ABSTRACT

This project proposes the actual grid code requirements for the grid connection
of distributed generation systems, mainly wind and photovoltaic (PV) systems, are
becoming very demanding. The transmission system operators (TSOs) are especially
concerned about the low-voltage-ride-through requirements. Solutions based on the
installation of STATCOMs and dynamic voltage regulators (DVRs), as well as on
advanced control functionalities for the existing power converters of distributed
generation plants, have contributed to enhance their response under faulty and
distorted scenarios and, hence, to fulfill these requirements.
In order to achieve satisfactory results with such systems, it is necessary to
count on accurate and fast grid voltage synchronization algorithms, which are able to
work under unbalanced and distorted conditions.
This paper analyzes the synchronization capability of three advanced
synchronization systems: the decoupled double synchronous reference frame phase-
locked loop (PLL), the dual second order generalized integrator PLL, and the three-
phase enhanced PLL, designed to work under such conditions. Although other
systems based on frequency-locked loops have also been developed, PLLs have been
chosen due to their link with dq0 controllers.
In the following, the different algorithms will be presented and discretized,
and their performance will be tested in an experimental setup controlled in order to
evaluate their accuracy and implementation features.
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION:
The power share of renewable energy-based generation systems is supposed to
reach 20% by 2030, where wind and photovoltaic (PV) systems are assumed to be the
most outstanding examples of integration of such systems in the electrical network

The increased penetration of these technologies in the electrical network has

reinforced the already existing concern among the transmission system operators
(TSOs) about their influence in the grid stability; as a consequence, the grid
connection standards are becoming more and more restrictive for distribution
generation systems in all countries.

In the actual grid code requirements (GCRs), special constraints for the
operation of such plants under grid voltage fault conditions have gained a great
importance. These requirements determine the fault boundaries among those through
which a grid-connected generation system shall remain connected to the network,
giving rise to specific voltage profiles that specify the depth and clearance time of the
voltage sags that they must withstand. Such requirements are known as low voltage
ride through (LVRT) and are described by a voltage versus time characteristic.

Although the LVRT requirements in the different standards are very different,
the first issue that generation systems must afford when a voltage sag occurs is the
limitation of their transient response, in order to avoid its protective disconnection
from the network. This is the case, for instance, of fixed speed wind turbines based on
squirrel cage induction generators, where the voltage drop in the stator windings can
conduct the generator to an over speed tripping, Likewise, variable speed wind power
systems may lose controllability in the injection of active/reactive power due to the
disconnection of the rotor side converter under such conditions, Likewise, PV systems
would also be affected by the same lack of current controllability. Solutions based on
the development of auxiliary systems, such as STATCOMs and dynamic voltage
regulators (DVRs), have played a decisive role in enhancing the fault ride through
(FRT) capability of distributed generation systems, as demonstrated in Likewise,
advanced control functionalities for the power converters have also been proposed . In
any case, a fast detection of the fault contributes to improving the effects of these
solutions; therefore, the synchronization algorithms are crucial.

In certain countries, the TSOs also provide the active/reactive power pattern to
be injected into the network during voltage sag. This trend has been followed by the
rest of the TSOs; moreover, it is believed that this operation requirement will be
extended, and specific demands for balanced and unbalanced sags will arise in the
following versions of the grid codes worldwide. Regarding the operation of the
distributed generation systems under balanced and unbalanced fault conditions,
relevant contributions, such], can be found in the literature. These solutions are based
on advanced control systems that need to have accurate information of the grid
voltage variables in order to work properly, something that has prompted the
importance of grid synchronization algorithms.

In power systems, the synchronous reference frame PLL (SRF PLL) is the
most extended technique for synchronizing with three-phase systems .Nevertheless,
despite the fact that the performance of SRF PLL is satisfactory under balanced
conditions, its response can be inadequate under unbalanced, faulty, or distorted
conditions .In this paper, three improved and advanced grid synchronization systems
are studied and evaluated: the decoupled double synchronous reference frame PLL
(DDSRF PLL), the dual second order generalized integrator PLL (DSOGI PLL), and
the three-phase enhanced PLL (3phEPLL). Their performance, computational cost,
and reliability of the amplitude and phase detection of the positive sequence of the
voltage, under unbalanced and distorted situations, have been evaluated according to
experimental grid fault patterns extracted, which have been reproduced in a real
scaled electrical network.

1.1. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION:

Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation,

embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized energy or distributed
energy generates electricity from many small energy sources. Currently, industrial
countries generate most of their electricity in large centralized facilities, such as fossil
fuel (coal, gas powered) nuclear or hydropower plants. These plants have excellent
economies of scale, but usually transmit electricity long distances and negatively
affect the environment.

Most plants are built this way environmental, geographical and geological
factor for example, coal power plants are built away from cities to prevent their heavy
air pollution from affecting the populace. In addition, such plants are often built
near collieries to minimize the cost of transporting coal. Hydroelectric plants are by
their nature limited to operating at sites with sufficient water flow. Most power plants
are often considered to be too far away for their waste heat to be used for heating
buildings due to a number of economic, health & safety, logistical,

Fig.1.1 Distribution System

Low pollution is a crucial advantage of combined cycle plants that

burn natural gas. The low pollution permits the plants to be near enough to a city to be
used for district heating and cooling.

Distributed generation is another approach. It reduces the amount of energy

lost in transmitting electricity because the electricity is generated very near where it is
used, perhaps even in the same building. This also reduces the size and number of
power lines that must be constructed. Typical distributed power sources in a Feed-in
Tariff (FIT) scheme have low maintenance, low pollution and high efficiencies. In the
past, these traits required dedicated operating engineers and large complex plants to
reduce pollution. However, modern embedded systems can provide these traits with
automated operation and renewable, such as sunlight, wind and geothermal. This
reduces the size of power plant that can show a profit.

Distributed energy resource (DER) systems are small-scale power generation

technologies (typically in the range of 3 kW to 10,000 kW) used to provide an
alternative to or an enhancement of the traditional electric power system. The usual
problems with distributed generators are their high costs.

One popular source is solar panels on the roofs of buildings. The production
cost is $0.99 to 2.00/W (2007) plus installation and supporting equipment unless the
installation is Do it yourself (DIY) bringing the cost to $6.50 to 7.50 (2007). This is
comparable to coal power plant costs of $0.582 to 0.906/W (1979), adjusting for
inflation. Nuclear power is higher at $2.2 to $6.00/W (2007). Some solar cells ("thin-
film" type) also have waste disposal issues, since "thin-film" type solar cells often
contain heavy-metal electronic wastes, such as Cadmium telluride (CdTe) and Copper
indium gallium selenide (CuInGaSe), and need to be recycled. As opposed to silicon
semi-conductor type solar cells which is made from quartz. The plus side is that
unlike coal and nuclear, there are no fuel costs, pollution, mining safety or operating
safety issues. Solar also has a low duty cycle, producing peak power at local noon
each day. Average duty cycle is typically 20%.

Fig.1.2 Distribution Using Solar Panels

Another source is small wind turbines. These have low maintenance, and low
pollution. Construction costs are higher ($0.80/W, 2007) per watt than large power
plants, except in very windy areas. Wind towers and generators have substantial
insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. In some areas of
the US there may also be Property Tax costs involved with wind turbines that are not
offset by incentives or accelerated depreciation. Wind also tends to be complementary
to solar; on days there is no sun there tends to be wind and vice versa. Many
distributed generation sites combine wind power and solar power such as Slippery
Rock University, which can be monitored online.

Distributed cogeneration sources use natural gas-fired micro turbines or

reciprocating engines to turn generators. The hot exhaust is then used for space or
water heating, or to drive an absorptive chiller for air-conditioning. The clean fuel has
only low pollution. Designs currently have uneven reliability, with some makes
having excellent maintenance costs, and others being unacceptable.

Co-generators are also more expensive per watt than central generators. They
find favor because most buildings already burn fuels, and the cogeneration can extract
more value from the fuel.

Some larger installations utilize combined cycle generation. Usually this

consists of a gas turbine whose exhaust boils water for a steam turbine in a Rankin
cycle. The condenser of the steam cycle provides the heat for space heating or an
absorptive chiller. Combined cycle plants with cogeneration have the highest known
thermal efficiencies, often exceeding 85%.

In countries with high pressure gas distribution, small turbines can be used to
bring the gas pressure to domestic levels whilst extracting useful energy. If the UK
were to implement this countrywide an additional 2-4 GW would become available.
(Note that the energy is already being generated elsewhere to provide the high initial
gas pressure - this method simply distributes the energy via a different route.)

Future generations of electric vehicles will have the ability to deliver power
from the battery into the grid when needed. This could also be an important
distributed generation resource. Recently interest in Distributed Energy Systems
(DES) is increasing, particularly onsite generation. This interest is because larger
power plants are economically unfeasible in many regions due to increasing system
and fuel costs, and more strict environmental regulations. In addition, recent
technological advances in small generators, Power Electronics, and energy storage
devices have provided a new opportunity for distributed energy resources at the
distribution level, and especially, the incentive laws to utilize renewable energies has
also encouraged a more decentralized approach to power delivery.

There are many generation sources for DES: conventional technologies (diesel
or natural gas engines), emerging technologies (micro turbines or fuel cells or energy
storage devices), and renewable technologies (small wind turbines or
solar/photovoltaics or small hydro turbines). These DES are used for applications to a
standalone, a standby, a grid-interconnected, a cogeneration, peak shavings, etc. and
have many advantages such as environmental-friendly and modular electric
generation, increased reliability, high power quality, uninterruptible service, cost
savings, on-site generation, expandability, etc. So many utility companies are trying to
construct small distribution stations combined with several DES available at the
regions, instead of large power plants.
Basically, these technologies are based on notably advanced Power Electronics
because all DES require Power Converters, interconnection techniques, and electronic
control units. That is, all power generated by DES is generated as DC Power, and then
all the power fed to the DC distribution bus is again converted into an AC power with
fixed magnitude and frequency by control units using Digital Signal Processor (DSP).
So improved power electronic technologies that permit grid interconnection of
asynchronous generation sources are definitely required to support distributed
generation resources
The research works in the recent papers about DES focus on being utilized
directly to a standalone AC system or fed back to the utility mains. That is, when in
normal operation or main failures, DES directly supply loads with power (standalone
mode or standby mode), while, when DES have surplus power or need more power,
this system operates in parallel mode to the mains. Therefore, in order to permit to
connect more generators on the network in good conditions, a good technique about
interconnection with the grid and voltage regulations should overcome the problems
due to parallel operation of Power Converter for applications to DES.
 CHACPTER-2

MICRO GRID

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

CERTS Micro grid has two critical components, the static switch and the
micro source. The static switch has the ability to autonomously island the micro grid
from disturbances such as faults, IEEE 1547 events or power quality events. After
islanding, the reconnection of the micro grid is achieved autonomously after the
tripping event is no longer present. This synchronization is achieved by using the
frequency difference between the islanded micro grid and the utility grid insuring a
transient free operation without having to match frequency and phase angles at the
connection point. Each micro source can seamlessly balance the power on the
islanded Micro grid using a power vs. frequency droop controller. This frequency
droop also insures that the Micro grid frequency is different from the grid to facilitate
reconnection to the utility.
Basic micro grid architecture consists of a group of radial feeders, which could
be part of a distribution system or a buildings electrical system. There is a single
point of connection to the utility called point of common coupling. Some feeders,
(Feeders A-C) have sensitive loads, which require local generation. The non-critical
load feeders do not have any local generation. Feeders A-C can island from the grid
using the static switch that can separate in less than a cycle. In this example there are
four micro sources at nodes 8, 11, 16 and 22, which control the operation using only
local voltages and currents measurements.
When there is a problem with the utility supply the static switch will open,
isolating the sensitive loads from the power grid. Non sensitive loads ride through the
event. It is assumed that there is sufficient generation to meet the loads demand.
When the micro grid is grid-connected power from the local generation can be
directed to the non-sensitive loads.
 Fig.2.1 Micro Grid Architecture Diagram

To achieve this we promote autonomous control in a peer-to-peer and plug-

and-play operation model for each component of the micro grid. The peer-to-peer
concept insures that there are no components, such as a master controller or central
storage unit that is critical for operation of the micro grid. This implies that the micro
grid can continue operating with loss of any component or generator. With one
additional source (N+1) we can insure complete functionality with the loss of any
source. Plug-and-play implies that a unit can be placed at any point on the electrical
system without re-engineering the controls. The plug-and-play model facilitates
placing generators near the heat loads thereby allowing more effective use of waste
heat without complex heat distribution systems such as steam and chilled water pipes.
In this configuration, each DG regulate the voltage magnitude at the
connection point and the power that is flowing in the feeder at the points A, B, C and
D. With this configuration extra load demands are picked up by the DG showing a
constant load to the utility grid. In this case, the micro grid becomes a true dispatch
able load as seen from the utility side, allowing for demand-side management
arrangements. When the system islands the local feeder flow vs. frequency droop
function insures the power balance with the loads.
In this configuration, some of the DGs regulate their output power, P, while
some others regulate the feeder power flow, F. The same unit could control either
power or flow depending on the needs. This configuration could potentially offer the
best of both worlds: some units operating at peak efficiency recuperating waste heat,
some other units ensuring that the power flow from the grid stays constant under
changing load conditions within the micro grid.
2.2 DECENTRALIZED CONTROL IN MGS:

As stated in the introduction, the standalone or islanded mode of operation in

an MG occurs when the tie line between an MG and the rest of utility grid is
disconnected and therefore local generating units solely supply local loads. In the
standalone mode, the most important objectives are proper sharing of demanded
active and reactive power among MSs while maintaining acceptable power quality for
the entire MG. In this regard, much research has been done on different approaches to
achieve these objectives and as a result two generic methods, namely decentralized
and centralized control strategies, have been proposed. In decentralized control
strategy, each MS performs its own control task only based on local parameters and
there is no communication and control signal exchange among MSs or any central
control unit. Such a structure is intuitively more reliable since a fast communication
link between MSs is not needed. Furthermore, this approach is inherently more
suitable to implement plug- and-play feature in the MG, which makes the future
expansion more straightforward. As the proposed compensator works on the basis of
decentralized control strategy, the structure of an MG with decentralized control
strategy is described in this section and a typical controller associated with each MS is
briey explained.

2.2.1 STANDALONE MG STRUCTURE:

Fig.2.2 shows the single-line diagram of the standalone MG used in the studies
presented in this paper. This MG consists of two converter-based MSs, MS1 and
MS2, four loads L1L4, along with connecting lines Z1and Z2, and transformers
T1and T2. The parameters associated with this system are given in Table I. The LCL
lter at the output stage of MSs results in better harmonic attenuation as compared

Fig.2.2 Single-line diagram of standalone MG

Table- I
 Parameter For The System Shown In Fig 2.1.1

with rst-order L lter. Moreover, it provides a low distortion voltage bus at MG

terminals, which cannot be achieved by rst-order L lters.

2.2.2 STANDALONE MG CONTROL STRUCTURE:

The control system of an MS employed in an MG with decentralized control

strategy is briey explained in this section. To achieve the control objectives required
in an MG with decentralized control strategy, using droop characteristics is a common
method proposed by different researchers. Fig. 2.3 demonstrates a typical control
block diagram in rotating reference frame used in the converter- based MSs shown in
Fig.2.3. Using synchronous rotating reference (or dq) frame, all three-phase (or abc)
ac quantities are transformed into two-phase dc quantities during the steady-state. In
Fig the block named power calculation and lter is used to calculate the instantaneous
active (p) and reactive (q) power. These quantities are given in rotating reference
frame by

3
p= ( v d i d + v q i q )
2 (1)

3
q= ( v d i qv q i d )
2 (2)

where vd , vq , id ,and iq are shown in Fig. 2.3 Consequently, average active (P) and
reactive (Q) power is calculated by low-pass ltering of p and q. The appropriate
control laws are then implemented and the controller outputs are eventually applied to
the power converter after being transformed to abc quantities.
 The active/reactive power at the output terminals in Fig. 2.3 are regulated
using droop characteristics as discussed in above Fig. The main objective of using
droop characteristic is proper sharing of P and Q associated with each MS while
keeping the global frequency within the permissible range and maintaining an
acceptable voltage prole across MG buses. The above mentioned objectives are
achieved by controlling the output voltage amplitude and phase. Conventional droop
characteristics are P and QV characteristics and expressed by

max min

Pmax Pmin (3)

= maxm ( PP min ) , m=

V maxV min
V =V max n ( QQmin ) , n= (4)
Q maxQ min

where Pmin, Pmax, Qmin, Qmax, Vmin, Vmax, min, max, m, and n are droop characteristics parameters,
which are selected based on system performance criteria. In Fig. 2.3. the output
voltage regulation is performed by the voltage control loop. An internal current loop is
also necessary to improve dynamic stability and damp oscillations resulted from the
output LCL lter.

Fig.2.3 Decentralized control block diagram of a typical converter-based MS in a Standalone MG

2.2.3. SMALL-SIGNAL MODELING:

In order to study the impact of various parameters on the small-signal stability

of an MG, it is necessary to derive the system small-signal model. In doing so, all the
components that may inuence system dynamic must be properly modeled. The
approach used in this to derive the small-signal system. In this approach, the
expressions governing the system operation are rst transformed into synchronous
rotating frame and then linearized around the operating point. Consequently, the
rotating frames associated with different MSs are transformed into one rotating frame.
Finally, other system components, such as transformers and connecting lines, are
modeled. The result is a set of linearized equations, which characterizes the small-
signal behavior of the system in a specic operating point. The model validation has
also been performed for the derived small-signal model using time-domain
simulation.

2.3 POWER QUALITY:

The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry
segments, is often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays,
high speed performance, and levels of automation that can be achieved. Although
these features and their indirectly related computer based enhancements are key issues
to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon which we
are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the foundation blocks. Power
quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our environment,
and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane
installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last
monthly issue of my home utility billing: Using electricity wisely is a good
environmental and business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from
generating plants, and conserves our natural resources. As we are all aware, container
crane performance requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate.
Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require
average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW almost double the total average
demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in
container crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and
DC drives needed to power and control these cranes will increase awareness of the
power quality issue in the very near future.

2.3.1 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:

For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as:
Any power problem that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment,
manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on
the environment.
When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade
power quality include:
Power Factor
Harmonic Distortion
Voltage Transients
Voltage Sags or Dips
Voltage Swells
The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are
significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas SCR
phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives operate at
less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCRs commutate, creating
transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage
depending upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and
severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of the drive.
Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives are
operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at
slow speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its
maximum value when the SCRs are phased on to produce rated or base speed. Above
base speed, the power factor essentially remains constant.
It has been that end users often do not associate power quality problems with
Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was
no economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed. Before the advent of
solid-state power supplies, Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current
injection was minimal.
Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue
during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and
understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or
Unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although the
solutions are not free, in most cases, they do represent a good return on investment.
However, if power quality is not specified, it most likely will not be delivered.
Power quality can be improved through:
 Power factor correction,
Harmonic filtering,
Special line notch filtering,
Transient voltage surge suppression,
Proper earthing systems.
In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not
be fully aware of the potential power quality issues. In many cases, those involved
with specification and procurement of container cranes may not be cognizant of such
issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone elses concern. As a
result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power quality criteria
such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Consult with the utility
company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that must be Satisfied, if
any.
Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles
that can be
Expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific project.
Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present
situation, but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future
development plans for the terminal
2.3.2 THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY:
Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of
the terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other
consumers served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in
the following paragraphs.
1. ECONOMIC IMPACT:
The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal
operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways:
A. POWER FACTOR PENALTIES:
Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly
billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods of
metering and calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility company to the
next. Some utility companies actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed rate
times the number of k VAR-hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor kVAR
demands and calculate power factor. If the power factor falls below a fixed limit value
over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment to the peak
demand charges.
A number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do not
yet invoke power factor penalties. However, their service contract with the Port may
still require that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met. The
utility company may not continuously monitor power factor or kVAR usage and
reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve the right to
monitor the Port service at any time. The average power factor under operating
conditions of customers load at the point where service is metered shall be not less
than 85%. If below 85%, the customer may be required to furnish, install and
maintain at its expense corrective apparatus which will increase the Power factor of
the entire installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall ensure that no
excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility] system. This may
require special power conditioning equipment or filters.
The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for
maintaining container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be
aware of these requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to
enforce requirements such as the example above. Terminal operators who do not deal
with penalty issues today may be faced with some rather severe penalties in the
future. A sound, future terminal growth plan should include contingencies for
addressing the possible economic impact of utility deregulation.
B. SYSTEM LOSSES:
Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only
result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the
distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly
utility billing, but you pay for them each month. Container cranes are significant
contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor. Based on the typical demands
of todays high speed container cranes, correction of power factor alone on a typical
state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system losses that converts to a
6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For most of the larger terminals, this
is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation.
C. POWER SERVICE INITIAL CAPITAL INVESTMENTS:

The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as
well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost,
specialized, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder
cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA
demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related to the total kVA demand. As
the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is inversely proportional to the overall
power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA for the same kW load.
Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal.
Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power
factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power
factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common
bus location in the terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment,
transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper
sizes are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc.
2. EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY:
Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the
life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells
are all power quality problems and are all interdependent.
Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce harmonics, the
same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR variable speed
drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power factor of
the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion,
harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed
filters.
3. POWER SYSTEM ADEQUACY:
When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power
distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the
adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective
actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to
which new or relocated cranes are to be connected.
4. ENVIRONMENT:
No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our
environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in
the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions.
2.4 FACTS:
 Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a
well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power
electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various
applications worldwide. In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid
cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like
upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better
adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing
installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are:

Power flow control,

Increase of transmission capability,

Voltage control,

Reactive power compensation,

Stability improvement,

Power quality improvement,

Power conditioning,

Flicker mitigation,

Figure 2.4 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems.
 Fig 2.4 Operational limits of transmission lines for different voltage levels.

The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance. The power
electronic allows very short reaction times down second.

The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities

of power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made
available in converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting
points are network elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part
of the power system. Figure 2.5 shows a number of basic devices separated into the
conventional ones and the FACTS-devices.

For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some
explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-
devices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation
factors from the conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no
moving parts like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability.
Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be static and dynamic.

Fig 2.5 Overview of major FACTS-Devices

The left column in Figure 2.5 contains the conventional devices build out of
fixed or mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or
capacitance together with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as
well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in
smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The
left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or
converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of their
low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the
Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.

The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of

voltage source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters
provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width
modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low
harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the
network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses
are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to
compensate this.

2.4.1 CONFIGURATIONS OF FACTS-DEVICES:

A. SHUNT DEVICES:

The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source
Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power
compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial
networks are:

Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network

losses.
Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power.
Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially
with huge demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting
plants, railway or underground train systems.
Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines.
Improvement of static or transient stability

B. SVC:
 Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the
transmitted load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power
balance in a grid varies as well. A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can
continuously provide the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage
oscillations under various system conditions and thereby improve the power system
transmission and distribution stability.

C. APPLICATIONS OF THE SVC SYSTEMS IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS:

a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin

b. To damp power oscillations

c. To achieve effective voltage control

In addition, SVCs are also used

1. In transmission systems

a. To reduce temporary over voltages

b. To damp sub synchronous resonances

c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems

2. In traction systems

a. To balance loads

b. To improve power factor and voltage regulation

 CHAPTER-3

STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

The STATCOM is a solid-state-based power converter version of the SVC.

Operating as a shunt-connected SVC, its capacitive or inductive output currents can be
controlled independently from its terminal AC bus voltage. Because of the fast-
switching characteristic of power converters, STATCOM provides much faster
response as compared to the SVC. In addition, in the event of a rapid change in system
voltage, the capacitor voltage does not change instantaneously; therefore, STATCOM
effectively reacts for the desired responses. For example, if the system voltage drops
for any reason, there is a tendency for STATCOM to inject capacitive power to support
the dipped voltages.

STATCOM is capable of high dynamic performance and its compensation does

not depend on the common coupling voltage. Therefore, STATCOM is very effective
during the power system disturbances.

Moreover, much research confirms several advantages of STATCOM. These

advantages compared to other shunt compensators include:

Size, weight, and cost reduction

Equality of lagging and leading output

Precise and continuous reactive power control with fast response

Possible active harmonic filter capability

This describes the structure, basic operating principle and characteristics of

STATCOM. In addition, the concept of voltage source converters and the
corresponding control techniques are illustrated.
3.2 STRUCTURE OF STATCOM:

Basically, STATCOM is comprised of three main parts (as seen from Figure
below): a voltage source converter (VSC), a step-up coupling transformer, and a
controller. In a very-high-voltage system, the leakage inductances of the step-up power
transformers can function as coupling reactors. The main purpose of the coupling
inductors is to filter out the current harmonic components that are generated mainly by
the pulsating output voltage of the power converters.

Fig 3.1 Reactive Power Generation Of STATCOM

3.3. CONTROL OF STATCOM:

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION:

The controller of a STATCOM operates the converter in a particular way that

the phase angle between the converter voltage and the transmission line voltage is
dynamically adjusted and synchronized so that the STATCOM generates or absorbs
desired VAR at the point of coupling connection. Figure 3.1 shows a simplified
diagram of the STATCOM with a converter voltage source 1E and a tie reactance,
connected to a system with a voltage source, and a Thevenin reactance, XTIE ,X_TH,
VTH.

3.3.2 TWO MODES OF OPERATION:

There are two modes of operation for a STATCOM, inductive mode and the
capacitive mode. The STATCOM regards an inductive reactance connected at its
terminal when the converter voltage is higher than the transmission line voltage.
Hence, from the systems point of view, it regards the STATCOM as a capacitive
reactance and the STATCOM is considered to be operating in a capacitive mode.
Similarly, when the system voltage is higher than the converter voltage, the system
regards an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. Hence, the STATCOM
regards the system as a capacitive reactance and the STATCOM is considered to be
operating in an inductive mode

Fig.3.2 STATCOM operating in inductive or capacitive modes

In other words, looking at the phasor diagrams, when I, the reactive current
component of the STATCOM, leads (THVE1) by 90, it is in inductive mode and
when it lags by 90, it is in capacitive mode.

This dual mode capability enables the STATCOM to provide inductive

compensation as well as capacitive compensation to a system. Inductive
compensation of the STATCOM makes it unique. This inductive compensation is to
provide inductive reactance when overcompensation due to capacitors banks occurs.
This happens during the night, when a typical inductive load is about 20% of the full
load, and the capacitor banks along the transmission line provide with excessive
capacitive reactance due to the lower load. Basically the control system for a
STATCOM consists of a current control and a voltage control.

A. Current Controlled STATCOM:

Fig 3.3 current controlled block diagram of STATCOM

 Figure above shows the reactive current control block diagram of the
STATCOM. An instantaneous three-phase set of line voltages, vl, at BUS 1 is used to
calculate the reference angle, , which is phase-locked to the phase a of the line
voltage, vla . An instantaneous three-phase set of measured converter currents, il, is
decomposed into its real or direct component, I1d, and reactive or quadrature
component, I1q, respectively. The quadrature component is compared with the
desired reference value, I1q* and the error is passed through an error amplifier which
produces a relative angle, , of the converter voltage with respect to the transmission
line voltage. The phase angle, 1, of the converter voltage is calculated by adding the
relative angle, , of the converter voltage and the phase lock-loop angle, . The
reference quadrature component, I1q*, of the converter current is defined to be either
positive if the STATCOM is emulating an inductive reactance or negative if it is
emulating a capacitive reactance. The DC capacitor voltage, v DC, is dynamically
adjusted in relation with the converter voltage. The control scheme described above
shows the implementation of the inner current control loop which regulates the
reactive current flow through the STATCOM regardless of the line voltage.

B. VOLTAGE CONTROLLED STATCOM:

In regulating the line voltage, an outer voltage control loop must be

implemented. The outer voltage control loop would automatically determine the
reference reactive current for the inner current control loop which, in turn, will
regulate the line voltage.

Fig 3.4 Voltage controlled block diagram STATCOM

Figure shows a voltage control block diagram of the STATCOM. An

instantaneous three-phase set of measured line voltages, v 1, at BUS 1 is decomposed
into its real or direct component, V1d, and reactive or quadrature component, V1q, is
compared with the desired reference value, V1*, (adjusted by the droop factor, K droop)
and the error is passed through an error amplifier which produces the reference
current, I1q*, for the inner current control loop. The droop factor, K droop, is defined as
the allowable voltage error at the rated reactive current flow through the STATCOM

3.4 BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF STATCOM

The STATCOM is connected to the power system at a PCC (point of

common coupling), through a step-up coupling transformer, where the voltage-
quality problem is a concern. The PCC is also known as the terminal for which the
terminal voltage is UT. All required voltages and currents are measured and are fed
into the controller to be compared with the commands. The controller then performs
feedback control and outputs a set of switching signals (firing angle) to drive the
main semiconductor switches of the power converter accordingly to either increase
the voltage or to decrease it accordingly. A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-
power source. It provides voltage support by generating or absorbing reactive power
at the point of common coupling without the need of large external reactors or
capacitor banks. Using the controller, the VSC and the coupling transformer, the
STATCOM operation is illustrated in Figure below.

Fig 3.5 STATCOM operation in a power system

3.4.1 STATCOM OPERATION IN A POWER SYSTEM:

The charged capacitor Cdc provides a DC voltage, Udc to the converter, which
produces a set of controllable three-phase output voltages, U in synchronism with
the AC system. The synchronism of the three-phase output voltage with the
transmission line voltage has to be performed by an external controller. The amount
of desired voltage across STATCOM, which is the voltage reference, Uref, is set
manually to the controller. The voltage control is thereby to match U T with Uref
which has been elaborated. This matching of voltages is done by varying the
amplitude of the output voltage U, which is done by the firing angle set by the
controller. The controller thus sets UT equivalent to the Uref. The reactive power
exchange between the converter and the AC system can also be controlled. This
reactive power exchange is the reactive current injected by the STATCOM, which is
the current from the capacitor produced by absorbing real power from the AC
system.

U rU eq
I q=
X eq

where Iq is the reactive current injected by the STATCOM

UT is the STATCOM terminal voltage

Ueq is the equivalent Thevenin voltage seen by the STATCOM

Xeq is the equivalent Thevenin reactance of the power system seen by the STATCOM

If the amplitude of the output voltage U is increased above that of the AC

system voltage, UT, a leading current is produced, i.e. the STATCOM is seen as a
conductor by the AC system and reactive power is generated. Decreasing the
amplitude of the output voltage below that of the AC system, a lagging current
results and the STATCOM is seen as an inductor. In this case reactive power is
absorbed. If the amplitudes are equal no power exchange takes place.
 3.6 Phasor diagrams for STATCOM applications

The mechanism of phase angle adjustment, angle , can also be used to

control the reactive power generation or absorption by increasing or decreasing the
capacitor voltage Udc, with reference with the output voltage U.

Instead of a capacitor a battery can also be used as DC energy. In this case

the converter can control both reactive and active power exchange with the AC
system. The capability of controlling active as well as reactive power exchange is a
significant feature which can be used effectively in applications requiring power
oscillation damping, to level peak power demand, and to provide uninterrupted
power for critical load.

3.5 GRID SYNCHRONIZATION SPECIFICATIONS BASED ON GCR:

Even though several works are published within the field of grid
synchronization, almost all of them are centered on analyzing the individual dynamic
performance of each proposal, without first determining a time response window
within the dynamic behavior of the system under test, which would be considered to
be satisfactory.

Despite the fact that the detection of the fault can be carried out with simpler
algorithms, the importance of advanced grid synchronization systems lies in the
necessity of having accurate information about the magnitude and phase of the grid
voltage during the fault, in order to inject the reactive power required by the TSO. A
similar condition is given in the Spanish grid code, where the wind power plants are
required to stop drawing inductive reactive power within 100 ms of a voltage drop
and be able to inject full reactive power after 150 ms, as shown in Fig. 2. Considering
these demands, this paper will consider that the estimation of the voltage conditions
will be carried out within 2025 ms, as this target permits it to fulfill the most
restrictive requirements, in terms of dynamical response, available in the grid codes.
This condition will be extended to frequency estimation; although this parameter is
more related to secondary control algorithms than LVRT, the same time window
between 20 and 25 ms will be considered in this work for the detection of the
disturbance.

Fig 3.7 REE. on voltage support requirement in the event of grid fault.

Fig 3.8 REE voltage support requirement in the event of grid fault.
 CHAPTER-4
DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE SYNCHRONIZATION
SYSTEMS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:

Many of the positive-sequence detection algorithms are based on SRF PLLs .

Despite having a good response under balanced conditions, their performance
becomes insufficient in unbalanced faulty grids (95% of cases), and their good
operation is highly conditioned to the frequency stability, which is incompatible with
the idea of a robust synchronization system. Many authors have discussed different
advanced models, which are able to overcome the problems of the classical PLL,
using frequency and amplitude adaptive structures which are able to deal with
unbalanced, faulty, and harmonic-polluted grids. In these topologies, three PLL
structures will be evaluated.

Fig 4.1 DDSRF-PLL block diagram.

A. DDSRF PLL:

The DDSRF PLL, was developed for improving the conventional SRF PLL.
This synchronization system exploits two synchronous reference frames rotating at
the fundamental utility frequency, one counterclockwise and another one clockwise,
in order to achieve an accurate detection of the positive- and negative-sequence
components of the grid voltage vector when it is affected by unbalanced grid faults.
The diagram of the DDSRF PLL is shown in Fig. When the three-phase grid voltage
is unbalanced, the fundamental positive-sequence voltage vector appears as a dc
voltage on the dq+1 axes of the positive-sequence SRF and as ac voltages at twice
the fundamental utility frequency on the dq1 axes of the negative-sequence SRF. In
contrast, the negative-sequence voltage vector will cause a dc component on the
negative-sequence SRF and an ac oscillation on the positive-sequence SRF. Since the
amplitude of the oscillation on the positive-sequence SRF matches the dc level on the
negative-sequence SRF and vice versa, a decoupling network is applied to signals on
the dq positive/negative SRF axes in order to cancel out such ac oscillations. Low-
pass filters (LPFs) in Fig. are responsible for extracting the dc component from the
signal on the decoupled SRF axes. These dc components collect information about the
amplitude and phase angle of the positive- and negative-sequence components of the
grid voltage vector.

Finally, the PI controller of the DDSRF PLL works on the decoupled q-axis
signal of the positive-sequence SRF (vq+1 ) and performs the same function as in an
SRF PLL, aligning the positive-sequence voltage with the d-axis. This signal is free of
ac components due to the effect of the decoupling networks; the bandwidth of the
loop controller can be consequently increased.

B. DSOGI PLL:

The operating principle of the DSOGI PLL for estimating the positive- and
negative-sequence components of the grid voltage vectors is based on using the
instantaneous symmetrical component (ISC) method on the stationary reference
frame as explained in . The diagram of the DSOGI PLL is shown in Fig. As it can be
noticed, the ISC method is implemented by the positive-sequence calculation block.

Fig 4.2 DSOGI-PLL block diagram.

C. 3phEPLL:

The enhanced phase-locked loop (EPLL) is a synchronization system that has

proven to provide good results in single-phase synchronization systems. An EPLL is
essentially an adaptive bandpass filter, which is able to adjust the cutoff frequency as
a function of the input signal. Its structure was later adapted for the three-phase case ,
in order to detect the positive-sequence vector of three-phase signals, obtaining the
3phEPLL that is represented in Fig.

In this case, each phase voltage is processed independently by an EPLL. This

block filters the input signal and generates two sinusoidal outputs of the same
amplitude and frequency, vn_ and jvn_, the second one being 90 with respect to vn_. The
resulting signals constitute the input for the computational unit. Owing to these
inquadrature signals, the instantaneous positive-sequence voltage component, vabc+,
can be estimated by means of using the ISC method.

Fig 4.3 3- ph EPLL block diagram.

4.2 DISCRETE IMPLEMENTATION:

The performance of the different structures under test is really dependent on

their final digital implementation, particularly on the discretization approach made to
their continuous equations. This implementation is critical and should be studied in
detail as a straightforward implementation can give rise to additional delays in the
loop that hinder the good performance of the PLL. Some methods, such as the
forward Euler, the backward Euler, and the Tustin (trapezoidal) numerical integration,
offer a good performance when used for discretizing other synchronization systems,
as shown in below. However, Euler methods can be inadequate under certain
conditions, due to the need of introducing additional sample delays . Therefore,
according to the specific needs of the presented topologies, this section will describe
the discrete representation of each PLL individually. In order to facilitate the
comprehension of the process, the different building blocks that appear in above
figures will be referenced. The values of the different parameters used in each case are
summarized in the Appendix

A. DDSRF-PLL DISCRETIZATION:

The discrete model of this PLL can be easily obtained since the continuous
representation of several parts does not change in the discrete domain. This is the case
for the transformation blocks T , Tdq+1 , and Tdq1 , whose description can be found
in general scope literature .

1) Positive- and Negative-Sequence Decoupling Networks:

The decoupling network constitutes one of the most important contributions of

this synchronization method. The discrete equations of these blocks are shown in (1),
being almost the same as in the continuous domain. It is just necessary to consider one
sample delay of _, vd1 , vq1 , vd+1 , and vq+1 in order to avoid algebraic
loops.

2) Phase and Magnitude Estimator Discretization:

In the DDSRF PLL, the decoupling network appears embedded in the classical
SRF-PLL loop However, this does not affect the discretization of the phase and
magnitude estimator since vd+1 and vq+1 act as the input of this block

Fig 4.4 Phase and magnitude estimation loop of the DDSRF PLL.
 The discrete controller and the integrator can be built using a backward
numerical approximation. The frequency and phase can then be represented in the z-
domain (2), considering vq+1 as the error to be minimized. In this equation, a
feedforward of the nominal frequency is given by means of ff

Finally, sample-based representation gives rise to (3), which are the expressions
to be implemented

In these equations, a frequency feed forward has been introduced as an initial

condition to _.

3) LPF Block Discretization:

The amplitudes of the dq positive- and negative-sequence components are the

outputs of the decoupling networks. However, four infinite impulse response (IIR)
LPFs extract the ripple from each sequence estimation in order to reinforce the
performance of the PLL in case of harmonic pollution. A first-order filter with a cutoff
frequency f , equal to half of the grid frequency, was originally proposed in this;

B. DSOGI-PLL DISCRETIZATION:

1. DSOGI-QSG Block Discretization:

As was previously mentioned, the DSOGI-based quadrature signal generator

(QSG) of Fig. 4 consists of two independent and decoupled second-order generalized
integrators (SOGIs). Therefore, each SOGI-based quadrature signal generator can be
discretized individually, thus facilitating its mathematical description. In Fig. 4.2.2,
the block diagram of the implemented SOGI is shown This quadrature signal
generator (QSG) is a linear system itself; therefore, a discrete representation can be
systematically obtained if the continuous state space is previously deducted. The
equations of the SOGI state space appear detailed in below. where v constitutes the
input while v_ and qv_ are the two inquadrature output signals

Fig 4.5 Quadrature signal generator based on a second order generalized integrator (SOGI QSG).

The discretization of this system has been performed using trapezoidal integrators, as
they offer a better detection of the phase, which is important when dealing with
sinusoidal signals. The symbolic values of each matrix of (7) are detailed in (6),
shown at the bottom of the page. In these matrices, Ts is the sampling time of the
discrete system, _[n] is the estimated frequency magnitude, which comes from the
estimation made at the SRF-PLL block at each computation step, and k is the SOGI
gain

The discrete state space of (6) is obtained from the continuous representation by
means of the mathematical procedure presented

where Ts is the sampling time.

The resulting discrete system is the best option as it reduces the need of using
additional delays for breaking algebraic loops that appear using other methods which
do not consider the SOGI QSG as a whole.

2. SRF PLL Discretization:

The frequency and phase detection is obtained by means of the SRF PLL
shown in Fig. 8. The discretization of the controller and the integrator is performed
using the backward numerical approximation. The frequency and phase can then be
represented in the z-domain, where v+q constitutes the error to be minimized

It can be noticed that the previous equations in (9) are equal to (2), as, in both cases,
an SRF PLL is implemented. Likewise, the sample-based representation of (9) can be
written as shown in
 Fig 4.6 State variables of the SRF-PLL block.

C. 3phEPLL Discretization:

This three-phase grid synchronization system exploits the EPLL as a quadrature

signal generator.

1) QSG BlockEPLL Discretization:

The block diagram of the EPLL implemented in the below figure.

Fig 4.7 Quadrature signal generator based on an EPLL structure.

According to this diagram, the state space representation of the EPLL in the
continuous domain can be written as shown in
The discrete state space variable representation was described in using a forward
Euler approximation to reach satisfactory results; therefore, the same method has been
implemented here

Finally, after the state variables are calculated, the EPLL output can be obtained by
(13), generating the two quadrature signals

This type of discretization method needs a more accurate tuning, due to the fact that
the stable regions of the s-plane and z-plane are different . computational speed of this
block.

2).Computational Block Unit:

The description for this block is the same in both discrete and continuous
domains. Nevertheless, specific equations are used.

3).Phase and Magnitude Detection Block:

This element is based on another EPLL, which is responsible for estimating the
phase and the magnitude of the positive-sequence fundamental component. Its
discretization is equal to that shown in
 However, for the phase and magnitude detection block, the outputs are the
positive sequence magnitude and phase, which correspond directly with the states _
and A_, respectively.
 CHAPTER-5

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

The energy that a switching power converter delivers to a motor is controlled
by Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signals, applied to the gates of the power
transistors. PWM signals are pulse trains with fixed frequency and magnitude and
variable pulse width. There is one pulse of fixed magnitude in every PWM period.
However, the width of the pulses changes from period to period according to a
modulating signal. When a PWM signal is applied to the gate of a power transistor, it
causes the turn on and turns off intervals of the transistor to change from one PWM
period to another PWM period according to the same modulating signal. The
frequency of a PWM signal must be much higher than that of the modulating signal,
the fundamental frequency, such that the energy delivered to the motor and its load
depends mostly on the modulating signal.

Fig 5.1 (a) symmetric and (b) asymmetric

Above figure shows two types of PWM signals, symmetric and asymmetric
edge-aligned. The pulses of a symmetric PWM signal are always symmetric with
respect to the center of each PWM period. The pulses of an asymmetric edge-aligned
PWM signal always have the same side aligned with one end of each PWM period.
Both types of PWM signals are used in this application.
It has been shown that symmetric PWM signals generate fewer harmonic in
the output current and voltage. Different PWM techniques, or ways of determining the
modulating signal and the switch-on/switch-off instants from the modulating signal,
exist. The Technique that we use is Natural PWM technique. This technique is
commonly used with three phase Voltage Source power inverters for the control of
three-phase AC induction motors.
An example of PWM as shown in Fig 5.2 the supply voltage (blue) modulated
as a series of pulses results in a sine-like flux density waveform (red) in a magnetic
circuit of electromagnetic actuator. The smoothness of the resultant waveform can be
controlled by the width and number of modulated impulses (per given cycle)

Fig 5.2 Example

of Pulse width
modulation

Pulse-
width modulation
(PWM) of a signal or
power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle, to either convey information
over a communications channel or control the amount of power sent to a load.
5.1 PRINCIPLE:
Pulse-width modulation uses a square wave whose duty cycle is modulated
resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a

y min y max
square waveform f (t) with a low value , a high value and a duty cycle

D shown in Fig 5.3 the average value of the waveform is given by:

T
1
y = f (t )dt
T 0 .

(5.1)
 Fig 5.3 A square wave, showing the definitions of
y min ,
y max and D

y max y min
As f (t) is a square wave, its value is for 0 < t < D.T and for D.T < t <

T. The above expression then becomes

DT T
y =
1
T (
0
y max dt+ y min dt
DT
) . (5.2)

D . T . y max +T (1D) y min

= T

. (5.3)

= D . y max +(1D) y min . (5.4)

y min =0
This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where

y =D . y max
as . From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( y ) is

directly dependent on the duty cycle D.

Fig 5.4 Simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the interceptive
PWM
 The simplest way to generate a PWM signals is the interceptive method,
which requires only a saw tooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a
simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the green
sine wave in Fig 5.4) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal
(magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.
5.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE DELTA PWM:
The output signal (blue) is compared with the limits (green). These limits
correspond to the reference signal (red), offset by a given value as shown in Fig 5.5.
Every time the output signal reaches one of the limits, the PWM signal changes state.

Fig 5.5 Principle of the delta PWM

5.1.2 PRINCIPLE OF THE SIGMA-DELTA PWM:

The top green waveform is the reference signal, on which the output signal
(PWM, in the bottom plot) is subtracted to form the error signal (blue, in top plot).
This error is integrated (middle plot), and when the integral of the error exceeds the
limits (red lines), the output changes state.
 Fig 5.6 Principle of the sigma-delta PWM

5.1.3 PRINCIPLE OF THE DIGITAL PWM:

Many digital circuits can generate PWM signals (e.g. many microcontrollers
have PWM outputs to control an electrical motor). They normally use a counter that
increments periodically (it is connected directly or indirectly to the clock of the
circuit) and is reset at the end of every period of the PWM. When the counter value is
more than the reference value, the PWM output changes state from high to low (or
low to high).
The incremented and periodically reseated counter is the discrete version of
the intersecting methods saw tooth. The analog comparator of the intersecting method
becomes a simple integer comparison between the current counter value and the
digital (possibly digitized) reference value. The duty cycle can only be varied in
discrete steps, as a function of the counter resolution.
5.1.4 TYPES OF THE PWM:
Three types of pulse-width modulation (PWM) are possible:
1. The pulse center may be fixed in the center of the time window and both edges
of the pulse moved to compress or expand the width.
2. The lead edge can be held at the lead edge of the window and the tail edge
modulated.
3. The tail edge can be fixed and the lead edge modulated.
 Fig 5.7 Three types of PWM signals
Leading edge modulation (top), trailing edge modulation (middle) and centered pulses
(both edges are modulated, bottom). The green lines are the saw tooth signals used to
generate the PWM waveforms using the interceptive method as shown in Fig5.7.

5.1.5 SPECTRUM OF PWM:

The resulting spectra (of the three cases) are similar, and each contains
a dc component a base sideband containing the modulating signal and phase
modulated carriers at each harmonic of the frequency of the pulse. The amplitudes of
the harmonic groups are restricted by a envelope (sinc function) and extend to
infinity. The infinite bandwidth is caused by the nonlinear operation of the pulse-
width modulator. In consequence, a digital PWM suffers from aliasing distortion that
significantly reduce its applicability for modern communications system. By limiting
the bandwidth of the PWM kernel, aliasing effects can be avoided.

On the contrary, the delta modulation is a random process that produces

continuous spectrum without distinct harmonics.

5.2 APPLICATIONS
5.2.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS:

In telecommunications, PWM is a form of signal modulation where the widths

of the pulses correspond to specific data values encoded at one end and decoded at the
other. Pulses of various lengths (the information itself) will be sent at regular intervals
(the carrier frequency of the modulation).

The inclusion of a clock signal is not necessary, as the leading edge of the data
signal can be used as the clock if a small offset is added to the data value in order to
avoid a data value with a zero length pulse.

5.2.2 POWER DELIVERY:

PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without
incurring the losses that would result from linear power delivery by resistive means.
Drawbacks to this technique are that the power drawn by the load is not constant but
rather discontinuous (see Buck converter), and energy delivered to the load is not
continuous either. However, the load may be inductive, and with a sufficiently high
frequency and when necessary using additional passive electronic filters, the pulse
train can be smoothed and average analog waveform recovered. Power flow into the
load can be continuous. Power flow from the supply is not constant and will require
energy storage on the supply side in most cases. (In the case of an electrical circuit, a
capacitor to absorb energy stored in (often parasitic) supply side inductance.)

High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realizable with
semiconductor switches. As explained above, almost no power is dissipated by the
switch in either on or off state. However, during the transitions between on and off
states, both voltage and current are nonzero and thus power is dissipated in the
switches. By quickly changing the state between fully on and fully off (typically less
than 100 nanoseconds), the power dissipation in the switches can be quite low
compared to the power being delivered to the load.

Modern semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or insulated gate bipolar

transistors (IGBTs) are well suited components for high-efficiency controllers.
Frequency converters used to control AC motors may have efficiencies exceeding
98%. Switching power supplies have lower efficiency due to low output voltage
levels (often even less than 2 V for microprocessors are needed) but still more than
7080% efficiency can be achieved.

Variable-speed fan controllers for computers usually use PWM, as it is far

more efficient when compared to a potentiometer or rheostat. (Neither of the latter is
practical to operate electronically; they would require a small drive motor.)

Light dimmers for home use employ a specific type of PWM control. Home-
use light dimmers typically include electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow
during defined portions of each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness
of light emitted by a light source is then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or
phase) in the AC half-cycle the dimmer begins to provide electric current to the light
source (e.g. by using an electronic switch such as a triac). In this case the PWM duty
cycle is the ratio of the conduction time to the duration of the half AC cycle defined
by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the country).

These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used with inert (or
relatively slow reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for
which the additional modulation in supplied electrical energy which is caused by the
dimmer causes only negligible additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other
types of light sources such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off
extremely rapidly and would perceivably flicker if supplied with low frequency drive
voltages. Perceivable flicker effects from such rapid response light sources can be
reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If the light fluctuations are sufficiently
rapid (faster than the flicker fusion threshold), the human visual system can no longer
resolve them and the eye perceives the time average intensity without flicker.
 In electric cookers, continuously variable power is applied to the heating
elements such as the hob or the grill using a device known as a simmer stat. This
consists of a thermal oscillator running at approximately two cycles per minute and
the mechanism varies the duty cycle according to the knob setting. The thermal time
constant of the heating elements is several minutes, so that the temperature
fluctuations are too small to matter in practice.

5.2.3 VOLTAGE REGULATION:

PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the

load with the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at the
desired level. The switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a capacitor.

One method measures the output voltage. When it is lower than the desired
voltage, it turns on the switch. When the output voltage is above the desired voltage, it
turns off the switch.

5.2.4 AUDIO EFFECTS AND AMPLIFICATION:

PWM is sometimes used in sound (music) synthesis, in particular subtractive

synthesis, as it gives a sound effect similar to chorus or slightly detuned oscillators
played together. (In fact, PWM is equivalent to the difference of two saw tooth
waves with one of them inverted) The ratio between the high and low level is
typically modulated with a low frequency oscillator. In addition, varying the duty
cycle of a pulse waveform in a subtractive-synthesis instrument creates useful timbral
variations. Some synthesizers have a duty-cycle trimmer for their square-wave
outputs, and that trimmer can be set by ear; the 50% point (true square wave) was
distinctive, because even-numbered harmonics essentially disappear at 50%. Pulse
waves, usually 50%, 25%, and 12.5%, make up the soundtracks of classic video
games.

A new class of audio amplifiers based on the PWM principle is becoming

popular. Called class-D amplifiers, they produce a PWM equivalent of the analog
input signal which is fed to the loudspeaker via a suitable filter network to block the
carrier and recover the original audio. These amplifiers are characterized by very good
efficiency figures ( 90%) and compact size/light weight for large power outputs. For
a few decades, industrial and military PWM amplifiers have been in common use,
often for driving servo motors. Field-gradient coils in MRI machines are driven by
relatively high-power PWM amplifiers.

Historically, a crude form of PWM has been used to play back PCM digital
sound on the PC speaker, which is driven by only two voltage levels, typically 0 V
and 5 V. By carefully timing the duration of the pulses, and by relying on the speaker's
physical filtering properties (limited frequency response, self-inductance, etc.) it was
possible to obtain an approximate playback of mono PCM samples, although at a very
low quality, and with greatly varying results between implementations.

In more recent times, the Direct Stream Digital sound encoding method was
introduced, which uses a generalized form of pulse-width modulation called pulse
density modulation, at a high enough sampling rate (typically in the order of MHz) to
cover the whole acoustic frequencies range with sufficient fidelity. This method is
used in the SACD format, and reproduction of the encoded audio signal is essentially
similar to the method used in class-D amplifiers.

5.3 NATURAL PWM METHOD:

So as to feed the stator windings with a 3-phase sinusoidal voltage through an

inverter, a first solution is to use a sine table to generate three sine waves with 120
degrees phase shift to each other. For this, the stator pulsation s is used to feed three
discrete-time integrators, which compute the instantaneous phase of each stator
voltage,

1[k] = 1[k-1] + s [k] Ts . (5.5)

2[k] = 2[k-1] + s [k] Ts . (5.6)

3[k] = 3[k-1] + s [k] Ts . (5.7)

With 1[0] = 0, 2[0] = -2 /3, 3[0] = - 4/3, Ts, being the sampling
period of the control algorithm. When one of these angles becomes
higher than 2, 2 is subtracted to it to keep it between 0 and 2.
 A sine table is the used to compute the three voltages that
should be applied to the stator,

V a [k] = Vsm (s[k]) sita(1[k])

. (5.8)

V b [k] = Vsm(s[k]) sita(2[k])

. (5.9)

V c[k] = Vsm(s[k]) sita(3[k]) .

. (5.10)

Where Vsm(s) is the stator voltage magnitude deduced

from the constant Volts per Hertz principle and sita() = sin().

A slight improvement can be obtained by adding to the pure sine wave of the
sine table a third harmonic, sita() = sin() + 1/6 sin(3) , since it has no effect on the
motor behavior and it allows to generate a signal whose first harmonic has an
amplitude which is 15.47% higher (2/3) than the signal maximum as shown in
Fig5.8. With this improvement, we can generate more AC voltage with the same DC
bus voltage, so we can increase the speed of the motor with keeping constant the V/F
ratio.

Fig 5.8 Use of a Non-sinusoidal Waveform to Increase the Ratio Between the First Harmonic
Magnitude and the Waveform Maximum

These values are compared to the output of an up/down counter (used as a

triangle generator). When the up/down counter output oversteps one of these values,
the corresponding output of the comparator toggles. As a result, the duty cycle of each
PWM channel is proportional to the corresponding stator voltage value. Since this
up/down counter with three comparators would be very heavy to implement by
software, such a device must be included in a microcontroller so as to suit AC motor
control applications. Taking the first phase as an example, the duty cycle stored in the
compare register of the corresponding PSCs will be proportional to
Ts V [k]
2 (
1+ a
V s max ) , with = 1-
2
T s , Vs max and are respectively the

highest value of the stator voltage magnitude and the dead time of the inverter
switches. The resulting data-flow diagram is shown on Fig 5.9.

Fig 5.9 Data flow diagram of PWM method.

The natural PWM algorithm requires a sine table to compute for all values of
between 0 and 2. Thanks to the properties of the trigonometric functions, several
solutions are possible to reduce the length of this look-up table. The most efficient
uses a look up table of the values of the sinus function for between 0 and /3 only,
since,
Sin () = sin ( - /3) + sin (2/3 - ) for between and for /3 and 2/3.
Sin () = sin ( - ) for between 2/3 and .
Sin () = -sin ( - ) for between and 4/3.
Sin () = -sin ( - 4/3) + sin (5/3 - ) for between 4/3 and 5/3.
Sin () = -sin (2 - ) for between 5/3 and 2
However, this solution does not easily allow adding a third harmonic to the
sinus function, as explained in the previous section. This is the reason to use a look-up
table sita() with the values of either sin() or sin() + 1/6 sin(3) for between 0 and
/2 , and to use the following relationships to compute sita() between /2 and 2 :
sita() = sita(-) for between /2 and .
sita() = -sita(-) for between and 3/2.
sita() = -sita(2-) for between 3/2 and 2.
5.4 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION:

Harmonic problems are almost always introduced by the consumers

equipment and installation practices. Harmonic distortion is caused by the high use of
non-linear load equipment such as computer power supplies, electronic ballasts,
compact fluorescent lamps and variable speed drives etc, which create high current
flow with harmonic frequency components. The limiting rating for most electrical
circuit elements is determined by the amount of heat that can be dissipated to avoid
overheating of bus bars, circuit breakers, neutral conductors, transformer windings or
generator alternators.
5.4.1 DEFINITION:
THD is defined as the RMS value of the waveform remaining when the
fundamental is removed. A perfect sine wave is 100%, the fundamental is the system
frequency of 50 or 60Hz. Harmonic distortion is caused by the introduction of
waveforms at frequencies in multiplies of the fundamental ie: 3rd harmonic is 3x the
fundamental frequency / 150Hz. Total harmonic distortion is a measurement of the
sum value of the waveform that is distorted.

5.4.2 POWER MEASUREMENT:

Despite the use of good quality test meter instrumentation, high current flow
can often remain undetected or under estimated by as much 40%. This severe
underestimation causes overly high running temperatures of equipment and nuisance
tripping. This is simply because the average reading test meters commonly used by
maintenance technicians, are not designed to accurately measure distorted currents,
and can only provide indication of the condition of the supply at the time of checking.
Power quality conditions change continuously, and only instruments offering true
RMS measurement of distorted waveforms and neutral currents can provide the
correct measurements to accurately determine the ratings of cables, bus bars and
circuit breakers.
5.4.3 NEUTRAL CURRENTS:
 High harmonic environments can produce unexpected and dangerous neutral
currents. In a balanced system, the fundamental currents will cancel out, but, triple-
Ns will add, so harmonic currents at the 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. will flow in the neutral.
5.4.4 HARMONIC PROFILES:
There is much discussion over the practical harmonic range of a measurement
instrument, however study of the harmonic profiles of typically installed equipment
can guide the system designer to the practical solution
5.4.5 THE COSTS:
Harmonic currents add to the fundamental load current and can affect revenue
billing by introducing errors into kilowatt hour metering systems, which will directly
increase the net billable kilowatt demand and kilowatt hour consumption charges. The
costs of supply interruption are high, however caused, resulting in data corruption,
disruption of process manufacturing and failure of telecommunications facilities etc.
5.5 TESTING SIGNALS AND EXXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

Following the representations in the discrete domain already deducted, the

different PLL algorithms have been implemented in a control board based on a
floating-point Texas Instruments TMS320F28335 DSP at 150 MHz (6.67-ns cycle
time). Their capability to perform a fast and accurate synchronization has been tested
in the laboratory under different grid fault scenarios, where the three-phase voltage
waveforms experience transients due to the appearance of voltage sags, frequency
variations, and harmonic pollution.

Voltage sags:

In Table I, the characteristics of four selected voltage sags have been

summarized. It is worth to mention as can be seen in the table, three of the proposed
sags give rise to unbalanced voltages,], and, hence, to positive- and negative-sequence
components. The presence of the negative sequence during the fault allows a more
rigorous analysis of the synchronization capability of the different algorithms under
test. Moreover, unbalanced faults constitute 95% of the voltage sags that affect
distributed generation systems.
Fig 5.10 Generation of grid voltage sags in the experimental setup. (a) Generation of a Type A voltage sag.
(b) Generation of a Type B voltage sag. (c) Generation of a Type C voltage sag. (d) Generation of a Type
D voltage sag.

Harmonic-polluted voltage (8% THD):

According to the EN50160 standard, the THD of the voltage wave-forms at the
output of a generation facility cannot be higher than 8%., Table II shows the harmonic
composition used for evaluating the performance of the grid synchronization systems
under test when the grid voltages become distorted.

Grid voltage frequency jumps:

By means of the programmable source, a 10-Hz jump (from 50 to 60 Hz) in the

frequency value of the positive sequence has been applied to analyze the response of
the frequency adaptive structures under test.

In the following section, the responses of the DDSRF PLL, DSOGI PLL, and
3PhEPLL under these transient conditions will be compared.
 CHAPTER-6

SIMULATION AND REAL-TIME IMPLEMENTATION

RESULTS

6.1 SIMULATION MODEL:

Fig 6.1 The Grid Voltage system simulating model.

6.2 REAL-TIME IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS:

The computational cost in the floating-point TMS320F28335 DSP, which is

considered as a microcontroller by the brand itself, has been evaluated for each case.
However, an initial qualitative analysis can be done if each algorithm is divided into
its fundamental operations. The different types of basic operations, as well as how
many times they were used in each algorithm, are summarized., where the shadowed
cells indicate which PLL is used the least often by each operator.
The results from seem to indicate that the DDSRF PLL and the DSOGI PLL
could be the fastest algorithms. On the other hand, the number of trigonometrical
functions that the 3phEPLL has to perform plays against its computational cost. This
statement can be subsequently confirmed with the experimental burden time measured
for each PLL when processing one cycle.
6.3 SIMULATION RESULTS:

6.2.a

Fig.6.2.b Grid Voltage system with fault

6.3.a
Fig 6 .3.b Voltge in grid after clearing fault

Fig 6.4 Phase angle in Grid with Fault

Fig 6.5 Phase angle in grid after fault

 Fig 6. 6.a

Fig 6.6.b Phase angle and magnitude with Fault

Fig 6.7 Magnitude and Phase after Fault

 CONCLUSION
This Project proposed the behavior of three advanced grid synchronization
systems. Their structures have been presented, and their discrete algorithms have been
detailed. Moreover, their performances have been tested in an experimental setup,
where these algorithms have been digitally implemented in a commercial DSP,
allowing proof of their satisfactory response under balanced and distorted grid
conditions.

The DDSRF PLL and the DSOGI PLL allow estimating the ISCs of a three-
phase system working in the reference frame, while the 3phEPLL uses the abc
reference frame, thus working with three variables. As has been shown, this feature
simplifies the structure of the DSOGI PLL and the DDSRF PLL, which allows
reducing the computational burden, as com-pared to the 3phEPLL, without affecting
its performance.

The synchronization capability of the three PLLs under test has been shown to
be fast and accurate under faulty scenarios, allowing the detection of the positive
sequence of the voltage in 2025 ms in all cases; however, the simpler structure of the
DDSRF and the DSOGI affords an easier tuning of their control parameters and,
therefore, a more accurate control of their transient response. The immunity of the
analyzed PLLs in the possibility of a polluted network is better when using the
3phEPLL and the DDSRF, due to their greater band pass and low-pass filtering
capabilities. Although the DSOGI also gives rise to reasonably good results, due to its
inherent band pass filtering structure, its response is more affected by harmonics.

Although all three have been shown to be appropriate for synchronizing with
the network voltage in distributed power generation applications, mainly PV and wind
power, the lower computational cost of the DDSRF PLL and the DSOGI PLL,
together with their robust estimation of the voltage parameters, offers a better tradeoff
between the presented systems, making them particularly suitable for wind power
applications.