Bluff Body (Ahmed Body)

UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA
NOVEL CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF REAR

PRESSURE DIFFERENT AIR FLOW CORRECTION DEVICE
USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMIC (CFD)
SIMULATION
This report submitted in accordance with requirement of the Universiti Teknikal

Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) for the Bachelors Degree in Mechanical Engineering
Technology (Automotive Technology) with Honours
by
MUHAMMAD FARIDHWAN BIN SHOFRI

B071210030
930121-02-5353
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

2016
NOVEL CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF REAR
PRESSURE DIFFERENT AIR FLOW CORRECTION DEVICE
USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMIC (CFD)
SIMULATION
MUHAMMAD FARIDHWAN BIN SHOFRI
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Mechanical Engineering Technology (Automotive Technology) with Honours
Faculty of Engineering Technology
UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

2016
DECLARATION
I hereby, declared this report entitled Novel Conceptual Design and

Simulation of Pressure Different Air Flow Correction Device Using
Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) Simulation is the results of my own
research except as cited in references.
Signature : .
Authors Name : .
Date : .
APPROVAL
This report is submitted to the Faculty of Engineering Technology of UTeM as

a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Engineering Technology Mechanical Engineering Technology (Automotive
Technology) with Honours. The member of the supervisory is as follow:
(Project Supervisor)
ABSTRAK
Pengurangan seretan merupakan salah satu isu yang paling signifikan dalam
industri automotif. Seret tekanan menyumbang lebih daripada 80% daripada jumlah
kesuluruhan seretan dan ianya dipengaruhi oleh geometri kenderaan yang
disebabkan oleh pemisahan lapisan sempadan dan pembentukan pusaran di
belakang kenderaan. Seret disebabkan oleh tekanan yang berbeza di bahagian
belakang dan hadapan kenderaan merupakan isu utama untuk semua segment kereta
terutamanya segmen kereta yang berbadan legap kerana ia merupakan penyumbang
terbesar kepada penggunaan bahan api. Sedutan atau hembusan udara di bahagian
belakang badan legap boleh mengubah corak aliran udara, sekali gus dapat
mengurangkan kawasan pusaran udara lalu menyebabkan peningkatan tekanan di
belakang dan mengurangkan perbezaan tekanan antara depan dan belakang badan
tersebut. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mereka bentuk konsep sistem
pengurangan seretan yang mengubah pengagihan tekanan dan mengurangkan pekali
seseret (CD) pada badan legap iaitu Ahmed body. Reka bentuk dan ujian peranti
pembetulan aliran udara ini dibantu oleh bantuan komputer rekaan bentuk (CAD)
dan pengiraan dinamik bendalir berkomputer (CFD). Konsep peranti pembetulan
aliran udara menggunakan sedutan atau hembusan di belakang badan legap ini
diharapkan dapat mengubah corak aliran udara sekaligus mengubah pengagihan
tekanan dan mengurangkan pekali seseret (CD). Oleh itu, dengan penuh harapan
positif, mudah-mudahan kaedah ini dapat mengurangkan seretan dan peranti ini
diguna secara meluas digunakan untuk segmen kereta berbadan legap di seluruh
dunia dan perubahan trend kajian ke arah konsep ini.
1
ABSTRACT
Drag reduction is one of the most significant issues within the automotive industry.
Pressure drag contribute more than 80% of the total drag and it is highly dependent
on vehicle geometry due to boundary layer separation and formation of wake region
behind the vehicle. Drag caused by pressure different at the rear and front of the
vehicle is a major issue for all car segments especially bluff body cars segments
because it contribute largest fuel consumption. Air suction or blown at the rear of
bluff body can alter the flow pattern of the air hence, shrink the wake region which
resulting in increase of rear pressure and reduce the pressure different between front
and rear of the body. The objective of this study are to design a concept of drag
reduction system that can change the pressure distribution and reduce drag
coefficient (CD) of bluff body which is Ahmed body. The design and testing of the
airflow correction device will be aided by Computer-aided Design (CAD) and
computational fluid dynamic (CFD). The concept of the rear air flow correction
device hopefully will alter the flow pattern which change the pressure distribution
and reduce drag coefficient (CD). Hence, with full of positive expectation, hopefully
this method of reducing drag by using rear suction or blown air flow correction
device will be broadly used for bluff body car segments for entire world and the
trend change toward further study of this concept.
2
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my treasured father Mr. Shofri bin Abdullah, my

beloved mother Mrs. Badariah binti Mohamed Kari and my benevolent brother
Muhammad Firdaus bin Shofri.
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim. In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful.
First and foremost, special thanks to my benevolent parents Mr. Shofri

Abdullah and Mrs. Badariah Mohamed Kari for their love and support
throughout my life. Not to forget, my elder brother Muhammad Firdaus Shofri
who always support me, take care of me motivated me and inspire me. My
small humble family have granted me strength, passion, and sprits to perform
at my best and pursuit my visions and goals.
I would like to acknowledge my supervisor, Engr. Mohd Faruq bin Abdul Latif,
for trust and confidence granted to me for conducting this plus his
comprehensive guidance and support throughout this study. I would also like to
thank my co. supervisor, Engr. Mohd Suffian bin Ab Razak. His comments and
lessons were very beneficial in order for me to complete this thesis and conduct
this study. I learned from his insight a lot. I was grateful for the discussion and
clarification made with him. Also, I would like to thank my thesis examiners
Engr. Luqman Hakim bin Hamzah and Engr. Saiful Naim bin Sulaiman for
their time and effort to examine my thesis and evaluate my presentation.
To all my friends, thank you for your understanding and encouragement. Our
friendship makes our life wonderful. Although your name are not mentioned
here, but you are always on my heart.
4
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRAK i
ABSTRACT ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLE x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND NOMENCLATURE xi
CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objective 3
1.3 Scope 3
CHAPTER 2 4
LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Vehicle Aerodynamic 12
2.3 Case Study 35
2.4 Methodology 38
CHAPTER 3 46
METHODOLOGY 46
3.1 Geometry development 48
6
3.2 Pre-processing Configuration 49
3.3 Setup configuration 52
3.4 Numerical Method Configuration 61
CHAPTER 4 67
RESULTS 67
4.1 Iteration Convergence 67
4.2 Pressure Contour 69
4.3 Velocity Contour 71
4.4 Streamlines 73
4.6 Velocity vector 75
4.7 Pressure coefficient at the Rear of the Body 79
CHAPTER 5 83
DISCUSSION 83
5.1 Iteration Convergence 83
5.2 Model Selection 84
5.2 Benchmark 90
5.3 model 1 90
5.4 model 2 91
5.5 model 3 92
5.6 model 4 92
5.7 model 5 93
CHAPTER 6 94
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 94
6.1 Conclusion 95
6.2 Recommendation 95
REFFERENCES 96
APPENDICES 105
7
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 K-Chart 4
2.1.3.1 Internal Aerodynamic Airflow 9
2.1.3.2 External Aerodynamic Airflow 10
2.2 vehicle aerodynamic 11
2.2.1 Illustration of flow velocity and stream lines 13
2.2.2a example of streamline body 14
2.2.2b example of bluff body 14
2.2.2.1a Ahmed body Computer-aided Design (CAD) 3D drawing 16
2.2.2.1b Ahmed body isometric (CAD) drawing 16
2.2.2.1c Ahmed body dimensions 17
2.2.2.1. results of (Franck et al., 2009) experiment 19
2
2.2.3.1 Aerodynamic drag versus Rolling resistance for a truck with a CD 21
of 0.5, frontal area = 10.2m2 and a rolling resistance coefficient
set to 0.005
2.2.4.1. examples of interior computational fluid dynamic 29
1
2.2.4.1. examples of exterior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) 30
2
2.2.4.2 wind tunnel section 31
2.2.4.2. wind tunnel with moving ground 32
1
2.2.4.2. static ground wind tunnel 33
2
2.3.1 Distribution of deviations of analytical results from CFD 35
3 methodology flowchart 46
3.1 Ahmed body benchmark design 47
3.3.1 Solver setting 51
3.3.2 Viscous model configurations 52
3.3.3 Boundary condition assigned 53
3.3.4 Ahmed body zone settings 53
3.3.5 Pressure Outlet settings 54
3.3.6 velocity inlet settings 55
3.3.7 Road settings 56
3.3.8 Reference value 57
3.3.9 Solution method for the first 100 iterations 58
3.3.10 Solution method for the 200 to 600 iterations 58
3.3.11 Solution controls for the first 100 iterations 59
8
3.3.12 Solution controls for the 200 to 600 iterations 59
3.4a geometrical characteristics of the venturi nozzle at the underbody 60
level
3.4b geometrical characteristics of the Venturi underbody nozzle 62
4.1.1 Drag coefficient (Cd) vs Iterations 66

4.1.2 Lift Coefficient vs Iterations 67
4.2.1 pressure contour of benchmark model 68
4.2.2 pressure contour of model 1 68
4.3.1 velocity contour of benchmark model 70
4.3.2 velocity contour of model 1 70
4.4.1 velocity streamlines of benchmark model 72
4.4.2 velocity streamlines of model 1 72
4.6.1 velocity vector of benchmark model 74
4.6.2 velocity vector of model 1 75
4.7.1 Pressure coefficient at the rear of benchmark model 78
4.7.2 Pressure coefficient at the rear of model 1 78
4.7.7 Pressure Coefficient at Rear Bodies 81
5.2.1 Model and Dimension of Model 1 83

5.2.2 Model and dimensions of model 2 84
5.2.5 model and dimensions of model 5 87
9
LIST OF TABLE
3.2.1 General mesh sizing 49

3.2.2 Mesh sizing of Ahmed body tires surface 49
3.3.3 Mesh sizing of Ahmed body surface 50
3.3.4 Mesh sizing of refinement zone 50
3.2.5 Inflation mesh layer at ground surface and outer body surfaces. 51
4.1.1 Converged drag coefficient (Cd) 68

4.1.2 Converged Lift Coefficient 69
10
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND
NOMENCLATURE
A - Area
B - Base (width)
BC - Before Christ
C - Specific heat
CAD - Computer-aided Design
CAE - Computer-aided engineering
CATIA - Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application
CD - Coefficient of drag
CFD - Computational fluid dynamic
CL - Coefficient of lift
Cp - Coefficient of pressure
C DU - Underbody drag coefficient
D - aerodynamic loads
Dext - Drag due to the airflow on external upper surfaces of the
vehicle
DNS - Direct Numerical Simulation
dm - mass of fluid
Dub - Drag due to the vehicle under the body flow
dx - Element area
dy - Force on a side due to pressure
dv - elemental volume
f - Particle distribution function
FEM - Finite element method
FVM - Finite volume method
H - Height
k - Boltzmann constant
k - Kinetic energy turbulence per unit mass
k - komega turbulence model
k - K-epsilon turbulence model
KD - Coefficient that represent the underbody drag to total drag
ratio
KE - Kinetic energy
KQ - Coefficient that express the contribution of the flow rate of
underbody on flow rate of total body
11
L - Length
L - Lift load
LBM - Lattice Boltzmann method
LES - Large Eddy Simulation
m - mass
ni - Equilibrium value for the population of particles
niEQ - Local equilibrium value for the population of particles in

the direction
p - pressure
ptot - The total pressure variation
pdyn - Dynamic pressure reference
Qext - Volume of air that enveloping the external upper surfaces
of the vehicle
Qub - Volume of air that enveloping the body flow of the vehicle
RANS - Equations such as Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
SST - Shear Stress Transport
T - Temperature
t - Time
u - Initial velocity
u - Particle velocity
V - Volume
v - Velocity
vi - i th component of the averaged air velocity
vj - j th
component of the averaged air velocity
v 'i , v ' j - Fluctuating velocity parts
VWT - Virtual Wind Tunnel
v ' iv ' j - Reynolds stress turbulent tensor
v - Free stream velocity
w - Velocity in opposite direction (-v)
x - Direction of x-axis
xi , x j , xk - Cartesian coordinates
y - Direction of y-axis
y+ - Boundary layer theory in defining the law of the wall
- Slant angle
- Collision operator
- density
- Density of air free stream
d - Aerodynamic resistance coefficient of diffuser.
12
i - Aerodynamic resistance coefficient of the inlet section
m - Aerodynamic resistance coefficient of middle section
ub - Equivalent aerodynamic resistance coefficient of the nozzle
- Relaxation time
t - Viscosity of turbulent
- Dynamic viscosity of air free stream
ij - Kronecker delta
13
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Reducing fuel consumption and emissions is one of the most important

environmental issues within the automotive industry. With the continuous increment
of fuel price, automotive companies have to compete with each other and constantly
developing methods to improve fuel efficiency. The fuel consumption reduction can
be achieved by improving efficiency of the engine, reducing drag pressure resistance
and improving aerodynamics (Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010; Wojciak, 2012).
Aerodynamic drag consists of two main components that is skin friction drag and
pressure drag. Pressure drag contribute more than 80% of the total drag and it is
highly dependent on vehicle geometry due to boundary layer separation and
formation of wake region behind the vehicle (Sudin & Abdullah, 2014).
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation has become an important research

way especially in vehicles aerodynamic characteristics. Computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) used in automotive engineering for programming flexibly, getting more
information, cutting costs and reducing engineering time. The advantages of a
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) approach is the surface and fluid data that can be
used to diagnose aerodynamic performance problems and assess impact of design
changes. The data obtained can be used to find the complex interactions between
surface pressure distributions, overall force, flow features such as vortices and wakes,
and the geometry changes that have aerodynamic impact (Jing, Yun-zhu&Deng-
feng,2010).
1
1.2 Problem Statement
Bluff body car segment such as suburban utility vehicle (SUV), multi-purpose
vehicle (MPV), van, hatchback, and station wagon produce high pressure drag
especially at the rear of the vehicle. Drag caused by this rear end pressure contribute
largest fuel consumption (Baltas & Saridakis, 2009; Gilliron & Kourta, 2013;
Steininger, Vogl, & Zettl, 1996).
researcher discover and study a lot of method to reduce drag caused by pressure
different between front and rear of the vehicle including study of rear spoiler by
(Sapienza, 2002; Sudin & Abdullah, 2014), study of bumper by (Hkansson &
Lenngren, 2010; Huminic, Huminic, & Soica, 2012; Sapienza, 2002; Sudin &
Abdullah, 2014), and study of diffuser by(Sudin & Abdullah, 2014; Thuwis, De
Breuker, Abdalla, & Grdal, 2010).
Current research focus on shape minimizing to increase the pressure at the rear of the
vehicle hence reduce the pressure different between front and rear of the
vehicle(Loth, 2008; Tran-Cong, Gay, & Michaelides, 2004).
But yet, there are no effort putted to study about rear suction air flow correction
device in order to increase the back pressure and reduce the pressure different
between front and rear of the car.
Hence, this study is conduct to introduce rear suction air flow correction device to
increase the back pressure and reduce drag caused by pressure differential.
The introduction of the rear suction air flow correction device hopefully will reduce
drag coefficient (CD). Hence, with full of positive expectation, hopefully this method
of reducing drag by using rear suction air flow correction device will be broadly used
for bluff body car segments for entire world and the trend change toward further
study of this concept.
To induce the pressure at the rear of the bluff body by rear suction air flow correction
device, the effect of venturi will be utilised. The study will be conduct by using
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) method and Computer-aided Design (CAD). The
device will be design by using Computer-aided Design (CAD) and test by using
computational fluid dynamic (CFD).
2
1.3 Objective
1. To design a concept of drag reduction system that can change the pressure
distribution of bluff body.
2. To reduce the drag coefficient of bluff body.
1.3 Scope
This project does not consider any costs of either implementation of the devices or
production of the devices. Applicability and selection of material are not discussed.
The devices are only aerodynamically evaluated and furthermore, no consideration is
taken to legislate about the dimensions of the Ahmed body with added devices. Due
to time limitation only a restricted number of devices are tested and evaluated to
verify their efficiency. Devices optimization of is not included in this study. The
devices are added on a standard Ahmed body model. No modifications are done on
the Ahmed body. The CFD settings used in this study such as density of air, Specific
heat (C), air viscosity, temperature and humidity are referred to the local standard and
evaluation of how different settings would affect the result is not included in this
project. The velocity of air used are fixed and the different velocity effect on the drag
coefficient (CD) will not be presented. The study will only show the effect of the
pressure different rear suction air flow correction device to the drag coefficient (C D)
and the unimplemented pressure different rear pressure air flow correction device
Ahmed body to the drag coefficient (CD). Equations such as Reynolds Averaged
Navier Stokes (RANS), Large Eddy Simulation (LES), Direct Numerical Simulation
(DNS) and Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with k near-wall region model
and k far field model are use in the study as the numerical method.
3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Literature review purpose for this study is to review other research related to the
study conducted in order to get the right idea and concept. Literature review also use
in this study to obtain problem statement and to obtained best and suitable
methodology.
The literature review flow of this study was illustrate in the k-chart in figure 1. It
starts with introduction which consist of brief history of computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) and brief history of aerodynamic. Then it is followed by the overview of
vehicle aerodynamic and aerodynamic airflow which consist of brief outline of
internal and external aerodynamic.
The study then converging to vehicle aerodynamic. Fundamental theory was studied
thoroughly. The study converge even more from vehicle to bluff body to Ahmed
body. The study of drag reduction, simulation and wind tunnel were reviewed to
enhance the factual knowledge.
Some case study were conduct in order to grasp others drag reduction device theory
and fundamental. The case studies revised are venturi effect and diffuser by (Huminic
et al., 2012), spoiler by (Hu & Wong, 2011), and race car wings by (Yang, Gu, & Li,
2011).
Methodologies were studied to obtain the best way to conduct the experiment. The
methodologies considered and studied for this study are physical, wind tunnel, and
simulation. Judgement were made based on the comprehensive studies of various
methodology stated.
4
Figure 2.1 K-Chart
5
2.1.1 History
The functions of complex variables theory was established by Leonhard Euler who
had a strong concern in fluid dynamics and related subjects during all his adult life
(R. R. Cosner & Roetman, 2000; Darrigol & Frisch, 2008). By the 18 th and 19th
centuries, Cauchy and Riemann specialised the functions of complex variables theory
(R. R. Cosner & Roetman, 2000). By 1752, Cauchy-Riemann equations were first
written down by dAlembert in his study of ideal fluids. The further development was
predominantly guided by the evaluation of integrals in closed form. The original
system of dAlembert is velocity vector components which can be summarised as:
u dw (1)
Irrotationality + =0
y dx
du dw (2)
Mass conservation =0
dx dy
Where
w = -v
v in the direction of y
u in the direction of x
The "irrotationality" refers to the assumption that the flow is an irrotational flow field
and "mass conservation" is the mathematical expression of the physical assumption
of energy conservation that mass is neither created nor destroyed (R. R. Cosner &
Roetman, 2000; Darrigol & Frisch, 2008; Grimberg, Pauls, & Frisch, 2008).
The Cauchy-Riemann Equations discovered in 1900s. The mathematics community

had ample confidence in their understanding of the theory of complex analytic
functions that they could and did publish books for the technical world. The work of
Riemann and followers on conformal mappings with singularities provides a method
of solving the Cauchy-Riemann equations in multi-connected domains. The
development continue with ideal two-dimensional flow around bodies using the
Schwarz-Christoffel formula. Further study realised the necessity for a singular
source term (vortex singularity) related to circulation to make the description of two-
6
dimensional, constant-density flow around a figure with a pointed trailing edge
physically reasonable (Bergonio, n.d.; Cochran, Kanso, & Krstic, 2009; R. R. Cosner
& Roetman, 2000; Costamagna, Elettronica, Via, & Piazza, 1998; Tan, 2013).
By 1913, the pressure distribution around an air foil theoretically calculated

Blumenthal. This might be considered the foundation of computational methods in
air vehicle analysis. Regardless of the limitations of the analysis methods based upon
conformal mapping, the development of a dictionary of mappings gave the practicing
engineers opportunities to design air foils (Bergonio, n.d.; R. R. Cosner & Roetman,
2000).
With desired properties, the methods continue to be useful today. Discussion of

design optimization using inverse complex analytic function theory can be found in
quite recent literature (Jameson, 1988).
These developments led to great numbers of calculations generating tables of data

and analogous graphs. The massive number of required calculations motivated
theoretical studies in the aerodynamics community to develop scaling methods to
extend the applicability of the tables. The limitations and difficulties of the analysis
trigger stimulus to a parallel development of wind tunnels(R. R. Cosner & Roetman,
2000). Again the limitations of the calculation devices and expenses for construction
and maintenance generate numerous further studies dedicated to understanding fluid
dynamics in order to make the necessary corrections to the data obtained from the
wind tunnels and to improve the wind tunnel designs (R. R. Cosner & Roetman,
2000).
Aerodynamics is studies that concerned with the motion of air. Aerodynamic is one
of a gas and fluid dynamics sub-field, and the "aerodynamics" term is generally
referring to gas dynamics (Anderson & Jr, 2009; Anderson, 1991).
Early track of aerodynamics fundamental concepts date back to the Archimedes and
Aristotle work in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC, but the efforts to develop a
quantitative air flow theory does not rise until the 18th century. When Sir Isaac
Newton developed a theory of air resistance in 1726, he became one of the first
aerodynamicists in the modern era, which was then verified for low speeds flow.
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, experiments of air resistance were
7
performed by investigators which aided by the first wind tunnel construction in 1871.
By the year of 1738 Daniel Bernoulli described a fundamental relationship between
pressure, velocity, and density in his publication, Hydrodynamica. Until now,
Bernoulli's principle, are widely use which is a method of lift calculation (Anderson
& Jr, 2009; Anderson, 1991).
Throughout the 19th century aerodynamics required to achieve more than just air
flight. The concept of the modern fixed-wing aircraft was developed George Cayley
in 1799, this event lead to identification of four fundamental forces of flight which
are drag, thrust, lift, and weight. The reasonable development predictions of the
needed thrust to fly the flight in conjunction with the development of low-drag air
foils and high-lift paved the way for the first powered flight. Wilbur and Orville
Wright flew the first successful powered aircraft On December 17, 1903. The flight,
and the publicity received, led to more organized collaboration between
aerodynamicists and aviators. This even pioneering to modern aerodynamics
(Anderson & Jr, 2009; Anderson, 1991).
Later on, it was found that the relationship defined by Bernoulli was validate only for
inviscid and incompressible flow. Leonhard Euler published the Euler equations in
1757 which extend the principle of Bernoulli's to the compressible flow regime. In
the early 19th century, the Euler equation further develop, yielding Navier-Stokes
equations to account for viscous effects. Ludwig Prandtl became one of the first
people to investigate boundary layers during time of the first flights. The
aerodynamic is then continuously develop over time till these day (Anderson & Jr,
2009; Anderson, 1991).
8
2.1.2 Vehicle Aerodynamic
Automotive vehicle aerodynamics is the study of road vehicles aerodynamics. Its

main goals are reducing drag and wind noise, preventing undesired lift forces and
other causes of aerodynamic instability at high speeds of vehicle, and minimizing
noise emission. For some modules of racing vehicles, it is vital to produce downforce
to improve traction and consequently improve cornering abilities. The ineffective
aerodynamic shape results in excessive drag which leads to increased fuel
consumption rates. The main cause of vehicle aerodynamic drag is due to pressure
drag or form drag. Pressure drag on vehicles due to flow separation creates more than
80% of the total aerodynamic drag, while frictional drag constitutes for the remaining
20% (Sudin & Abdullah, 2014).
2.1.3 Aerodynamic Airflow
Aerodynamics airflow is a branch of Fluid dynamics concerned with the study of the
motion of air, usually when it interacts with a solid object, such as a ground vehicle.
Aerodynamics airflow is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many
aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields. The term aerodynamics
airflow is narrowed from gas dynamics which applies to the study of the motion of all
gases to the study that limited to only air (Sudin & Abdullah, 2014; Yang et al., 2011;
Zhao, Cao, Tamura, Duan, & Ozono, 2009).
9
2.1.3.1 Internal Aerodynamic Airflow
Internal aerodynamic airflow is the study of flow of air through passages in solid
body. For example, the airflow through a tube, nozzle, and pipes (Huminic et al.,
2012). The internal aerodynamic airflow that usually related to car is the study
aerodynamic drag coefficient (CD), coefficient of lift (CL) and the flow pattern of
engine bay, human packaging and the opening area that air can possibly flow into.
Figure 2.1.3.1 shows the example of internal aerodynamic airflow pattern.
Figure 2.1.3.1: Internal Aerodynamic Airflow (Iru, 2004; james thompson, 2005)
10
2.1.3.2 External Aerodynamic Airflow
External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes.
For example, evaluation drag coefficient (C D), coefficient of lift (CL) and the flow
pattern around ground vehicle (Huminic et al., 2012). The external aerodynamic
airflow study was usually conduct to optimize the shape of the vehicle to reduce drag
coefficient (CD). External aerodynamic airflow exist at every body that exist in fluid.
Figure 2.1.3.2 shows the example of external aerodynamic flow pattern.
Fi
gure 2.1.3.2: External Aerodynamic Airflow (Gibson, 2005; Heavey, 2014)
11
2.2 Vehicle Aerodynamic
Vehicle aerodynamic is a branch of aerodynamic which share the same principle of

aerodynamic but it focus on vehicle such as car, train, truck and motorcycle. Vehicle
aerodynamic is the study of aerodynamic of vehicle which closely related to pressure,
density, temperature, and flow velocity (Anderson, 1991; Parezanovi, 2011). Figure
2.2 shows the example of vehicle aerodynamic study.
Figure 2.2: vehicle aerodynamic (Di Francesco, 2000)
12
2.2.1 Fundamental Theory
Pressure is normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the time rate of
change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on the surface. Thus, pressure
is defined as force "per unit area. Usually, pressure is distinct at a point in the fluid
or a point on a solid surface and can vary from one point to another (Anderson,
1991).
Consider a point C in a volume of fluid. Let d x = element area at C and let d y =
force on a side of d x due to pressure. Then, the pressure at point C in the fluid
is defined by way of

dx (3)
p = lim
dy ( ) dx 0
The pressure p is the force per unit area limiting form, where the area of interest has
minimised to approximately zero at the point C.
Density is another important variable of aerodynamic, which is mass per unit volume.
Similar to the definition of pressure, the density definition does not require an actual
3 3
volume of 1 ft or 1 m . Relatively, it is a property point that can vary from
point to point in the fluid. Consider one point C in the fluid. Let dv = elemental
volume around C and dm = mass of fluid of dy. Then, the density at point C is
dm (4)
=lim dv 0
dv
Hence, density is the form limiter of the mass per unit volume, where the
volume of interest has minimised to almost zero around point C (Anderson, 1991).
Temperature plays an important role in high-speed aerodynamics. Temperature T of a

gas is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the fluid molecules.
Moreover, if KE is assumed to be the mean molecular kinetic energy, then
temperature is given by
13
3 (5)
KE= kT
2
Where k is the Boltzmann constant. Hence, qualitatively at high-temperature, gas
molecules and atoms are randomly rattling at high speeds, whereas the random
motion of the molecules and atoms in a low-temperature gas, is relatively slow
(Anderson, 1991).
The principal of aerodynamics and the motion of fluid are closely related. Therefore,
flow velocity is an extremely important consideration. Consider a translational
movement of solid object, moving at 30 m/s. Then all of the solid parts are
simultaneously translating at the same 30 m/s velocity. In contrast, a fluid is a
"squishy" substance, and for a fluid in motion, fluid may travel at different velocity
from one part to another. Hence, certain perspective have to be adopt as follows.
Consider the flow of air over an aerofoil, as shown in Figure 2.2.1. Lock an
observation on a specific place, infinitesimally small element of mass in the gas,
called a fluid element, and this element move with time. Both the speed and direction
of this fluid element can vary as it moves from point to point in the gas. Then, change
the observation on a specific fixed point in space, say, point C in Figure 2.2.1. Now,
flow of velocity can be defined as: The flowing gas velocity at any fixed point C in
space is the velocity of an infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through C.
The flow velocity V has both magnitude and direction; hence, it is a vector quantity.
This is in contrast to P, and T, which are scalar variables. The scalar magnitude
of V is frequently used and is denoted by V. Again, it is highlight that velocity is a

point property and can vary from point to point in the flow.
Figure2.2.1: Illustration of flow velocity and stream lines (Anderson, 1991)
14
Again, by referring to Figure 2.2.1, a moving fluid element traces out a fixed path in
space. As long as the flow is steady, i.e., as long as it does not fluctuate with time,
this path is called a streamline flow. The flow field streamlines drawing is an
important way to visualize the motion of the gas (Anderson, 1991; Sapienza, 2002).
15
2.2.2 Bluff Body
When the drag is dominated by viscous drag, the body is called streamlined, and
when it is dominated by pressure drag, the body is called bluff (Body, 2009;
Engineering, n.d.; Konstantinidis & Bouris, 1997) Separated flow created by a bluff
body at high Reynolds numbers is one of the oldest problems in fluid dynamics. Wide
wake and a large difference between the head and base pressure of the bluff body is
major contribution of high drag coefficient (Parezanovi, 2011). The example of
stream line body is shown in figure 2.2.2a while the example of bluff body is shown
in figure 2.2.2b.
Figure2.2.2a: example of streamline body (Sapienza, 2002)
Figure 2.2.2b: example of bluff body(Johnson, Tinoco, & Yu, 2003; Sapienza, 2002)
16
2.2.2.1 Ahmed Body
Ground vehicles can be classified as bluff-bodies that are fully submerged in the fluid
and travel close to the road surface. Generally, an incompressible viscous fluid model
can be assumed and compressible effects can be neglected for the usual velocities of
commercial passenger cars, trucks and buses. The flow pattern are considered fully
turbulent as the Reynolds numbers based on the body length are usually too high. The
fluid flow field around a ground vehicle involve several separated regions of flow,
thus causing the net aerodynamic force result interactions among them to be complex
and complicated. Even configurations of vehicle with simple basic with smooth
surfaces, free from wheels and appendages, generate variety of fluid flow pattern
flows. Studies conducted with two dimensional and fully three dimensional regions
of separation discover that wake is the largest drag contribution of the bluff body. The
regions of separated flow exhibit complicated kinematic macro and micro structures
and those present in the wake determine mostly the body drag. Currently, wind
tunnel, numerical simulations and road tests are mutually used in the automotive
industry for the aerodynamic study from several perspectives (Ahmed, Ramm, &
Faltin, 1984; Franck, Nigro, Storti, & DEla, 2009).
Therefore, Ahmed body vehicle model was introduced as a very simplified bluff-
body which is frequently employed as a benchmark in vehicle aerodynamics. It has
been used in several experiments. The shape of this body is free from all accessories
and wheels but it still preserves the primary behaviour of the vehicle aerodynamics
(Ahmed et al., 1984; Johnson et al., 2003). Figure 2.2.2.1a and figure 2.2.2.1b shows
the configuration of Ahmed body. Figure 2.2.2.1c shows the dimensions of Ahmed
body.
17
Figure 2.2.2.1a: Ahmed body Computer-aided Design (CAD) 3D drawing (Ahmed et
al., 1984; Pavan, 2012)
Figure 2.2.2.1b: Ahmed body isometric (CAD) drawing (Ahmed et al., 1984; Pavan,
2012)
18
Figure2.2.2.1c: Ahmed body dimensions(Ahmed et al., 1984; Franck et al., 2009)
The Ahmed model length L = 1044mm, which is approximately a quarter of a length

of typical passenger car. The height H and the width B are defined according to the
ratio of (L: B: H) = (3.36: 1.37: 1). It has three main geometrical segments: front
sector with boundaries rounded by elliptical arcs to induce an attached flow, box
shaped middle sector with sharp body with a rectangular cross section and, rear end
sector with interchangeable rear end. The slant length is kept fixed to ls = 222 mm
(Ahmed et al., 1984; Franck et al., 2009).
19
2.2.2.1.1 Case Study
(Franck et al., 2009) have done numerical simulation of the flow around the Ahmed
vehicle model study. The study was conducted by using the Reynolds Averaged
Navier Stokes (RANS) approach. The Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS)
equations determine mean flow quantities. However, they require turbulence models
to close the system such as an equal number of equations and unknowns. There are
numerous closure models proposed (Wilcox, 1998) but unfortunately to find one
model that can accurately represent the Reynolds stresses in the detached flow
regions of bluff bodies is very difficult, the flow regime is excessively geometry
dependent, and they often lead to complex flow patterns primarily at the rear part. A
deficiency of the most used closure models for Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
(RANS) schemes is their inherent inability to deal with massively separated flows
containing many coherent structures. Thus, the mean pressure could not be accurately
predicted for these cases leading to a poor estimation of the mean aerodynamic
forces.
(Franck et al., 2009) also use the Large Eddy Simulations (LES) approach. In the
approach of LES, the effect of the small unresolved scales on the large resolved flow
is modelled while only the larger unsteady turbulent motions are computed. The
larger scales are affected by the geometry, force, and contain most of the kinetic
energy of the flow. The fluid motion of smallest scales are considered universal, due
to the assumption of dynamics of small scales is independent from the force and flow
geometry.
The meshing process performed by (Franck et al., 2009) is the mesh suite of
(Schberl, 1997) mesh generator. The mesh generator involves basic generation of
tetrahedral mesh and layers of addition of wedge elements for a better resolution
close to the body surface.
20
2.2.2.1.2 Solution
Unstructured meshes and finite elements of Large Eddy Simulations (LES) with
unsteady flow around the Ahmed vehicle model were performed for a slant angle of
12.5. Two meshes were employed, mesh convergence showed through the drag
coefficient as seen at the right hand graph in figure 8. The flow symmetry time-
averaged was used as another indicator of the solution convergence. The time-
averaged flow visualizations in the near-wake agree with the experimental
observations qualitatively. While micro structures were neglected, the flow controlled
the time-averaged by large coherent macro structures formed by massive flow
separation. The mean drag coefficient CD of the experiment reach agreement
prominently with relative percentage error of +6 % for the coarser mesh and -1 % for
the finer one. It is found that the time-averaged flow of topological features are
independent of the averaging time T and grid-size. (Franck et al., 2009) concluded
that a feasible turbulence model for real vehicles aerodynamics may be used
according to the current computational resources LES. Moreover, (Franck et al.,
2009) predict that future modelling efforts would be focused on the representations of
the turbulence structure and some average profiles, such as turbulent stresses and
velocities, which could be useful for studies of Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
(RANS) .
Figu
re2.2.2.1.2: results of (Franck et al., 2009) experiment
21
Left: pressure coefficient Cp as a function of the y-streamwise coordinate at the top
and bottom body surface on the symmetry plane for a slant angle = 12.5(Franck et
al., 2009).
Right: drag coefficient CD, time-evolutions, mean values and experimental measured
(Ahmed et al., 1984), for a slant angle = 12.5(Franck et al., 2009).
2.2.3 Drag Reduction
Aerodynamic drag consists of two main components that is skin friction drag and
pressure drag. Pressure drag contribute more than 80% of the total drag and it is
highly dependent on vehicle geometry due to boundary layer separation and
formation of wake region behind the vehicle.(Sudin & Abdullah, 2014). Drag
reduction goal is to reduce the drag coefficient (C D) of the body by the way of
reducing the frictional drag or reducing the pressure drag.(Hkansson & Lenngren,
2010; Talay, 1975; Wood, 2004)
22
2.2.3.1 Case Study
(Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010) conduct a study by using CFD analysis to introduce
aerodynamic trailer devices for drag reduction of heavy duty trucks. (Hkansson &
Lenngren, 2010) concern about environmental issues within the automotive industry
today and the study determined to reduce the fuel consumption and emissions. The
study target on reducing rolling resistance and improving aerodynamics. (Hkansson
& Lenngren, 2010) had referred to the recent project called OptiFuel that conducted
by Renault Trucks (Neumann, 2011). The study of (Neumann, 2011) contains an
investigation to reduce the fuel consumption from new technologies perspective. The
report states that aerodynamic improvements of the tractor unit and the semi-trailer is
one of the most important issues when it comes to fuel saving
Figure 2.2.3.1: Aerodynamic drag versus Rolling resistance for a truck with a drag
coefficient (CD) of 0.5, frontal area = 10.2m2 and a rolling resistance coefficient set
to 0.005 (Thuwis et al., 2010)
23
Figure 2.2.3.1 shows the power required to overcome aerodynamic drag and rolling
resistance as a function of speed for a truck of 40 tons. The graph shows that there is
an exponential increase of drag, whereas the rolling resistance develops linearly with
speed. Approximately above 80 km/h the aerodynamic drag dominates, which mean
aerodynamics very crucial for long-distance transport where 90km/h speeds is
common. However, aerodynamic rolling resistance is still important below this
speed. By reduce the drag and rolling resistance, less power is required for the truck
to move especially on higher speed. Hence, the consumption of fuel can be reduced.
2.2.3.2 Solution
(Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010) discover that aerodynamic trailer devices have a
great potential of drag reduction. The study had compared the tractor and trailer drag.
They discover that the trailer is much more susceptible for aerodynamic drag
improvements and thus the fuel consumption can be noticeably reduced by using
trailer devices. Even larger drag improvements can be achieved by combining the
devices of tractor and trailer drag correction.
The base of the truck and the undercarriage are the two regions that shows the
greatest effects achievement when the aerodynamic devices are added to the trailer.
(Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010) discover that Side skirts and Frame extension shown
a large potential to be aerodynamically improve and the study suggest that the study
of flow in these regions should be further study and it can become one of great
interest for further development.
(Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010) claims that it is not beneficial to change the geometry
of the trailer aerodynamically since simple add-on devices shows the equivalent
effect.
The study conducted by (Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010) use Volvo as the subject and
the Volvo tractor already has a quite good aerodynamic shape hence adjustments are
limited. Therefore, to generate further aerodynamic improvements, (Hkansson &
24
Lenngren, 2010) suggest the companies to consider the study of whole truck during
the aerodynamic development collaboration between the tractor and trailer
manufacturers is highly recommended. If the tractor and the trailer were to be
developed together, the advantage is mutual development optimization integration of
interface between the cab and the trailer front and between the chassis and trailer
underbody could be achieve. Hence, improve the transition flow and thereby improve
both the base flow and the undercarriage flow.
2.2.4 Simulation
Simulation is the imitation of the actual process operation of system over time. The
use of imitation is significance because it provides approximation prediction of event
for better understanding of the representations (Banks, 1999; Park, Matthews, &
Gibson, 2008; Patel & Smith, 2012).
Simulation involves artificial history of the system generation, and the observation of
that artificial history draw inferences concerning characteristics of operating the real
system that is represented (Banks, 1999)
Simulation is a vital methodology to solve problem and to discover solution for many
real-world problems. Simulation is used to analyse and define the behaviour of a
system. Both existing and conceptual systems can be modelled with simulation
(Banks, 1999). The simulation method is cost saving since no fabrication needed.
Moreover, the model in simulation can be use multiple of times (Sahu, Silton,
Despirito, Heavey, & Costello, 2008).
25
2.2.4.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD)
With the continuous development of powerful computers, numerical simulations of

various approximations such as Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) and Large
Eddy Simulation (LES) began supplementing these numerical simulation. Eventually,
these numerical simulation methods gradually recognised as Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) (Johnson et al., 2003).
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is a simulation associated to fluid mechanics

division that uses algorithms and numerical methods to analyse and solve problems
that involve flows of fluid. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) uses computers to
perform required calculations for simulation of the interaction of gases and liquids
with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. Better solutions can be achieved by
using high-speed processers. Wind tunnel was used as the initial experimental
validation of such software. The final validation of the software was tested by using
full-scale testing (DUNCAN, 1948; MILNE-THOMSON, 1940; Milne-Thomson &
Rott, 1968)
There are several method used internationally in computational fluid dynamic (CFD)
analysis such as:
a) Finite volume method (FVM)
The finite volume method (FVM) has an advantage in solution speed and memory
usage. This method is suitable for high Reynolds turbulent flows (Patankar, 1980).
b) Finite element method (FEM)
The finite element method (FEM) usually used for solids structural analysis, but it is
also applicable to fluids. Finite element method (FEM) is much more stable than the
finite volume approach. However, finite element method (FEM) require larger
memory and possess slower solution times than the The finite volume method (FVM)
(Schweiger, Arridge, Hiraoka, & Delpy, 1995; Shu, Sun, & Xu, 2006)
26
c) Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
Direct numerical simulation (DNS) resolves the range of turbulent scales entirely.
Direct numerical simulation (DNS) marginalizes the models effect, but it is extremely
expensive. Direct numerical simulation (DNS) capable to calculate flows with
complex geometries and configurations (Mathieu & Scott, 2000; Pope, 2000). Direct
numerical simulation (DNS) is a computational fluid dynamics simulation which the
NavierStokes equations are solved numerically without any turbulence model.
Whole range of spatial and temporal scales of the turbulence are resolved before
simulation will be run.(Daly & Harlow, 1970)
d) Coherent vortex simulation
The coherent vortex simulation approach crumbles the turbulent flow field into a
comprehensible flow field, consisting motion of organized vortices, and the part that
incoherent, which the background flow is random (Farge & Schneider, 2001)
27
e) Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS)
The Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) are equations of motion for flow of
fluid that based on time-averaged. The equations of Reynolds Averaged Navier
Stokes (RANS) are primarily used to describe flows of turbulence fluid. The
equations can be used with estimation based on the properties of flow turbulence
knowledge to give approximate averaged-time solutions to the Navier Stokes
equations (Biscarini, Di Francesco, & Manciola, 2009; Hkansson & Lenngren,
2010; Huminic et al., 2012). For a motionless, incompressible Newtonian fluid, in
Cartesian coordinates, in conservation form and partial differential equation with the
Boussinesqs hypothesis are:
vi (6)
=0
xi
v i v j p vi v j (7)

xj
= +
xi x i
( +
xj x j )

( v ' v ' )
xj i j
Where
x i , x j : Cartesian coordinates
vi : i th
vj : j th
v ' i , v ' j : Fluctuating velocity parts
p: average pressure
: Density of air free stream, which is assumed constant
: Dynamic viscosity of air free stream, which is assumed constant.
28
f) Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
Large eddy simulation (LES) is a mathematical model used in computational fluid

dynamic for turbulence fluid flow. It was initially proposed in 1963 by Joseph
Smagorinsky to simulate atmospheric currents of air (SMAGORINSKY,
1963). Large Eddy Simulation (LES) works on the Navier Stokes Equations for
reduction of range of length scales of the solution, hence, reducing the computational
cost (Kobayashi, 2006; Leveque, Toschi, Shao, & Bertoglio, 2006; Sullivan,
McWilliams, & Moeng, 1994). The equations can be summarize as:
vi u p 2 p u i (8)
+ u j i + ij = +v
t x j x j xi xk xk
With
vi (9)
=0
xi
And
ij ( x , t ) =ui ( x , t )u j ( x ,t )ui ( x , t ) u j ( x , t ) (10)
Where
x i , x j , x k : Cartesian coordinates
vi : i th
ui : : i th
component of the averaged initial air velocity
vj : j th
t : time
p: average pressure
v : current velocity of air.
29
g) Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM)
Lattice Boltzmann methods (LBM) is one of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

methods for fluid simulation class. To simulate the flow of a Newtonian fluid the
Boltzmann discrete equation is solved with collision models such as Bhatnagar-
Gross-Krook (BGK) Instead of solving the equations of NavierStokes (Bao &
Meskas, 2011; Chen, Martnez, & Mei, 1996). The Boltzmann transport equation can
be describe as:
f (11)
+ u . f =
t
Where
f : the particle distribution function
u : the particle velocity
t : time
: the collision operator
According to (Bhatnagar, Gross, & Krook, 1954; Succi, 2001) the Bhatnagar-Gross-
Krook(BGK) equation base on:
i= 1 ( n iniEQ ) (12)
Where
niEQ : local equilibrium value for the population of particles in the direction
: relaxation time
ni : equilibrium value for the population of particles.
30
2.2.4.1.1 Interior Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD)
Interior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is the computational of fluid flow in the
closed body such as pipe, nozzle, exhaust, and tube. Three most common
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods use for interior fluid flow
computational are direct numerical simulation (DNS), RANS models, and large eddy
simulation (LES). Direct numerical simulation (DNS) commonly used for research
of academic applications since it solves interior fluid flow by using the smallest
scales (Pumir, 2002; Taylor, Bledsoe, & Wohl, 2012).
For interior fluid flow, DNS and RANS models are combined yielding Large Eddy
Simulation Large Eddy Simulation (LES). For larger motions of turbulent scale, full
Navier-Stokes equations are solved using filters, but smaller scale turbulent motions
use RANS models to solve the equations. As technology of computer processing
advancing, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) gradually turn into suitable method for use
in interior computational fluid dynamic (CFD), RANS models are the most
commonly used CFD models for practical design and industrial applications.
Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) methods are the method that commonly
use because this method are cheaper than DNS and LES models because it does not
require high performance computer. However, to represent the artificial Reynolds
stresses, Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) require additional turbulence
model (Pumir, 2002; Taylor et al., 2012). Figure 2.2.4.1.1 shows the examples of
interior computational fluid dynamic (CFD).
31
Figure 2.2.4.1.1: examples of interior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) (Asano,
1995; Z. R. Cosner, 2002)
2.2.4.1.2 Exterior Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD)
Exterior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is the computational of fluid flow at the
surface of body such as car, ball, motorcycle and bicycle. Virtual Wind Tunnel
(VWT) is an innovative solution for exterior computational fluid dynamic (CFD).
With a highly automated and streamlined workflow process and high quality CFD
technology, Virtual Wind Tunnel (VWT) produce quick and accurate prediction of
external flow of aerodynamic including aerodynamic drag, lift, pressure distribution,
aero-acoustics, flow field and other factors (Chamorro & Port-Agel, 2009).
Usually, meshing of exterior aerodynamic use multi-block scheme to generate the

grid with tetrahedral elements, and hexahedral elements adjacent to body surfaces to
solve accurately the flow in the proximity (Huminic et al., 2012; Strachan, Knowles,
& Lawson, 2007). Figures 2.2.4.1.2 shows the examples of exterior computational
fluid dynamic (CFD).
Figure 2.2.4.1.2: examples of exterior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) (Banks,

2007)
32
2.2.4.2 Wind Tunnel
Wind tunnel is an instrument commonly use for the study of the effects of air moving
solid objects in term of aerodynamic. Usually wind tunnel is use for research to
observe the pattern and effects of fluid flow over the body. Wind tunnel consists of a
cavity which air can move thoroughly. Desired test subject are mounted in the middle
of the cavity. Powerful fan system blow air through wind tunnel according to the
specify velocity which can be control. The wind tunnel model which is the test
subject normally equipped with suitable sensors to measure pressure distribution,
aerodynamic drag forces, and other aerodynamic related characteristics.(Bottasso,
Campagnolo, & Petrovi, 2014; Zhang & Gu, 2008). Wind tunnel testing has
advantages over road testing because the condition can be repeat and control as desire
(Bottasso et al., 2014; Zhang & Gu, 2008). Figure 2.2.4.2 shows the example of wind
tunnel.
Figure 2.2.4.2: wind tunnel section(Biscarini, 1998)
33
2.2.4.2.1 Moving Ground
Moving ground wind tunnel is the wind tunnel which equipped with conveyor or belt
that can move according to the airstream in the tunnel where the test subject is
located above it. For accurate dynamic simulation, the comparative velocities
between vehicle, wheels and road have to be replicates. By moving the ground under
the model and rotating the model wheels with moving belt that match the airstream in
the tunnel, the boundary layer under the model is dramatically reduced (Kwon, Park,
Lee, & Kim, 2001). Figure 2.2.4.2.1 shows the wind tunnel with moving ground.
Figure 2.2.4.2.1: wind tunnel with moving ground (Xu, 2001)
34
2.2.4.2.2 Static Ground
Static ground wind tunnel is the wind tunnel which have the static ground which
mean the model are place on the ground that cannot move. This wind tunnel method
have disadvantage where the airflow under the model is not accurately simulated
because there are boundary layer between ground and the vehicle. But, this method
is much cheaper than the moving ground method (Kwon et al., 2001). Figure
2.2.4.2.2 show wind tunnel with static ground.
Figure 2.2.4.2.2: static ground wind tunnel (Holmes, 2001)
35
2.3 Case Study
Case study is a design of research. It is can be defined as a single unit intensive study
where the researchers aim is to clarify features of a larger class of similar issue (John
W Creswell, 2009; Van Wynsberghe & Khan, 2007).
An action plan is a research design that guides the study from the questions to the
conclusions and includes analysing, collecting steps, and evidence interpreting
according to the pre-established proposals, analyses units, a propositions linking data
logic, and set of application criteria to interpret the findings (J W Creswell, 2003; Van
Wynsberghe & Khan, 2007). The placebo double-blind experiment is a common
example of a design of experimental research. It provides researcher clear guidance
on how to keep on with the study in terms of variables controls types, number to
study, and sampling techniques (Van Wynsberghe & Khan, 2007).
2.3.1 Venturi Effect and Diffuser
In this paper, new aspects present by the authors concerning the fluid flow around the
Ahmed body by using model of 35 back angle as reference, built-in with a simple
underbody rear diffuser, having a variable radius of the lower front section and
without endplates. The underbody Venturi nozzle geometry shaped effect on the main
aerodynamic characteristics, drag and lift, is revealed. Different geometrical
configurations of the underbody study was performed such as front section radius,
diffuser length and diffuser angle, which are then varied within the relevant range for
hatchback passenger cars (Huminic et al., 2012).
36
No significant fluctuations of the aerodynamic loads are recorded caused by variation
of the lower front section radius, but the result shows that the front section curved
influences the underbody pressure variation. Study of the diffuser influence on the
aerodynamic main characteristics tells that there is predictable and continuous drag
variation and lift variation for the diffuser angle.(Huminic et al., 2012). Above the
value d 7 , airstream separations may occur due to the vortex structures
increment on the diffuser surface sides by underbody region lateral inflows, which
significantly affect the flow aspect behind the body. Aiding by a predictable and
continuous drag variation with diffuser angle, an aerodynamic resistance coefficient
of the diffuser is stated analytically as parameters function of diffuser with acceptable
accuracy, as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 2.3.1: Distribution of deviations of analytical results from CFD (Huminic et

al., 2012)
Thus, (Huminic et al., 2012) claim that optimisation of the beneath bodies flow of
ground effect can be performed by separating the underbody shaped as a Venturi
nozzle, into components that allow coefficients of aerodynamic resistance
computation. (Huminic et al., 2012) claim that this approach can help to evaluate the
underbody the total drag. (Huminic et al., 2012) said that Computational Fluid
Dynamic (CFD) has become a valuable tool for external shape alteration of road
vehicles Also, for ground effect situations, (Barber, 2006) stated that the simulation
of numerical is a practicable option (Huminic et al., 2012).
37
2.3.2 Spoiler
High velocity sedan car aerodynamic drag, lift and flow characteristics were
numerically investigated by (Hu & Wong, 2011). (Hu & Wong, 2011) states that
without rear spoiler, two extra contributions for the total pressure force on a vehicle
merge. The first contribution is lift force that usually reduce by the pressure on the
spoiler force, and the second contribution is the increase of vehicle back surface
pressure caused by the diffuse effect of the spoiler. (Hu & Wong, 2011) selected
standard k model as the model of turbulence for numerical simulations and
then the external flows around the car body with a rear-spoiler were investigated
three-dimensionally. The parameters include in the study are shape of the spoiler,
position of attachment, and the clearance variable. Through comparison of 24 cases
results,(Hu & Wong, 2011) manage to conclude that high speed passenger car with
rear spoiler diminish negative lift and reduce aerodynamic drag by 1.7% (Hu &
Wong, 2011).
2.3.3 Race Car Rear Wings
In the study of race car rear wings, (Yang et al., 2011) use automatic cycling method.
With the programming of computer, the parametric automation modelling and the
rear wing computation numerical technology, (Yang et al., 2011) discover that when
the aileron angle of attack is small, both downforce and aerodynamic drag increase
when the angle of attack increase, and (Yang et al., 2011) conclude that further study
need to be conduct to achieve the optimal curve. (Yang et al., 2011) claim that by
comparing and calculating only on single parameter, air foil corresponding structure
can hardly achieved. This is because when the aileron angle of attack of is large, the
downforce decreases while aerodynamic drag increases with increase of the angle of
attack, which has to be avoided when designing the rear wing. (Yang et al., 2011)
believed that fully automatic cycling method improves the efficiency dramatically,
but the cost for computation of three-dimensional is expensive. Hence, (Yang et al.,
38
2011) suggest Design of Experiment (DOE) method is the most relevant method to
be used for the three-dimensional cases optimization.
39
2.4 Methodology
Methodology is the theoretical analysis of methods that systematically applied to a

field of study. It comprises of theoretical analysis methods and principles of the body
associated with a division of knowledge. Usually, it covers concepts such as
theoretical model, paradigm, quantitative or qualitative techniques and phases.
Methodology offers the underpinning theoretical for method understanding and the
best practices that can be applied to specific case (Ishak & Alias, 2005).
2.4.1 Physical
Physical methodology is the method use for aerodynamic analysis using real finite
body which the body need to be fabricate in order to run the testing. The example
physical methodology testing are of road testing and wind tunnel. Usually, both
testing require sensors in order to obtain data. Road testing is recommended for
testing of effect aerodynamic toward noise and the behaviour of vehicle when
running on local environment. This is because the road testing give actual condition
and nature wind flow pattern. But, to obtain fluid flow pattern, Road testing is no
longer advised because of the flow pattern is hardly to observe by current technology.
On the other hand, wind tunnel is recommended for the study of fluid flow pattern
and the effect of fluid flow. This is because wind tunnel provide controlled condition
and environment. Therefore, fluid flow pattern and effect can easily observe since
dyed fluid can be induced to the fluid flow (Konstantinidis & Bouris, 1997; Ramli &
Faris, 2008).
40
2.4.1.1 Wind Tunnel
Wind tunnel is a method that commonly use for the study of the effects of air moving
solid objects in term of aerodynamic. Usually wind tunnel is use for research to
observe the pattern and effects of fluid flow over the body. Wind tunnel consists of a
cavity which air can move thoroughly. Desired test subject are mounted in the middle
of the cavity. Powerful fan system blow air through wind tunnel according to the
specify velocity which can be control. The wind tunnel model which is the test
subject normally equipped with suitable sensors to measure pressure distribution,
aerodynamic drag forces, and other aerodynamic related characteristics (Bottasso et
al., 2014; Zhang & Gu, 2008). Wind tunnel testing has advantages over road testing
because the condition can be repeat and control as desire (Bottasso et al., 2014;
Zhang & Gu, 2008).
Moving ground wind tunnel is the wind tunnel which equipped with conveyor or belt
that can move according to the airstream in the tunnel where the test subject is
located above it. For accurate dynamic simulation, the comparative velocities
between vehicle, wheels and road have to be replicates. By moving the ground under
the model and rotating the model wheels with moving belt that match the airstream in
the tunnel, the boundary layer under the model is dramatically reduced (Kwon et al.,
2001).
Static ground wind tunnel is the wind tunnel which have the static ground which
mean the model are place on the ground that cannot move. This wind tunnel method
have disadvantage where the airflow under the model is not accurately simulated
because there are boundary layer between ground and the vehicle. But, this method
is much cheaper than the moving ground method (Kwon et al., 2001).
41
2.4.1.1.1 Interior Air Flow
To study the fluid flow pattern of interior model, the model need to be fabricated by
using transparent material. The model is then placed in the wind tunnel cavity and set
up as the standard wind tunnel settings. To obtain the internal fluid flow pattern,
normally moving ground is not required. The fluid flow can be observed through the
transparent body. The interior of the model can be equipped with suitable sensors to
measure pressure distribution, aerodynamic drag forces, and other aerodynamic
related characteristics (Bottasso et al., 2014; Kwon et al., 2001; Zhang & Gu, 2008).
2.4.1.1.2 Exterior Air Flow
External air flow wind tunnel is a method that commonly use for the study of the
effects of air moving around the solid objects in term of aerodynamic. Usually wind
tunnel is use for research to observe the pattern and effects of fluid flow over the
body exterior. Desired test subject are mounted in the middle of the cavity. Powerful
fan system blow air through wind tunnel according to the specify velocity which can
be control. The wind tunnel model which is the test subject normally equipped with
suitable sensors to measure pressure distribution, aerodynamic drag forces, and other
aerodynamic related characteristics (Bottasso et al., 2014; Zhang & Gu, 2008).
42
2.4.1.2 Sensors
Normally, physical methodology to analyse aerodynamic related behaviour require

sensors in order to obtain data. Suitable sensors are added to the desire test model to
measure pressure distribution, aerodynamic drag forces, and other aerodynamic
related characteristics. The sensors use usually mass air flow sensor, absolute
pressure sensors and air temperature sensors (Bottasso et al., 2014; Kwon et al.,
2001; Zhang & Gu, 2008).
2.4.2 Simulation
Simulation method is the method that imitation of the actual process operation of
system over time. The use of imitation is significance because it provides
approximation prediction of event for better understanding of the representations
(Banks, 1999; Park et al., 2008; Patel & Smith, 2012).
Simulation involves artificial history of the system generation, and the observation of
that artificial history draw inferences concerning characteristics of operating the real
system that is represented (Banks, 1999).
Simulation is a vital methodology to solve problem and to discover solution for many
real-world problems. Simulation is used to analyse and define the behaviour of a
system. Both existing and conceptual systems can be modelled with simulation.
(Banks, 1999). The simulation method is cost saving since no fabrication needed.
Moreover, the model in simulation can be use multiple of times (Sahu et al., 2008).
43
2.4.3.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) Simulation
With the continuous development of powerful computers, numerical simulations of

various approximations such as Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) and Large
Eddy Simulation (LES) began supplementing these numerical simulation. Eventually,
these numerical simulation methods gradually recognised as Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) (Johnson et al., 2003). Therefore, computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) method became more and more popular over time. Moreover, computational
fluid dynamic (CFD) method have become the most used method for current
research.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is a simulation associated to fluid mechanics

division that uses algorithms and numerical methods to analyse and solve problems
that involve flows of fluid. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) uses computers to
perform required calculations for simulation of the interaction of gases and liquids
with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. Better solutions can be achieved by
using high-speed processers. Wind tunnel was used as the initial experimental
validation of such software. The final validation of the software was tested by using
full-scale testing (DUNCAN, 1948; MILNE-THOMSON, 1940; Milne-Thomson &
Rott, 1968)
2.4.3.1.1 Interior Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD)
Interior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) method deal with the computational of
fluid flow in the closed body such as pipe, nozzle, exhaust, and tube. Three most
common computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods use for interior fluid flow
computational are direct numerical simulation (DNS), RANS models, and large eddy
simulation (LES). Direct numerical simulation (DNS) commonly used for research
of academic applications since it solves interior fluid flow by using the smallest
scales (Pumir, 2002; Taylor et al., 2012).
For interior fluid flow, DNS and RANS models are combined yielding Large Eddy
Simulation (Large Eddy Simulation (LES). For larger motions of turbulent scale, full
44
Navier-Stokes equations are solved using filters, but smaller scale turbulent motions
use RANS models to solve the equations. As technology of computer processing
advancing, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) gradually turn into suitable method for use
in interior computational fluid dynamic (CFD), RANS models are the most
commonly used CFD models for practical design and industrial applications.
Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) methods are the method that commonly
use because this method are cheaper than DNS and LES models because it does not
require high performance computer. However, to represent the artificial Reynolds
stresses, Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) require additional turbulence
model (Pumir, 2002; Taylor et al., 2012).
2.4.3.1.2 Exterior Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) Simulation
Exterior computational fluid dynamic (CFD) method deal with the computational of
fluid flow at the surface of body such as car, ball, motorcycle and bicycle. Virtual
Wind Tunnel (VWT) is an innovative solution for exterior computational fluid
dynamic (CFD). With a highly automated and streamlined workflow process and
high quality CFD technology, Virtual Wind Tunnel (VWT) produce quick and
accurate prediction of external flow of aerodynamic including aerodynamic drag, lift,
pressure distribution, aero-acoustics, flow field and other factors (Chamorro & Port-
Agel, 2009).
Usually, meshing of exterior aerodynamic use multi-block scheme to generate the

grid with tetrahedral elements, and hexahedral elements adjacent to body surfaces to
solve accurately the flow in the proximity (Huminic et al., 2012; Strachan et al.,
2007).
45
2.4.3.2 Virtual Wind Tunnel
Virtual Wind Tunnel (VWT) method is an innovative solution designed that provide
better wind tunnel simulation technology and better user experience. With a highly
automated and streamlined workflow process and high quality CFD technology,
Virtual Wind Tunnel (VWT) produce quick and accurate prediction of automobiles
aerodynamic performance, including aerodynamic drag, lift, pressure distribution,
aero-acoustics, flow field and other factors, resulting in safer, better-performing, and
more fuel-efficient vehicles (Chamorro & Port-Agel, 2009).
2.4.3 Judgement
The most appropriate method to be use in this study are:
1. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD)

2. Virtual wind tunnel
3. Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) method is the cheapest method among other
analysis method. This method also generate reliable result which can be observe
easily. The data obtained is the finite data with can be easily interpreted. The fluid
flow analysis also shown in the interactive graphic. The computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) method does not require fabrication of the model. Hence, the model can be
redesign to achieve expected results.
In order to design the model to be tested in the computational fluid dynamic (CFD),
Computer-aided Design (CAD) need to utilised to develop the model. Computer-
aided Design (CAD) is the suitable tools since both computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) and Computer-aided Design (CAD) can be integrated. Therefore, Computer-
aided Design (CAD) is the most suitable method in Computer-aided Design (CAD)
development.
46
The theory of this study apply both internal and external airflow concept to reduce
drag coefficient C D . So, Ansys is the best method to be combined with
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) for this study. Moreover, beside the cost
effective of this method, Ansys method also provides innovative solution designed
that provide better wind tunnel simulation technology and better user experience.
With a highly automated and streamlined workflow process and high quality CFD
technology, Ansys produce quick and accurate prediction of automobiles
aerodynamic performance, including aerodynamic drag, lift, pressure distribution,
aero-acoustics, flow field and other factors, resulting in safer, better-performing, and
more fuel-efficient vehicles(Chamorro & Port-Agel, 2009).
47
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Procedures are being describe in this chapter. As mentioned in Chapter 1.3, this
project is conducted by comparing Ahmed body with drag reducing devices and
Ahmed body without drag reduction device by means of Computational Fluid
Dynamic (CFD). Catia and Ansys are the software used and the setup with essential
settings are described in subchapter 3.1 to 3.4. Information about the selected devices
is presented in Subchapter 3.1. Furthermore, the evaluation of the device are tested
and analysed to see if drag can be improved even more with the concept. The flow of
the method is illustrate by figure 3.
48
Fi
gure 3: methodology flowchart
49
3.1 Geometry development
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the utilisation of computer systems to assist in the

designing, modification, optimization or analysis of a concept, prototype or existed
body. The purpose of Computer-aided Design (CAD) software is to expand the
quality of design, rise the productivity of the designer, to create database for
manufacturing and improve communications through documentation. Computer-
aided Design (CAD) output usually in the form of electronic files for machining,
print, or other manufacturing operations (Vosniakos, Ziaaie-Moayyed, & Mamalis,
1997).
CATIA is a name of a Computer-aided engineering (CAE) commercial software suite

developed by the French company named Dassault Systmes directed by Bernard
Charls. CATIA originally stands for Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive
Application and now become a brand. CATIA is a multi-platform Computer-aided
Design (CAD) / Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software (Bernard, 2003).
Body that will be generate for this study is Ahmed body as stated in chapter 1.3.
Ahmed body will be drawn by using CATIA V5R21 by Dassault Systmes. The
dimensions used is the standard Ahmed body dimension with no slant angle that is
used in common research such as research done by (Ahmed et al., 1984; Franck et al.,
2009; Johnson et al., 2003). The airflow correction device will be added to the
standard Ahmed body.
50
Figure 3.1: Ahmed body benchmark design
The geometry is than imported from CATIA to the ANSYS. The geometry is then
frozen before enclosure is create. The enclosure is create as it is act as wind tunnel
with the xy plane and zx plane was set as symmetry which means the Ahmed body
was on the ground precisely and the Ahmed body was cut into half so that the
simulation run is just half of the geometry to reduce computing power and it will be
mirrored later on. The other value is sets as follows:
+x value = 2088
+y value = 2426
+z value = 2282.5
-x value = 6264
The value are accordance to the MIRA model as suggested in (Gmbh, 2005) Which is
two body length to the front, two body length to the side, two body length to the top
and five body length to the rear. After that, Boolean subtract is create to diminish the
Ahmed body leaving only air with empty Ahmed body shape inside.
The refinement zone was create as suggested in (Chen et al., 1996; Gmbh, 2005). It is
one body length to the front, one body length to the rear, one body length to the top
and one body length to the side. The geometry was freeze again.
3.2 Pre-processing Configuration
Pre-processing is where meshing of wind tunnel take place. It make the infinite
volume at the wind tunnel to be finite. The meshing setting was sets as suggest by
(Gmbh, 2005; Liu, Untaroiu, Wood, Yan, & Wei, 2014). The settings are sets as
follows:
51
Table 3.2.1: General mesh sizing
Mesh sizing for the whole wind tunnel are set as course with medium smoothing to
save computational time. Moreover, the observe region is just on the Ahmed body
and its wake region. The mesh will be generate by proximity and curvature. It means
that the mesh sizing will be adjusted according to the geometry. The transition are set
as slow which means the size of mesh slowly transform from course to fine at the
non-refinement zone to the refinement zone. The maximum size of mesh are sets as
250mm and the minimum size are sets to 1mm which means the range of mesh is
between that. Growth rate are sets to 1.2 which the mesh will grow large or grow
small about 1.2 of its size.
52
Table 3.2.2: Mesh sizing of Ahmed body tires surface
The size of mesh at the Ahmed body tires are set as 2mm. This is to prevent error
because the tire is small. Behaviour soft means the transition between large to small
mesh is not forced. It have tolerance.
Table 3.2.3: Mesh sizing of Ahmed body surface
The mesh sizing at the Ahmed body surface is 10mm this is a standard automotive
mesh sizing. Behaviour soft means the transition between large to small mesh is not
forced. It have tolerance.
53
Table 3.2.4: Mesh sizing of refinement zone
The refinement zone is 1 body length to the rear, 1 body length to the side, 1 body
length to the front and 1 body length to the top. The refinement zone dimensions are
suggested by (Gmbh, 2005). The size of the refinement zone is 15mm as suggested
by (Gmbh, 2005; Kayne, 2012).
Table 3.2.5: Inflation mesh layer at ground surface and outer body surfaces.
To capture the boundary layer near the surface of the body, mesh refinement alone is
not sufficient, therefore, special mesh tangential to the surface has to be created. This
54
type of mesh is called inflation in ANSYS and a default inflation of 1.2 is set as the
mesh will grow 20% from its initial value. The maximum number mesh layer of five
has been set which is considered sufficient to capture the boundary layer flow. The
inflations are assigned at the Ahmed body and road.
3.3 Setup configuration
Figure 3.3.1: Solver setting
The setup chosen is Pressure-Based to monitor pressure. The time chosen is steady
state which is the iteration will be captured after the flow of air is steady. The
velocity formulation absolute means the velocity of air is depend solely at the inlet.
55
Figure 3.3.2: Viscous model configurations
Model choose is Realizable k-epsilon with non-equilibrium wall function which used
by most modern computational fluid dynamic (CFD) studies such as (Gmbh, 2005;
Sapienza, 2002; Skin friction impacts on fuel consumption Zambri Harun * Mohd
Faruq Abdul Latif Mohammad Rasidi Rasani and Wan Mohd Faizal Wan Mahmood,
2014). Realizable k-epsilon is the upgrade of standard k-epsilon which give better
accuracy of wake capture without increase the computational power needed. Non-
equilibrium wall function further reduce computational time.
56
Figure 3.3.3: Boundary condition assigned
Figure 3.3.3 shows the assigned boundary conditions. Each surface needs to be assign
so that computational is possible.
Figure 3.3.4: Ahmed body zone settings
Ahmed body was set as stationary wall with no slip condition which represent real
car condition.
57
Figure 3.3.5: Pressure Outlet settings
Specification method used is intensity and viscosity ratio with backflow turbulent
intensity 5% and backflow viscosity ratio 10% as suggested in (Gmbh, 2005;
Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010). This backflow settings give best observable backflow
without changing its properties or its behaviour.
58
Figure 3.3.6: velocity inlet settings
Specification method used is intensity and viscosity ratio with turbulent intensity of
1% and turbulent viscosity ratio 10% as suggested in (Gmbh, 2005; Hkansson &
Lenngren, 2010). This turbulent settings give best observable turbulant without
changing its properties or its behaviour.
59
Figure 3.3.7: Road settings
Road are set as stationary wall with no slip shear condition which represent a real
road surface.
60
Figure 3.3.8: Reference value
At velocity inlet, Area was sets 0.0575165 as the frontal projection area of the Ahmed
body. Density 1.225 use as it is the density of air at Malaysia. Temperature 302.15 is
used based on the average temperature of Malaysia in 2014. The velocity are taken as
the fastest allowable velocity of vehicle at Malaysia.
61
Figure 3.3.9: Solution method for the first 100 iterations
Figure 3.3.10: Solution method for the 200 to 600 iterations
62
Figure 3.3.11: Solution controls for the first 100 iterations
Figure 3.3.12: Solution controls for the 200 to 600 iterations
The solution method for the pressure-velocity coupling is set as COUPLE because
this is more accurate compared with the SIMPLE method. However this method will
63
consume double the computational time. The solution is calculated until 100
iterations.
3.4 Numerical Method Configuration
In a previous study by (Huminic et al., 2012),a theoretical method was presented for
computation of an underbody drag shaped as a Venturi nozzle. Thus, the study
proposed that the decomposition of the total drag into two following components:
D=D ext + Dub (13)

Where
Dext : drag due to the airflow on external upper surfaces of the vehicle, having the
flow rate Qext , as shown in Figure 3.4a.
Dub : drag due to the vehicle under the body flow, in the space between road and
the lower surface of the vehicle, having the flow rate Qub .
F
igure 3.4a: geometrical characteristics of the venturi nozzle at the underbody
level(Huminic et al., 2012)
The sum of Qext and Qub represent the volume of air that enveloping the
vehicle, dislocated in unit time:
64
Qext +Qub=Q=v A (14)
Where
v : Free stream reference velocity
A : Vehicle reference area.
The Qub main components are given by:
The atmospheric conditions air flowing through the Venturi nozzle. This term also
contains lateral inflows into the region of underbody by means of ejection free.
The impact at the leading edge generated the lower branch of the stream, which
flows underneath of the vehicle. A significant airstream fraction is used, generally, for
cooling in compartment of the engine.
Considering that the resultant fluid in the entire cross section of the nozzle is
homogeneous, b h for the second component of the vehicles drag, Dub , was
determined analytically by the following equation:
v3 (15)
D ub= ub bh
2 v
Where
ub : Equivalent aerodynamic resistance coefficient of the nozzle (geometry of
vehicle underbody)
v : Air velocity average through the nozzle constant section.
Correspondingly, to characterise the underbody airflow, the following dimensionless

indicators were proposed:
K D : Coefficient that represent the underbody drag to total drag ratio. It defined as
product of three dimensionless factors, equation (16)
K Q : Coefficient that express the contribution of the flow rate of underbody on
flow rate of total body, equation (17)
65
Dub ub bh v 3
(16)
KD= =
D C D A v ( )
Qub (17)
K Q=
Q
Where
ub
CD : Relative drag
bh
A : Relative area
v
v : Relative velocity
Therefore, the underbody drag coefficient C DU can be written as the following
equation:
3
bh v (18)
C DU =K D C D= ub
A v( )
Equation (18) consist of two variables which are the air velocity average and the
equivalent aerodynamic resistance coefficient of the nozzle through the nozzle
section. By dividing the geometry of the underbody into three sections as shown in
Figure 3.4b, the equivalent nozzle aerodynamic coefficients of the resistance can be
calculated as:
ub= i + m + d (19)
Where
i : Aerodynamic resistance coefficient of the inlet section
m : aerodynamic resistance coefficient of middle section which is constant
d : aerodynamic resistance coefficient of diffuser.
66
Figure 3.4b: geometrical characteristics of the Venturi underbody nozzle (Huminic et
al., 2012)
The result of losses of pressure in a stream tube and coefficients can be computed
using similar procedures used by (Huminic et al., 2012):
p tot p tot ( p pout ) tot (20)

= =2 =2
p dyn p v 2 p v2
Where
ptot : The total pressure variation between outlet and inlet sections of stream tube
p v 2
pdyn = : (dynamic pressure reference of the stream)
2
For computing the flow variables, the code used solves full Reynolds-Averaged
NavierStokes (RANS) equations in their conservation of mass form equation,
energy equation and momentum equation. The steady-state three-dimensional RANS
equations of momentum and mass conservation for an isothermal, incompressible,
viscous flow of a Newtonian fluid, in Cartesian coordinates, in partial differential
equation and conservation form with the Boussinesqs hypothesis are referred to the
(Huminic et al., 2012) which are:
vi (21)
=0
xi
v i v j p vi v j (22)

xj
= +
xi x i
(+
xj x j

) ( v ' v ' )
xj i j
67
Where
x i , x j : Cartesian coordinates
vi : i th
vj : j th
v ' i , v ' j : Fluctuating velocity parts
p: average pressure
: Density of air free stream, which is assumed constant
: Dynamic viscosity of air free stream, which is assumed constant.
The indexes i and j are used to distinguish components of Cartesian.
Summation over that index is required if an index appears two times in a term. The
Reynolds stress turbulent tensor, v ' iv ' j in equation (17) is developed by adopting
the extended Boussinesqs hypothesis, which relates the mean rate of deformation to
the turbulent stresses (Huminic et al., 2012; Versteeg H K, 1995) which is:
t v i v j 2 (23)
( v ' iv ' j ) = ( + + k
x j x i 3 ij)
Where
t : Viscosity of turbulent
ij : Kronecker delta: ij=1 if i= j and ij=0 if i j
k
( v 'iv ' j)
: Kinetic energy turbulence per unit mass: k = 2
The Shear-Stress-Transport (SST) (Menter, 1994) closure model are used to solve
the processes of simulation. It consist of two-equation of eddy-viscosity model, based
on k model of (WILCOX, 1988) The SST model was developed to blend the
68
robust effectively and accurate formulation of the k near-wall region model,
with the independence free stream of the k far field model. To model in the far
field, this model uses a blending function. It switch from k to k in the
region of wake to prevent the model from being sensitive to free stream conditions.
The turbulent viscosity definition is modified to account for the modelling constants,
and the turbulent shear stress transport. These features resulting great improvement in
terms of fluid flow separation calculations, and the this model performances have
been verified in a huge number of validation studies, including previous experiences
of the authors (Huminic et al., 2012; Huminic & Huminic, 2008).
In this study, the analyses were performed under the conditions of the International
Standard Atmosphere: air temperature t = 15C, air pressure p = 101,325 Pa.
The conditions were used for the overall computation of the air-free stream
parameters, as viscosity and density. The air-free stream reference velocity is v =
6
40 m/s with Re = 2.63 10 , and the intensity of turbulence was set to 0.2%. The
Reynolds number are computed according to the Ahmed body length. The modelling
constants used in equations model are the standard values that can be found in
literature.(Huminic et al., 2012)
Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) allows calculation of aerodynamic loads, D
and aerodynamic lift, L acting over vehicle surfaces, and the aerodynamic
coefficients, C D and C L .(Huminic et al., 2012). The equations of C D and
C L are:
D (24)
C D =2
p v 2 A
L (25)
C L =2
p v 2 A
To understand how a reduction of drag affecting fuel consumption, the drag
improvement can be calculated into fuel saving in percent (FS), see Equation 26.
69
Cd 16
FS()= (26)
30
In the fuel saving formula, the factor of 16 is based on experiments of a long-distance

transport with a truck of 40 ton. The denominator of 30 is based on the fuel
consumption of the truck which is of 30L/100km. This fuel saving evaluation is the
formula used in-house at Volvo and the result should be considered with care since
several factors influence the fuel consumption.(Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010)
70
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
4.1 Iteration Convergence
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Coefficient of drag (Cd) 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
No. of iterations
benchmark model model 1 model 2

model 3 model 4 model 5
Figure 4.1.1: Drag coefficient (Cd) vs Iterations
Table 4.1.1: Converged drag coefficient (Cd)

models Converged Drag coefficient (Cd) % of Reduction or Gain
2 0.3201 19.9775 (gain)
1 0.2774 3.9730 (gain)
Benchmark 0.2668 0
4 0.2594 2.7736 (reduction)
3 0.2560 4.0480 (reduction)
5 0.2547 4.5352 (reduction)
71
0
-0.1
-0.2
Coefficient of Lift (Cl) -0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
Iterations
benchmark model 1 model2

model3 model4 model5
Graph 4.1.2: Lift Coefficient vs Iterations
Table 4.1.2: Converged Lift Coefficient

models Converged Lift coefficient (Cl) % of reduction
Benchmark -0.1286 0
3 -0.1333 0.0365
2 -0.1343 0.0443
5 -0.1378 0.0715
4 -0.1425 0.1081
1 -0.1816 0.4121
72
4.2 Pressure Contour
Figure 4.2.1: pressure contour of benchmark model
Figure 4.2.2: pressure contour of model 1
73
74
4.3 Velocity Contour
Figure 4.3.1: velocity contour of benchmark model
Figure 4.3.2: velocity contour of model 1
75
76
4.4 Streamlines
Figure 4.4.1: velocity streamlines of benchmark model
Figure 4.4.2: velocity streamlines of model 1
77
78
4.6 Velocity vector
Figure 4.6.1: velocity vector of benchmark model
79
Fi
gure 4.6.2: velocity vector of model 1
80
Figure 4.6.3: velocity vector of model 2
81
82
83
84
4.7 Pressure coefficient at the Rear of the Body
Chart Title
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.05
-0.1
Pressure Coefficient (Cp)
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
Rear height of body (mm)
Figure 4.7.1: Pressure coefficient at the rear of benchmark model
Chart Title
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.05
Pressure Coefficient (Cp) -0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
Height at Rear Body (mm)
Figure 4.7.2: Pressure coefficient at the rear of model 1
85
model 2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.25
-0.3
-0.35
-0.4
Chart Title
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
86
Chart Title
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
Chart Title
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
-0.12
-0.14
-0.16
-0.18
-0.2
Height at Rear Body
87
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
-0.35
-0.4
benchmark model 1 model 2

model 3 model 4 model 5
Figure 4.7.7: Pressure Coefficient at Rear Bodies
88
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
5.1 Iteration Convergence
By referring to graph of drag coefficient (Cd) against iteration number in figure 4.1.1
and graph of lift coefficient (Cl) against iteration in figure 4.1.2, when approaching
600 iteration the drag coefficient (Cd) and coefficient of lift (Cl) is converging as the
data have not changed more than ten iterations. It shown that drag coefficient (Cd)
and lift coefficient (Cl) has been fully converged and can be assumed that the value
of drag coefficient (Cd) and lift coefficient (Cl) obtained can be trust (Mohd Faruq
Abdul Latif . et el, 2014).
By referring to the table of 4.1.1, the lowest Drag coefficient (Cd) is model 5 with
drag coefficient (Cd) value of 0.2547 which is 4.535% reduction compare to the
benchmark model. It is also shown that model 3, 4 and 5 reduce drag whereas model
1 and 2 shows negative result which is gain of drag coefficient (Cd).
By referring to table 4.1.2, all model shows negative coefficient of lift (Cl) which
mean all models induce down force. This is because the lower under body of the
body have lower overall pressure compared to the upper body. From the table of
4.1.2, it shown that model 1 possess the lowest drag coefficient followed by model 4,
5, 2, 3 and benchmark. But the lift coefficient reduction is not significant compared
to those 6 models.
89
5.2 Model Selection
Model 1
Figure 5.2.1: Model and Dimension of Model 1
Model 1 is chosen based on benchmark model where the suction path was create
from behind the car and channel to the under body which front tire was located. The
pressure at the front tyre location is lower than the pressure at the pressure behind the
body. The path created have same dimensions from rear to the bottom to maintain the
pressure across the path. But the opening at the bottom is 1/3 larger than the opening
at bottom because of the angle different at the opening.
90
Model 2
91
92
Figure 5.2.3: Model and dimensions of model 3
Model 3 was create to observe the effect of blowing at the top rear of the body by
suction at the middle of the body. The blowing at the top rear body will create
diffuser effect where the wake region pressure is increased. The suction at the middle
of the rear body will reduce the wake region. The opening area of inlet and outlet is
same. The pressure differences behind the body makes the flow of air at the
correction device possible.
93
Model 4
SID
Figure 5.2.4: Model and dimensions of model 4
Model 4 was create to validate the theory of model 3 which is blowing at the top rear
of the body create diffuser effect which can reduce drag. Model 3 have suction effect
at the middle of the body and therefore create reduction of the wake region which can
contribute to drag reduction whereas model 4 only have blowing effect at the rear of
the body. The blowing path are create from bottom rear of the body to the top rear of
the body. The opening of the inlet and outlet area is same. The flowing of air inside
94
the correction device path possible because of the pressure at the rear of the body is
lower than the pressure under the body.
95
Model 5
Figure 5.2.5: model and dimensions of model 5
Model 5 was create by combining the suction and blowing effect which applied
venturi effect proposed by Bernoulli. The opening at top rear of the model is
96
smaller than its bottom rear opening. The small opening yield high velocity low
pressure whereas the large opening yield low velocity high pressure. Therefore, air is
sucks from top rear opening to the bottom rear opening. The suction at the top rear of
the body pull the pass by air and reduce the wake region behind the vehicle. The
bottom blowing air increase the air pressure at the wake region.
97
5.3 Benchmark
Figure 4.3.1, 4.4.1, and 4.6.1 representing a benchmark velocity contour, streamlines
and velocity vector consecutively at the middle of the body longitudinally. A large
wake structures behind the body can be observe from the figures. These unsteady
wake structures symbolize large energy losses in the flow which contributes to drag
(Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010). The wake is generated just behind the body as air
separates from the surface at the trailing edge at the rear of the body. A low-pressure
region is created behind the body when the separation occurs and air is sucked into
the wake from all the sides. This can be seen on figure 4.6.1.
Moreover, by observing figure 4.1.1, it can be clearly seen there are large pressure
difference between front of the body and rear of the body which can be further reduce
by adding device at the rear of the body. Pressure difference between rear and front of
the vehicle contribute to pressure drag which contribute to 80% of overall drag
(Sudin & Abdullah, 2014).
Figure 4.7.1 shows the pressure at the rear of the body. The pressure acting on the
middle of the rear body is higher compare to the top and the bottom. The graph
obtained by taking pressure at each point of the rear body vertically. The graph
produce quite symmetrical from the middle to the top and from the middle to the
bottom. But the graph shows a little different at the top end and the bottom end.
5.4 model 1
By studying benchmark model, model 1 is produce to utilised lower pressure from
under the body to suck the air at the rear of the body hence reduce the wake region
behind the body.
The under body region where the device is channelled have lower pressure compared
to the rear region of the body. But, because the cavity length of the device neutralize
the low pressure, resulting to blowing at the rear region as well at the under body
98
region as seen on figure 4.6.2. The device also cause airflow along the lower body is
interrupted resulting to boundary layer separation which increase the drag coefficient
(Cd).
By referring to figure 4.1.2, it can be seen that by adding this device, both rear and
under body have higher pressure compare to the benchmark model. Figure 4.7.2
shows that pressure is dramatically rise at the region where the device is placed.
Figure 4.6.2 shows the wake air flow behind the vehicle was push away by this
device. The device does make the pressure at the rear of the body increase but drag
coefficient (Cd) does not reduce because of boundary layer at the under body region.
5.5 model 2
By studying benchmark model and model 1, model 2 is produce to create suction at
the rear body to reduce wake region and therefore reduce the low pressure region
behind the body. The device was placed at the region where the pressure is very low
and 2 region was selected as the outlet and one inlet at the rear.
Model 2 was successfully reduce wake region behind the body, see figure 4.2.3,
4.4.3, 4.5.3 and 4.6.3. Hence it reduce low pressure region as can be seen on figure
4.1.3 and decrease the pressure different between front and rear.
But, this model however produce more high pressure region at the front of the body
as seen of figure 4.1.3. This is because the pressure at low pressure region at the front
of the vehicle area have been risen due to the added device. Moreover, the device
also produce very large boundary layer separation which increase the drag coefficient
(Cd) by approximately 20%.
Figure 4.6.3 shows the vector of air did enter at the rear of body and exit at the
frontal area of the body. Figure 4.7.3 shows the pressure at the rear of the body where
the device is added decrease in pressure dramatically and create suction hence reduce
wake region behind the body.
99
5.6 model 3
Model 3 was developed to see the effect of drag by placing the device only at the rear
of the body. Result in figure 4.1.6 shows the drag coefficient does decrease for this
model. Figure 4.6.6 shows that the opening at the rear middle of the device act as
inlet where air enters and the top end opening act as outlet where air is blown.
Figure 4.7.6 also show a decrease in pressure at the middle rear of the body and
increase of the pressure at the top end of the body. The theory is the lower pressure at
the upper rear of the body sucks the air of the middle section of the rear body. The air
sucks at the middle section make the wake region converge downward thus reduce
the wake region. However, this model have flaw where the top rear blowing tend to
create larger wake area. But it is then counter by the middle suction area which
reduce wake.
This added device does reduce drag coefficient by 2.7736%.
5.7 model 4
Model 4 is studied to verify either blowing at the rear of the body can reduce drag or
not. The device channel low pressure at the top rear of the body to the bottom of the
body. This create blowing phenomenon at the top rear of the body as seen on figure
4.6.5. The idea is to create diffuser effect at the top of the body where pressure is
directly increase at the top rear of the body thus lower the drag coefficient (Jowsey &
Passmore, 2010).
By referring to figure 4.3.5 and 4.4.5, it is can be observed that the wake region
behind the body is reduced and the velocity is increased behind the body hence
increase in pressure at the rear of the body. By increasing the pressure of the rear of
the body, the pressure different between front and rear is reduce hence, pressure drag
is reduce (Sapienza, 2002; Sudin & Abdullah, 2014).
This device reduce drag by 2.7736%.
100
5.8 model 5
By studying all the models created and literature review, model 5 was created. Model
5 have a small opening at the top region and large opening at the bottom region. This
will induce venturi effect which will create low pressure at the small opening and
high pressure at the large opening(Anderson, 1991; Sudin & Abdullah, 2014).
Figure 4.3.6 shows that the wake region is smallest. And the velocity is increases.
Therefore, the pressure behind the body also increase making the pressure different at
the front and rear smaller. Hence reduce the drag by 4.5352% as seen in table 4.1.6.
Figure 4.6.6 shows air enter at the top rear of the body and leave at the bottom rear of
the body. The air is suck at the top of the rear body and reduce wake region. The
bottom rear body blow the air and reduce pressure behind the body. And therefore
reduce energy lost due to wake and pressure differences. Figure 4.7.6 shows the
pressure of the top is reduce and bottom is increased. It shown that pressure from the
rear of vehicle is utilised to create reduce wake region and to create more pressure.
The drag reduced by this model is 4.5352%.
101
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Based on the results obtained, it can be conclude that wake region can be reduce
either by suction or blown at the top region at the top of body. Both blown and
suction can reduce drag coefficient.
Model 1 and 4 induce blowing at the rear of the vehicle. Model 1 drag coefficient
increase whereas model 4 drag coefficient decrease. This is because the inlet at the
bottom of model 1 create boundary layer separation whereas model 4 does not.
Model 2 induce high pressure suction where the wake region is noticeably shrink but
the boundary layer separation also very large and it contribute to increase in drag
coefficient (Cd). Model 3 induce suction at the rear middle and blown at rear top of
the body. This is because of the difference in pressure at the top and the middle. The
top blown shrink the wake region and the middle suction also further shrink the wake
region. Model 5 however, the inlet and outlet placement is at the region with equal
pressure, but the opening area is different. By utilising the venturi effect, pressure
different is created and made the top end to suck the air and the bottom to blow the
air. The suction at the top end of the body shrink the wake region and the blow of air
at the bottom also helps in shrink the region while increase the pressure.
The region of the correction device need to be placed carefully. This is because
wrong placement can create boundary layer separation which leads to increase in
drag coefficient (Cd). It was shown by model 2 where drag coefficient (Cd) of the
model increase by 19.9775%.
Pressure distribution of Ahmed body does changed and the best correction device is
the one that implemented in model 5. This device have reduce drag coefficient (Cd)
to 0.2547 which is 4.5352% compared to benchmark.
The fuel consumption that can be reduce is 0.06% based on formula that proposed by
Volvo (Hkansson & Lenngren, 2010). See equation 26 in chapter 3.4.
102
6.1 Conclusion
This thesis verifies the possibilities of improving the aerodynamics around a bluff
body in order to reduce the fuel consumption, and concludes that:
Air flow correction device have a potential of reducing drag. Compared to the
benchmark, the model with airflow correction device susceptible for aerodynamic
drag improvements and thus the fuel.
It is not beneficial to aerodynamically change the geometry of the bluff body since
there are relative simple add-on devices that shows the equivalent effect.
6.2 Recommendation
Device that shown drag reduction such as device implement for model 3, 4 and 5
should be further study for optimization.
Continuing work from here on should be to optimize the devices to see if further
improvements can be achieved. For example, different angles and lengths of the
device inlet and outlet.
This project has only involved simulations around an Ahmed body. Hence, the
continuing work should include other types of body or real vehicle to see the
efficiency of the devices on different body configurations.
Even though there are many devices on the market today, they are not very common
on the road. Next step should therefore involve further analysis of cost efficiency and
user compatibility to increase the usage of the devices.
103
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UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

NOVEL CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF REAR

This report submitted in accordance with requirement of the Universiti Teknikal

MUHAMMAD FARIDHWAN BIN SHOFRI

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

MUHAMMAD FARIDHWAN BIN SHOFRI

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Faculty of Engineering Technology

UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

I hereby, declared this report entitled Novel Conceptual Design and

This report is submitted to the Faculty of Engineering Technology of UTeM as

This thesis is dedicated to my treasured father Mr. Shofri bin Abdullah, my

Bismillahirrahmanirrahim. In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful.

First and foremost, special thanks to my benevolent parents Mr. Shofri

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND NOMENCLATURE xi

1.2 Problem Statement 2

2.2 Vehicle Aerodynamic 12

2.3 Case Study 35

3.1 Geometry development 48

3.3 Setup configuration 52

3.4 Numerical Method Configuration 61

4.1 Iteration Convergence 67

4.2 Pressure Contour 69

4.3 Velocity Contour 71

4.6 Velocity vector 75

4.7 Pressure coefficient at the Rear of the Body 79

5.1 Iteration Convergence 83

5.2 Model Selection 84

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 94

4.1.1 Drag coefficient (Cd) vs Iterations 66

5.2.1 Model and Dimension of Model 1 83

3.2.1 General mesh sizing 49

4.1.1 Converged drag coefficient (Cd) 68

niEQ - Local equilibrium value for the population of particles in

Reducing fuel consumption and emissions is one of the most important

Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation has become an important research

The Cauchy-Riemann Equations discovered in 1900s. The mathematics community

By 1913, the pressure distribution around an air foil theoretically calculated

With desired properties, the methods continue to be useful today. Discussion of

These developments led to great numbers of calculations generating tables of data

Automotive vehicle aerodynamics is the study of road vehicles aerodynamics. Its

2.1.3 Aerodynamic Airflow

Vehicle aerodynamic is a branch of aerodynamic which share the same principle of

Figure 2.2: vehicle aerodynamic (Di Francesco, 2000)

Consider a point C in a volume of fluid. Let d x = element area at C and let d y =

Temperature plays an important role in high-speed aerodynamics. Temperature T of a

of V is frequently used and is denoted by V. Again, it is highlight that velocity is a

Figure2.2.1: Illustration of flow velocity and stream lines (Anderson, 1991)

Figure2.2.2a: example of streamline body (Sapienza, 2002)

The Ahmed model length L = 1044mm, which is approximately a quarter of a length

2.2.3 Drag Reduction

With the continuous development of powerful computers, numerical simulations of

Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is a simulation associated to fluid mechanics

a) Finite volume method (FVM)

b) Finite element method (FEM)

d) Coherent vortex simulation

v ' i , v ' j : Fluctuating velocity parts

: Density of air free stream, which is assumed constant

: Dynamic viscosity of air free stream, which is assumed constant.

Large eddy simulation (LES) is a mathematical model used in computational fluid

ij ( x , t ) =ui ( x , t )u j ( x ,t )ui ( x , t ) u j ( x , t ) (10)

v : current velocity of air.