya karbon

dunia
1. Hutan mangrove merupakan hutan dengan kandungan karbon terpadat
di wilayah tropis. Lahan ini menyimpan lebih dari tiga kali rata-rata
karbon per hektar hutan tropis daratan (Donato et al., 2011).
2. Hutan mangrove Indonesia menyimpan lima kali karbon lebih banyak
per hektare dibandingkan dengan hutan tropis dataran tinggi
(Murdiyarso et al., 2015).
3. Mangroves berkontribusi terhadap 10-15% sedimen simpanan karbon
pesisir sementara di wilayah pesisir global hanya menyumbang 0,5%
(Alongi, 2014).
4. Mangrove Indonesia menyimpan 3,14 miliar metrik ton karbon (PgC)
(Murdiyarso et al., 2015). Jumlah ini mencakup sepertiga stok karbon
pesisir global (Pendleton et al., 2012).
5. Permukaan bawah ekosistem mangrove Indonesia menyimpan sejumlah
besar karbon: 78% karbon disimpan di dalam tanah, 20% karbon
disimpan di pohon hidup, akar atau biomassa, dan 2% disimpan di
pohon mati atau tumbang (Murdiyarso et al., 2015).

Mangrove Indonesia memainkan peran signifikan dalam strategi

mitigasi perubahan iklim nasional dan global.
1. Dalam tiga dekade terakhir, Indonesia kehilangan 40% mangrove (FAO,
2007). Artinya, Indonesia memiliki kecepatan kerusakan mangrove
terbesar di dunia (Campbell & Brown, 2015).
2. Deforestasi mangrove Indonesia terhitung sebesar 6% dari total
kehilangan hutan tahunan, meskipun hanya menutupi kurang dari 2%
total wilayah hutan negara. Jumlah ini setara 0,05 juta hektare (Mha)
dari total 0,84 Mha deforestasi tahunan di Indonesia (Margono et al.,
2014; Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia, 2014).
3. Deforestasi mangrove di Indonesia mengakibatkan hilangnya 190 juta
metrik ton CO2 setara tiap tahun (eqanually). Angka ini menyumbang
20% emisi penggunaan lahan di Indonesia (Murdiyarso et al., 2015)
dengan estimasi emisi sebesar 700 juta metrik ton CO2 eq
(Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup Republik Indonesia, 2010).
4. Dengan mencegah deforestasi mangrove, Indonesia dapat memenuhi
seperempat dari 26% target reduksi emisi pada 2020 (Murdiyarso et al.,
2015).
5. Hilangnya hutan mangrove di Indonesia menyumbang 42% emisi gas
rumah kaca akibat rusaknya ekosistem pesisir, termasuk rawa,
mangrove dan rumput laut (Murdiyarso et al., 2015; Pendleton et al.,
2012).

Mangrove di Indonesia terancam oleh revolusi biru

1. Penyebab utama hilangnya mangrove di Indonesia termasuk akibat
konversi tambak udang yang dikenal sebagai revolusi biru (Sumatra,
Sulawesi dan Jawa Timur), penebangan dan konversi lahan untuk
pertanian atau tambak garam (Jawa dan Sulawesi) serta degradasi
akibat tumpahan minyak dan polusi (Kalimantan Timur) (FAO, 2007).
2. Pada 2013, pemasukan dari ekspor udang Indonesia mencapai 1,5 miliar
dolar AS; hampir 40% total pemasukan sektor perikanan Indonesia
(Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2014)

Hutan mangrove di Indonesia memberi manfaat bagi masyarakat

lokal sebagai penyangga mata pencaharian
1. Masyarakat lokal memanen udang, belut, kerang, kepiting, siput laut
dan beragam spesies ikan dari ekosistem mangrove, memberikan
penghasilan maupun pangan bagi keluarga (Armitage, 2002).
2. Masyarakat lokal memanfaatkan hutan mangrove untuk kayu bakar,
material bangunan, termasuk pilar rumah dan furnitur (Armitage, 2002).
3. Nelayan memanfaatkan produk hutan mangrove untuk membuat
jangkar, sendi penyeimbang perahu, dan pewarna jaring ikan (Armitage,
2002).
4. Kayu mangrove dijual untuk bisnis bubur kertas, selain produksi arang,
keping kayu dan kayu bakar. Produk-produk tersebut dipanen pada skala
kecil dan besar, berkontribusi bagi penghidupan lokal dan ekspor
nasional (Evans, 2013).
5. Manfaat nyata dari sistem mangrove termasuk juga fungsi sosial dan
budaya. Hutan mangrove menyokong nilai religi dan spiritual, selain
nilai estetis dan rekreasi untuk ekowisata (UNEP, 2014)

Mangrove menyokong spektrum luas jasa ekosistem.

1. Mangrove menyangga spektrum luas ekosistem sekitar, termasuk gugus
karang, padang lamun, hamparan lumpur dan pasir (UNEP, 2014).
2. Fungsi lingkungan ekosistem mangrove meliputi suplai dan regenerasi
nutrisi, daur ulang polutan, siklus air dan menjaga kualitas air
(Ruitenbeek, 1994).
3. Mangrove menyediakan pertahanan penting melawan erosi pesisir. Akar
mengingat lapisan tanah dan mengubah aliran air, mencegah hilangnya
sedimen dari garis pesisir (UNEP, 2014).
4. Hutan mangrove membantu mengurangi dampak terjangan badai,
gelombang besar, dan tiupan angin dari siklon tropis. Pepohonan
mangrove mengurangi energi gelombang saat melalui hutan mangrove,
dan menjadi penghalang antara gelombang dan lahan (UNEP, 2014).

Mangrove merupakan habitat bagi spesies laut dan darat

1. Di bawah air, hutan mangrove menjadi lahan bertelur dan berkembang
biak ikan dan spesies laut. Akar dan lapisan lunak di bawah pohon
memberi pangan, naungan dan perlindungan dari predasi (UNEP, 2014).
2. Di atas permukaan air, pohon dan kanopi mangrove merupakan habitat
bagi burung, serangga, mamalia dan reptil. Mangrove adalah habitat
utama Bekantan yang terancam punah, ditemukan di Indonesia dan
binatang endemi Borneo (Mangrove Action Project, 2015).

Reference
Alongi, D.M., Murdiyarso, D., Fourqurean, J.W., Kauffman, J.B. et al. 2015.
Indonesias blue carbon: A globally significant and vulnerable sink for
seagrass and mangrove carbon. Wetlands Ecology and Management.
Submitted.
Alongi, D. M. (2014). Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests.
Annual review of marine science, 6, 195-219.
Armitage, D. (2002). Socio-institutional dynamics and the political ecology
of mangrove forest conservation in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Global Environmental Change, 12(3), 203-217.
Campbell, A., & Brown, B. (2015). Indonesias vast mangroves are a
treasure worth saving. The Conversation. from
http://theconversation.com/indonesias-vast-mangroves-are-a-
treasure-worth-saving-39367
Donato, D. C., Kauffman, J. B., Murdiyarso, D., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M., &
Kanninen, M. (2011). Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests
in the tropics. Nature Geoscience, 4(5), 293-297.
Evans, K. (2013). Could sustainable logging save Indonesias mangroves?
Forest News: A blog by the Center for International Forestry Research.
from http://blog.cifor.org/14229/could-sustainable-logging-save-
indonesias-mangroves#.VZIkIlxTDhI
FAO. (2007). The worlds mangroves 1980-2005. Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L. L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., . . .
Duke, N. (2011). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the
world using earth observation satellite data. Global Ecology and
Biogeography, 20(1), 154-159.
Mangrove Action Project. (2015). Endangered Specied Associated with
Mangroves. from http://mangroveactionproject.org/endangered-
species/
Margono, B. A., Potapov, P. V., Turubanova, S., Stolle, F., & Hansen, M. C.
(2014). Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000-2012. Nature
Climate Change.
Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia. (2010). Indonesia second
national communication under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. Jakarta.
Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia. (2014). Recalculation of
Indonesias land cover in 2013 (in Indonesian): Direktorat Jenderal
Planalogi Kehutanan.
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fishery. (2014). Export of Fishery Products.
Retrieved 8 July, 2015, from http://statistik.kkp.go.id
Murdiyarso, D., Purbopuspito, J., Kauffman, J. B., Warren, M., Sasmito, S.,
Donato, D., . . . Kurnianto, S. (2015). The potential of Indonesian
mangrove forests for global climate change mitigation. Nature
Climate Change. Vol.5, DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE2734.
Nagelkerken, I., Blaber, S., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood, M., Kirton,
L., . . . Sasekumar, A. (2008). The habitat function of mangroves for
terrestrial and marine fauna: a review. Aquatic Botany, 89(2), 155-
185.
Pendleton, L. Donato, D.C., Murray, B.C.et al. (2012) Estimating global
Blue Carbon emissions from conversion and degradation of
vegetated coastal ecosystems. PLoS ONE 7 (9):e43542.
Ruitenbeek, H. (1994). Modelling economy-ecology linkages in mangroves:
Economic evidence for promoting conservation in Bintuni Bay,
Indonesia. Ecological Economics, 10, 233-247.
UNEP. (2014). Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action: United
Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring
Centre, Cambridge.

The potential of Indonesian mangrove forests for global climate change

mitigation

Daniel Murdiyarso et al
Nature Climate Change 5, 10891092 (2015) doi:10.1038/nclimate2734
Received 08 October 2014 Accepted 25 June 2015 Published online 27 July
2015

Mangroves provide a wide range of ecosystem services, including nutrient

cycling, soil formation, wood production, fish spawning grounds,
ecotourism and carbon (C) storage1. High rates of tree and plant growth,
coupled with anaerobic, water-logged soils that slow decomposition, result
in large long-term C storage. Given their global significance as large sinks
of C, preventing mangrove loss would be an effective climate change
adaptation and mitigation strategy. It has been reported that C stocks in
the Indo-Pacific region contain on average 1,023 MgC ha1 (ref. 2). Here,
we estimate that Indonesian mangrove C stocks are 1,083 378 MgC
ha1. Scaled up to the country-level mangrove extent of 2.9 Mha (ref. 3),
Indonesias mangroves contained on average 3.14 PgC. In three decades
Indonesia has lost 40% of its mangroves4, mainly as a result of
aquaculture development5. This has resulted in annual emissions of 0.07
0.21 Pg CO2e. Annual mangrove deforestation in Indonesia is only 6% of
its total forest loss6; however, if this were halted, total emissions would be
reduced by an amount equal to 1031% of estimated annual emissions
from land-use sectors at present. Conservation of carbon-rich mangroves
in the Indonesian archipelago should be a high-priority component of
strategies to mitigate climate change.

Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics

Daniel C. Donato1, et al
Nature Geoscience 4, 293297 (2011) doi:10.1038/ngeo1123

Mangrove forests occur along ocean coastlines throughout the tropics, and
support numerous ecosystem services, including fisheries production and
nutrient cycling. However, the areal extent of mangrove forests has
declined by 3050% over the past half century as a result of coastal
development, aquaculture expansion and over-harvesting1, 2, 3, 4. Carbon
emissions resulting from mangrove loss are uncertain, owing in part to a
lack of broad-scale data on the amount of carbon stored in these
ecosystems, particularly below ground5. Here, we quantified whole-
ecosystem carbon storage by measuring tree and dead wood biomass, soil
carbon content, and soil depth in 25 mangrove forests across a broad area
of the Indo-Pacific regionspanning 30 of latitude and 73 of longitude
where mangrove area and diversity are greatest4, 6. These data indicate
that mangroves are among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics,
containing on average 1,023Mg carbon per hectare. Organic-rich soils
ranged from 0.5m to more than 3m in depth and accounted for 4998% of
carbon storage in these systems. Combining our data with other published
information, we estimate that mangrove deforestation generates
emissions of 0.020.12Pg carbon per yearas much as around 10% of
emissions from deforestation globally, despite accounting for just 0.7% of
tropical forest area6, 7.

Threats to mangroves from climate change and adaptation

options: A review

Eric L. Gilmana, , , Joanna Ellisonb, , Norman C. Dukec, , Colin Fieldd,

Aquatic Botany
Volume 89, Issue 2, August 2008, Pages 237250
Abstract
Mangrove ecosystems are threatened by climate change. We review the
state of knowledge of mangrove vulnerability and responses to predicted
climate change and consider adaptation options. Based on available
evidence, of all the climate change outcomes, relative sea-level rise may
be the greatest threat to mangroves. Most mangrove sediment surface
elevations are not keeping pace with sea-level rise, although longer term
studies from a larger number of regions are needed. Rising sea-level will
have the greatest impact on mangroves experiencing net lowering in
sediment elevation, where there is limited area for landward migration.
The Pacific Islands mangroves have been demonstrated to be at high risk
of substantial reductions. There is less certainty over other climate change
outcomes and mangrove responses. More research is needed on
assessment methods and standard indicators of change in response to
effects from climate change, while regional monitoring networks are
needed to observe these responses to enable educated adaptation.
Adaptation measures can offset anticipated mangrove losses and improve
resistance and resilience to climate change. Coastal planning can adapt to
facilitate mangrove migration with sea-level rise. Management of activities
within the catchment that affect long-term trends in the mangrove
sediment elevation, better management of other stressors on mangroves,
rehabilitation of degraded mangrove areas, and increases in systems of
strategically designed protected area networks that include mangroves
and functionally linked ecosystems through representation, replication and
refugia, are additional adaptation options.

Mangroves are among the worlds most productive ecosystems, producing

a wide range of goods and environmental services. If sustainably
managed, mangrove ecosystems can support the livelihoods of millions of
coastal-dwelling people while storing globally significant quantities of
carbon. But the area of mangrove forests is decreasing in many tropical
countries due to poor management and rapid development. (CIFOR
2017)

Policy challenges and approaches for the conservation of mangrove forests

in Southeast Asia
Authors: Friess, D.A
Publication Year: 2016
ISSN: 1523-1739
Source: Conservation Biology 30(5): 933-949
DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12784

Many drivers of mangrove forest loss operate over large scales and are
most effectively addressed by policy interventions. However, conflicting or
unclear policy objectives exist at multiple tiers of government, resulting in
contradictory management decisions. To address this, we considered 4
approaches that are being used increasingly or could be deployed in
Southeast Asia to ensure sustainable livelihoods and biodiversity
conservation. First, a stronger incorporation of mangroves into marine
protected areas (MPAs) (that currently focus largely on reefs and fisheries)
could resolve some policy conflicts and ensure that mangroves do not fall
through a policy gap. Second, examples of community and government
co-management exist, but achieving co-management at scale will be
important in reconciling stakeholders and addressing conflicting policy
objectives. Third, private-sector initiatives could protect mangroves
through existing and novel mechanisms in degraded areas and areas
under future threat. Finally, payments for ecosystem services (PES) hold
great promise for mangrove conservation; REDD-style carbon schemes
(known as blue carbon) are attracting attention. Although barriers remain
to the implementation of PES, the potential to implement them at multiple
scales exists. Closing the gap between mangrove conservation policies
and action is crucial to the improved protection and management of this
imperilled coastal ecosystem and to the livelihoods that depend on them.

Mangroves: A global treasure under threat

Indonesia contains the largest area of mangrove forest in the

world
Indonesia - About 3 million hectares of mangrove forest grow along
Indonesias 95,000 km coastline. This is 23 percent of all mangrove
ecosystems in the world (Giri et al., 2011).

Mangrove forests are found in many parts of Indonesia, with regionally

important mangrove ecosystems located in Papua, Kalimantan and
Sumatra (FAO, 2007).

Mangrove trees in Indonesia can reach up to 50 metres in height. They are

densely packed, with intertwined roots extending from the tree trunks.
During the high tide, mangrove forests are flooded. During low tide, the
ground is a layer of dense mud, with soil containing high levels of organic
materials (FAO, 2007).

Indonesias mangroves are among the most carbon-rich forests in

the world

Mangrove forests are the most carbon-dense forests in the tropics. They
contain more than three times as much mean carbon per hectare as land
based tropical forests (Donato et al., 2011).

Indonesias mangrove forests contain more than five times as much mean
carbon per hectare as its upland tropical forests (Murdiyarso et al., 2015).

Mangroves contribute 10-15 percent of coastal sediment carbon storage

despite making up only 0.5 percent of the global coastal area (Alongi,
2014).

Indonesias mangroves contain 3.14 billion metric tonnes of carbon (PgC)

(Murdiyarso et al., 2015). This is one third of global coastal carbon stocks
(Pendleton et al., 2012).

Mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia store large amounts of carbon below

the ground: 78 percent of carbon in mangrove systems in Indonesia is
stored in the soil, 20 percent of carbon is stored in living trees, roots or
biomass, and 2 percent is stored in dead or downed wood (Murdiyarso et
al., 2015).

Indonesias mangroves can play a significant role in national and

global climate change mitigation strategies

Over the past three decades, Indonesia has lost 40 percent of its
mangroves (FAO, 2007). This means Indonesia has the fastest rate of
mangrove destruction in the world (Campbell & Brown, 2015).

Mangrove deforestation accounts for 6 percent of total annual forest loss

in Indonesia, despite covering less than 2 percent of the countrys total
forest area. This equates to 0.05 million hectares (Mha) out of the total
0.84 Mha annual deforestation in Indonesia (Margono et al., 2014; Ministry
of Forestry Republic of Indonesia, 2014).

Cut emissions, not mangroves: Indonesias best hope for slowing

climate change
Mangrove deforestation in Indonesia results in a loss of 190 million metric
tonnes of CO2 annually. This accounts for 20 percent of land-use emissions
in Indonesia (Murdiyarso et al., 2015) where emissions are estimated to be
700 million metric tonnes of CO2-eq (Ministry of Environment Republic of
Indonesia, 2010).

By avoiding mangrove deforestation, Indonesia could reach a quarter of its

emissions reduction target of 26 percent by 2020 (Murdiyarso et al.,
2015).

The loss of mangrove forests in Indonesia contributes to 42 percent of the

global greenhouse gas emissions from the destruction of coastal
ecosystems, including marshes, mangroves and sea grass (Murdiyarso et
al., 2015; Pendleton et al., 2012).

Mangroves in Indonesia are threatened by the blue revolution

The main causes of mangrove loss in Indonesia include conversion to

shrimp ponds known as the blue revolution (Sumatra, Sulawesi and East
Java), logging and conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and
Sulawesi) and degradation due to oil spills and pollution (East Kalimantan)
(FAO, 2007).

In 2013, Indonesias revenue from shrimp export approached USD 1.5

billion; almost 40 percent of the total revenue from the Indonesian fishery
sector (Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fishery, 2014)

Mangrove forests in Indonesia provide benefits to local

communities and support livelihoods

Local communities harvest shrimp, eel, clam, crab, sea snail and a variety
of fish species from mangrove ecosystems, providing both income and
food for families (Armitage, 2002).

Local communities use mangrove forests for firewood and construction

materials, including beams for building houses and furniture (Armitage,
2002).

Fishers use products from mangrove forests to make anchors for boats,
joints for boat stabilizers, and dye for fishing nets (Armitage, 2002).

Mangrove wood is sold for the paper pulp business, as well as for charcoal
production, wood chips and firewood. These products are harvested at
both small and large scales, contributing to local livelihoods and national
exports (Evans, 2013).

Intangible benefits of mangrove ecosystems include social and cultural

functions. Mangrove forests support religious and spiritual values, as well
as recreational and aesthetic values for ecotourism (UNEP, 2014).
Mangroves support a wide range of ecosystem services

Mangroves provide support to a wide range of neighboring ecosystems,

including coral reefs, seagrass beds, mud flats and sand flats (UNEP,
2014).

Environmental functions of mangrove ecosystems include nutrient supply

and regeneration, recycling of pollutants, water cycling and the
maintenance of water quality (Ruitenbeek, 1994).

Mangroves provide habitats for marine and terrestrial species

Below the water, mangrove forests serve as breeding and nursing grounds
for fish and marine species. The roots and the soft layer beneath the trees
provide food, shelter and protection from predation (Nagelkerken et al.,
2008).
Above the water, the mangrove trees and canopy serve as a habitat for
birds, insects, mammals and reptiles. Mangroves are the main habitat for
the endangered Proboscis Monkey, found in Indonesia and endemic to
Borneo (Mangrove Action Project, 2015).

REFERENCES

Alongi, D. M. (2014). Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests. Annual

review of marine science, 6, 195-219.
Armitage, D. (2002). Socio-institutional dynamics and the political ecology of
mangrove forest conservation in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Global
Environmental Change, 12(3), 203-217.
Campbell, A., & Brown, B. (2015). Indonesias vast mangroves are a treasure
worth saving. The Conversation. from
http://theconversation.com/indonesias-vast-mangroves-are-a-treasure-
worth-saving-39367
Donato, D. C., Kauffman, J. B., Murdiyarso, D., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M., &
Kanninen, M. (2011). Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the
tropics. Nature Geoscience, 4(5), 293-297.
Evans, K. (2013). Could sustainable logging save Indonesias mangroves? Forest
News: A blog by the Center for International Forestry Research. from
http://blog.cifor.org/14229/could-sustainable-logging-save-indonesias-
mangroves#.VZIkIlxTDhI
FAO. (2007). The worlds mangroves 1980-2005. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L. L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., . . . Duke, N.
(2011). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth
observation satellite data. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20(1), 154-
159.
Mangrove Action Project. (2015). Endangered Specied Associated with
Mangroves. from http://mangroveactionproject.org/endangered-species/
Margono, B. A., Potapov, P. V., Turubanova, S., Stolle, F., & Hansen, M. C. (2014).
Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000-2012. Nature Climate
Change.
Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia. (2010). Indonesia second national
communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change. Jakarta.
Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia. (2014). Recalculation of Indonesias
land cover in 2013 (in Indonesian): Direktorat Jenderal Planalogi Kehutanan.
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fishery. (2014). Export of Fishery Products.
Retrieved 8 July, 2015, from http://statistik.kkp.go.id
Murdiyarso, D., Purbopuspito, J., Kauffman, J. B., Warren, M., Sasmito, S., Donato,
D., . . . Kurnianto, S. (2015). The potential of Indonesian mangrove forests
for global climate change mitigation. Nature Climate Change. Vol.5, DOI:
10.1038/NCLIMATE2734
Nagelkerken, I., Blaber, S., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood, M., Kirton, L., . . .
Sasekumar, A. (2008). The habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and
marine fauna: a review. Aquatic Botany, 89(2), 155-185.
Pendleton, L. Donato, D.C., Murray, B.C. et al. (2012) Estimating global Blue
Carbon emissions from conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal
ecosystems. PLoS ONE 7 (9):e43542.
Ruitenbeek, H. (1994). Modelling economy-ecology linkages in mangroves:
Economic evidence for promoting conservation in Bintuni Bay, Indonesia.
Ecological Economics, 10, 233-247.
UNEP. (2014). Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action: United
Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Cambridge.

Indonesias best hope for slowing climate change

28 Jul 2015
http://blog.cifor.org/31112?
utm_source=Mangroves+July+2015&utm_medium=Email&utm_campaign=
CIFOR+Media+advisories

Indonesian mangroves store some 3.14 billion tonnes of carbon so preserving

them could help the country slash emissions.

Indonesia - Indonesias mangroves are a massive storehouse of carbon and a key

bargaining chip for the country in the upcoming climate change negotiations
in Paris, according to the authors of a new study published in Nature Climate
Change.

Indonesian policymakers should see protecting and sustainably managing

mangroves as a potential solution for climate change mitigation, says
Daniel Murdiyarso, the studys lead author and a principal scientist at the
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).

But to make progress, it is crucial that mangroves are protected and managed
sustainably.
Large areas of Indonesias mangroves have been cleared in recent decades, but
theres perhaps never been a better time nor such stark political
motivation to change this dynamic.

The new study builds on previous findings that mangroves hold 35 times as
much carbon as the same area of rainforest, indicating that Indonesian
mangroves top the list in carbon-density storing some 3.14 billion tonnes
of carbon, mostly in the soil.

It is crucial that mangroves are protected and managed sustainably. -

Daniel Murdiyarso

Global storage of carbon in this type of ecosystem is around 10 billion tonnes, so

Indonesia has one-third of that total in its mangroves, says Murdiyarso.

This is important because when mangroves are cleared, and their soils drained or
dug up, carbon is oxidized and released into the atmosphere, contributing to
climate change.

This fact makes it all the more concerning that Indonesia is clearing its
mangroves faster than any other country on Earth, bar one (the Dominican
Republic), say the authors.

On a global scale, the new study reports, carbon released through the loss of
Indonesias mangrove forests accounts for 42 percent of global greenhouse
gas emissions from the destruction of coastal ecosystems.

HUGE HIDDEN TREASURES

The scientists measured the carbon at various sites across the Indonesian
archipelago.
They found that mangroves along the coasts of densely populated Java contain
just over 500 tonnes of carbon per hectare, whereas the same area in
remote and sparsely populated Papua holds almost 1500 tonnes.

Fact file: A global treasure under threat

With such rich carbon stores, Indonesias 2.9 million hectares of mangroves are
globally significant sinks of carbon.

Which means conserving Indonesias mangroves must top the list of national
efforts to cut carbon emissions.

INDONESIAS CLIMATE TARGETS

In recent years, Indonesia has made some strong commitments to cutting its
greenhouse gases. Before the climate change negotiations in Copenhagen
in 2009, Indonesia committed to a 26 percent reduction in emissions by
2020. In 2011, the government floated the potential for a 41 percent
reduction over the same timeframe, conditional on further international
support.
To meet either of these targets, Indonesia needs to reduce deforestation, as land
use is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions.

And Indonesias annual emissions from clearing mangroves account for up to 20

percent of its total land-use emissions.

Especially with climate change negotiations starting to wind up to Paris, this is a

good time to bring forward mangroves potential for mitigation, says
Murdiyarso.

And here is the silver lining in the ongoing destruction of Indonesias mangroves.

The extremely high carbon density that makes mangrove destruction such an
outsized contributor to Indonesias carbon emissions also creates tantalizing
potential.

Director General for Climate Change in Indonesias Ministry of Environment and

Forestry, Dr. Nur Masripatin, is acutely aware of that potential.

No one disagrees about the importance of this ecosystem, both for climate
change and also the livelihoods of people surrounding these mangroves,
she says.

In terms of climate change, mangroves are one of the places where mitigation
and adaptation can be pursued jointly.

What is apparent from Murdiyarsos study and clearly foremost in the minds of
both scientists and key policymakers is that halting, or significantly
slowing, mangrove loss promises to take Indonesia a giant step toward its
emission reduction targets, whose deadline is now a mere five years away.

WHO GAINS?

Reversing the trend means understanding who benefits from mangrove loss.

The answer: aquaculture, predominantly shrimp farming, an industry that, over

the past three decades, has come to gross $1.5 billion a year nationally. This
might sound like a win for Indonesias fisheries, but its not quite that
simple.

People forget that mangroves have very important roles in providing breeding
grounds for fish, Murdiyarso says.

Given the risks for wild-caught fisheries when mangroves are cleared for
aquaculture, it isnt apparent whether there is in fact a net gain for
Indonesias fisheries, let alone Indonesian livelihoods.

Mangroves are also effective land-builders. Their ability to trap sediment from
upstream and debris offer significant services in protecting the coastal
zones and the interior from sea level rise, says Murdiyarso.

Although these ecosystem services havent been monetized yet, they still have
to be taken into account.
THE GOVERNANCE CHALLENGE

Stopping mangrove clearing is likely to be a complex and demanding policy

challenge.

Daniel Murdiyarso is under no illusions about the scale of this task.

Sustainable mangrove management is a big challenge, he says.

Mangroves are managed by so many different agencies that dont necessarily

communicate with each other. It is important for these agencies to sit
together and set the rules, policies and strategies to handle mangroves
properly.

Dr. Masripatin agrees.

The challenge is creating consistent policy, she says.

And convincing local government is important too. When we get into the field,
many local governments do not think that mangroves are an important
ecosystem, or one that they need to protect.

Scientists and policymakers agree that better protecting Indonesias mangroves

will require a back-to-basics approach, coordinating relevant ministries at
the national level while also persuading local governments of the
ecosystems importance. CIFOR has designed a sustainable wetlands
learning toolbox to help with some of these challenges.

And with the new study clarifying the vital potential of Indonesias mangroves for
helping the country meet its targets, Indonesian policymakers could have
the knowledge and reason to turn the tide against climate change.

Conserving Indonesias Mangroves Could Mitigate Climate Change

http://www.asianscientist.com/2015/08/in-the-lab/conserving-indonesias-
mangroves-mitigate-climate-change/
Mary-Ruth Low | August 28, 2015

Conserving the effective carbon sinks of mangroves could reduce 10-31 percent
of annual land-use emissions in Indonesia, scientists say. As much as 42
percent of coastal carbon emissions and 3-19 percent of all greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions could be reduced if Indonesia's remaining mangroves are
conserved, according to a study published in Nature Climate Change.

Ranked fifteenth in the world by land area and fourth by population size,
Indonesia has more than 17,500 islands and 95,000 km of coastline. In
1980, Indonesia had an approximate 4.2 Mha of mangrove forests but in
2005 the remaining area only measured 2.9Mha. This loss is equivalent to
deforesting an area of 52,000 football field-sized mangrove forests each
year.

Worldwide, only 0.7 percent of all tropical forests consist of mangroves. However,
carbon emissions from mangrove forests alone account for 10 percent of
global tropical deforestation emissions. This enormous potential for
 mangroves to act as excellent carbon sinks or enormous carbon sources is
the clinching point for mangrove conservation.

Mangrove forests are unique because of the ecosystem services they offer:
nutrient cycling, soil formation, fish nursery grounds etc. However, their key
feature is the capacity to store carbon above and below ground. High rates
of tree growth coupled with anaerobic water-logged soils allow for slow
decomposition and a high carbon storage capability.

So why are mangroves so efficient at carbon storage? The answer is soil. The
team found that living mangrove trees accounted for one fifth of carbon
storage in the ecosystem, soil holds approximately 78 percent, with dead
wood holding the remaining the two percent. By preventing mangrove
deforestation, the authors estimate a range of 10-31 percent of annual land-
use emissions in Indonesia could be reduced.

Indonesias mangrove carbon stocks (1,083 378 MgC/ha) alone were assessed
to be more than the Indo-Pacific region average (1,023 MgC/ha). To
understand the scale of Indonesian mangrove effectiveness in carbon
storage, non-mangrove forests in neo-tropical regions store between 141-
571 MgC/ha. Thus, Indonesias mangroves act as effective carbon sinks, with
a total stored carbon amount of 3.14 Pg (petagrams = 1,015 g), equivalent
to 11.52 Gt of carbon dioxide.

Lead author Professor Daniel Murdiyarso, a scientist with the Center for
International Forest Research (CIFOR) and his team evaluated 39 mangrove
sites in eight locations. They found that soil bulk densitythe weight of soil
in a given volume/the higher the density, the more compact the soil
increased with depth in all sites but one, and soil carbon concentration
decreased with depth in majority of the sites.

They also found the mangroves in less populated regions (e.g. Bintuni) had
almost a two-fold increase (1397 MgC/ha compared with 593 MgC/ha) in
carbon stocks compared to the mangroves in highly-disturbed
environments, (e.g. Cilacap, a populated area exploited for >70 years).

Aquaculture, specifically shrimp production, is one of the major drivers behind

mangrove deforestation in the region, with Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia
marked the top three exporters. The authors cited model examples of
Malaysia and Bangladesh, which have protected their mangroves against
further shrimp farm expansion.
In fact, previous studies have shown that if Indonesia were to halt the
aquaculture expansion, the lack of revenue would be severely outweighed
by potential economic damages of the US$ 6-42 billion/year due to global
GHG emissions.

The way forward? In an email interview, Murdiyarso said it would be possible to

even restore disused shrimp ponds into becoming carbon sinks by
considering the appropriate mix between geo-hydromorphic characteristics
such as substrate, inundation and tidal range. In the meantime, the best we
can do is to cut emissions, not mangroves. The article can be found at:
Murdiyarso et al. (2015) The Potential of Indonesian Mangrove Forests for
Global Climate Change Mitigation. Copyright: Asian Scientist
Magazine; Photo: CIFOR/Flickr/CC. Read more from Asian Scientist Magazine
 at: http://www.asianscientist.com/2015/08/in-the-lab/conserving-indonesias-
mangroves-mitigate-climate-change/

28 July 2015: Scientists from the Center for International Forestry Research
(CIFOR) and its partners have determined that Indonesia could significantly
reduce global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by halting the practice of
clearing mangroves, which emits 190 million tons of carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2-eq) each year. Their findings, which highlight mangroves as
globally-significant carbon sinks, are published in the journal Nature Climate
Change.
The study finds that Indonesias mangroves store 3.14 billion metric tonnes of
carbon, an amount equivalent to one-third of the carbon stored by Earths
coastal ecosystems. According to the authors, the annual deforestation of
52,000 hectares of Indonesian mangroves accounts for 42% of global
emissions from the destruction of coastal ecosystem services, i.e. sea
grasses, marshes and mangroves.
The article, titled The Potential of Indonesian Mangrove Forests for Global
Climate Change Mitigation, further highlights that Indonesia has one of the
fastest rates of mangrove loss in the world; and that mangrove clearing
continues to make way for such activities as aquaculture, which offers high
financial returns for products like shrimp. Indonesia has more than 2.9
million hectares of mangroves, but has lost 40% of its mangroves over the
past 30 years, according to the studys authors.
CIFOR Principal Scientist and lead author of the paper Daniel Murdiyarso
expressed the hope that these numbers help policymakers see mangroves
as a huge opportunity for climate change mitigation.