BY TONI TARVER

turkey bacon
bacon
skim milk
whole milk
egg whites
eggs
margarine
butter

zi3000, BWFolsom, SasaJo/iStock/Thinkstock

pg 26 08.16 www.ift.org
 New research disputes the decades-old assumption that fatty foods,
particularly those containing saturated fats, are detrimental to health while
market data illustrate what consumers think.
ince the promotion of low-fat diets and
production of reduced-fat or fat-free ver-
sions of foods began in the late 1970s and
early 1980s, Americans have become overweight and
obese at epidemic levels: In 1980, approximately 14% of
the U.S. population was obese; now, 40% of U.S.
women and 35% of U.S. men are obese, accounting for
half of the more than two-thirds of U.S. adults who are
overweight or obese. This national weight management
crisis is likely attributable to several factors, but among
them are the assumption that fatty foods, particularly
those containing saturated fats, are detrimental to health
and should be limited in the diet and the elimination of
saturated and other natural fats in foods and replacing
them with poor substitutes such as partially hydroge-
nated oils, trans fat, and refined carbohydrates. Recent
research suggests that the natural fats in foods are far
better for health and weight management than these sub-
stitutes. As a result, more and more consumers and
nutrition experts are embracing fat, including saturated
fat, and the foods that inherently contain it.
A Saturated Tale
The campaign to reduce the amount of fat in the U.S.
diet began in the 1970s when the U.S. Senate Select
Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs held
discussions and hearings on whether high-fat diets were
the cause of the premature deaths of certain U.S. law-
makers. By 1980 those debates had led to the publishing
of the first U.S. dietary guidelines, which advised
Americans to reduce their consumption of fatty foods
while simultaneously encouraging a high intake of carbo-
hydrates. The scientific reasoning for this advice was
based largely on the dubious evidence from nutrition and
epidemiological studies conducted in the 1950s, 1960s,
and 1970s. Key among these was the Seven Countries
Study by Ancel Keys, a physiologist at the University of
Minnesota. Keys theorized that a populations high inci-
dence of elevated blood cholesterol levels, heart attacks,
and stroke was precipitated by any diet high in fatpar-
ticularly saturated fatand other lifestyle factors. The
Seven Countries Study was fraught with problems
(Teicholz 2014): the countries involved in the study were
not selected randomly, data that disproved Keyss theo-
ries on dietary fat and heart disease were discarded, and
perhaps most importantly, epidemiological studies do
not prove causation.
Nevertheless, somewhere along the way, the word
saturated was removed altogether from Keyss conclu-
sions, and more imprecise generalizations about fats
emergedbolstered by the fact that a gram of fat con-
tains nine calories while a gram of carbohydrate has only
08.16 www.ift.org 27 pg

Photo Purestock/
Thinkstock four calories. It did not take long for
many to conclude that all dietary
fats were bad, leading to heart dis-
ease and expanding waistlines,
while any and all dietary carbohy-
drates were good. The food
industry responded by inundating
supermarkets with reduced-fat,
low-fat, and fat-free foods produced
by either removing fat altogether or
replacing it with hydrogenated veg-
etable oils and/or refined
carbohydrates. Skim milk was sub-
stituted for whole milk, butter was
replaced with margarine, whole
eggs were shunned for egg whites,
and meals centered on meat and fish
were exchanged for entrees based
on refined carbohydrates (i.e.,
bread, pasta, potatoes, and white
rice). [W]hen the percent [of] fat is
reduced in the diet, the percent of
something else must increase (to
add up to 100%); that something
ended up being refined carbohy-
drates for the average American
diet, says Glen D. Lawrence, a bio-
chemistry professor at Long Island
University and author of the book
The Fats of Life: Essential Fatty Acids in
Health and Disease. To those with
pg 28 08.16 www.ift.org
discriminating palates, many of the
low-fat and fat-free foods did not
taste good. Removing fat from the
diet makes food less appetizing, or
as they say in the food industry, the
food lacks mouthfeel. Conse-
quently the food industry found
they needed to add sugar to foods to
make them more palatable when fat
was removed, so low-fat foods
became sweeter, Lawrence says.
Furthermore, these types of foods
had not been through any rigorous
research studies to determine
whether they were truly better for
human health than full-fat foods. As
it turns out, they werent.
The Fats of Life
In order for the human body to sur-
vive, six nutrients are essential:
water, vitamins, minerals, protein,
carbohydrates, and fat. Fat is a
major source of energy in the
human body and is necessary for
several bodily functions. It provides
half of the energy the body needs at
rest or during everyday activity. In
the form of adipose tissue, fat insu-
lates the body, thereby protecting
vital organs from injuries due to
external impacts and helping to
maintain a normal core tempera-
ture. It provides structure and
support for all cells in the body and
Photo PGoodie76/iStock/Thinkstock
promotes healthy skin and hair. For
the proper digestion of food and
absorption of certain nutrients, fat
is imperative; without it, the body
would be deficient in vitamins A, D,
E, and K and unable to derive the
full benefits of fat-soluble phytonu-
trients such as beta-carotene and
lycopene. Moreover, because it
comprises nearly two-thirds (60%)
of the brain, fat is vital for proper
brain development and mainte-
nance. Some scientists have even
suggested that certain types of fats
are necessary for mental balance
(Tarver 2014). What fat does not
do, according to recent research, is
make people fatat least not on its
ownor cause heart disease.
Lipids (the scientific name for
fats) are made up of fatty acids that
can be classified as saturated fatty
acids and unsaturated fatty acids.
All natural foods contain more than
one type of fat. But in general, the
main food sources of saturated fats
include butter, cheese, coconut oil,
eggs, meat, poultry, and whole
milk. The main food sources of
unsaturated fats include fish, nuts,
seeds, certain fruits and vegetables,
and certain vegetable oils. While
saturated fats are solid at room tem-
perature, two types of unsaturated
fatsmonounsaturated and
 polyunsaturatedare liquid at
room temperature. A third type of
unsaturated fat, trans fat, is solid at
room temperature and may be the
real cause for the correlation
between fat consumption and poor
health. From a food manufacturing
standpoint, saturated fats are ideal;
Consumers appear to be relying more on their own interpretation of what constitutes healthy food
rather than facts, figures, and declarations from scientists and public health authorities.
they are highly shelf stable and they
provide texture and flavor. But
when saturated fat was blamed for
causing heart disease and obesity,
food manufacturers needed an alter-
native. And while unsaturated fats
are touted as better for human
health, they are not suitable for pro-
ducing shelf-stable foods: They spoil
quickly and do not provide the same
organoleptic properties to foods.
However, through the process of
partial hydrogenation, liquid unsat-
urated fats become more solid and,
when used in foods, closely mimic
the functionalities of saturated fats.
These partially hydrogenated oils,
which contain industrial (or artifi-
cial) trans fatty acids, were thought
to be healthier than saturated fats
because the partial hydrogenation
allowed them to remain unsaturated
(complete hydrogenation of
pg 30 08.16 www.ift.org
vegetable oils turns them into satu-
rated fats). However, not all
unsaturated fats are created equal.
One type of unsaturated fat is
consistently considered to be good
for human health: monounsaturated
fat. This is largely because of its
prominent role in studies on
Mediterranean diets. Found pre-
dominantly in olives, avocados,
peanuts, peanut butter, rape seed,
and oils derived from these foods,
monounsaturated fats are said to
help lower low-density lipoprotein
levels in the blood and lower the
risk of heart disease and stroke.
They are also rich sources of vita-
min E. In contrast, polyunsaturated
fats can have both helpful and harm-
ful effects on health. The two main
types of polyunsaturated fatty acids
are omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6
fatty acids. Both are essential for
humans to consume as the human
body is incapable of producing them
on its own, and each has specific
roles to play in human health.
Studies indicate that omega-3 fatty
acidsin particular, docosahexae-
noic acid (DHA) and eicosapenta-
enoic acid (EPA)are imperative
Photo tycoon751/iStock/Thinkstock
for proper development and func-
tion of the brain and reducing the
risk of diseases associated with
inflammation. DHA makes up a
significant proportion of nerve-cell
membranes and synapses in the cen-
tral nervous system; it is the most
abundant fatty acid in the brain.
Both DHA and EPA have been
found to have anti-inflammatory
properties that fight cardiovascular
disease by lowering blood pressure
and triglyceride levels, improving
the function of blood vessels, and
decreasing the risk of cardiac
arrhythmias. DHA and EPA may
also be helpful in reducing the inci-
dence of type 2 diabetes and
Alzheimers disease (Swanson et al.
2012, Fiala et al. 2015). The third
omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic
acid, is used in the human body pre-
dominately for energy, and although
the body can convert ALA to DHA
and EPA, the process is inefficient
and the conversion rate is poor
(Bradbury 2011). By and large, the
research on omega-3 fatty acids sug-
gests that they are all beneficial to
human health.
The same cannot be said of
omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-6 fatty
acids help maintain healthy hair,
skin, and bones and metabolize into
bioactive compounds that are inte-
gral to the bodys immune response
(i.e., inflammation). Some studies
indicate that omega-6 fatty acids
may lower blood levels of total cho-
lesterol, but in doing so they lower
not only the level of low-density
lipoproteins (the bad cholesterol)
but also the level of high-density
lipoprotein (the good cholesterol)
(Credit Suisse Research Institute
2015). Other research suggests that
omega-6 fatty acids are also pro-
inflammatory, which means they
could, to some extent, promote the
inflammation that is the basis for
cardiovascular disease and other
noncommunicable chronic diseases
such as obesity, metabolic syn-
drome, and type 2 diabetes
(Ramsden et al. 2013). Omega-6
fatty acids can increase inflamma-
tion, and inflammation is at the root
of most health problems. In addi-
tion, omega-6 [fatty acids] are
highly susceptible to lipid peroxida-
tion (spontaneous oxidation), which
leads to atherosclerosis, cancer, and
other adverse health effects,
Lawrence says. Omega-6 [fatty
acids] are essential and are needed
in the diet in moderate quantities,
[but] [t]hey can be toxic at high lev-
els, just as vitamins can be toxic at
high levels. Moreover, there is an
ongoing debate in the scientific
community over whether an imbal-
anced ratio of omega-3 fatty acids to
omega-6 fatty acids in the body
plays a role in the presence or
absence of several chronic condi-
tions as well as faulty cognitive
ability, including antisocial behavior
(Tarver 2014). Because the main
sources of omega-6 fatty acids are
vegetable oils, most partially hydro-
However, those trans fatty acids are
different from the ones in partially
hydrogenated vegetable oils, and
they are, in fact, healthy and can
decrease inflammation [and] asthma
and help people lose weight. But
the main sources of trans fats in the
U.S. diet are foods made with par-
tially hydrogenated oils: According
to the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), processed
foods made with partially hydroge-
nated oils account for half of the
trans fats that Americans consume.
In an effort to remove such foods
from the U.S. food system, in June
2015 the FDA removed partially
hydrogenated oils from its list of
food ingredients that are generally
recognized as safe (food manufac-
turers have until June 18, 2018, to
reformulate products or submit
additive petitions for approval).
With clear scientific evidence
that trans fats are detrimental to
human health, there is a general
consensus among scientists and poli-
cymakers that foods made with Photo bhofack2/iStock/

genated oils (namely, soybean, corn, partially hydrogenated oils should Consumers Think for Themselves Thinkstock

cottonseed, and safflower oils) con-
tain an abundance of omega-6 fatty
acids (more than 50% composition);
they also contain artificial trans fats.
The Injurious Effect of Trans Fats
Even though partially hydrogenated
oils were introduced in the Western
diet decades ago as a saferand
cheaperalternative to saturated
fat, because they contain trans fats, it
is now apparent that partially hydro-
genated oils are not better for
human health than saturated fats.
Trans fats raise the level of low-den-
sity lipoprotein in the blood. In fact,
an abundance of scientific research
indicates that trans fat, particularly
artificial trans fat, is the worst type
of fat in the human diet because it
has been consistently linked to car-
diovascular disease (Credit Suisse
Research Institute 2015, de Souza et
al. 2015). Some trans fats occur nat-
urally in milk, beef, and products
from other ruminants, such as sheep
and goats, Lawrence explains.
be minimized in the diet as well as
the food system. Where there is less
consensus is on the issue of whether
food manufacturers should revert to
usingor maintaining the level
ofsaturated fats in foods or rely
on other alternatives. The answer is
not clear. And while U.S. nutrition-
ists, physicians, and epidemiologists
are conducting more studies and
reviewing more data on saturated
fat consumption in an attempt to
determine the risks, if any, to health
and waistlines, consumers are not
waiting for their determination. As
part of the movement toward natu-
ral, minimally processed foods with
clean labels, consumers are embrac-
ing fatty foods and thus forging a
new standard of which foods consti-
tute a healthy diet. This new health
paradigm involves eating more
wholesome foods, regardless of fat
content. What matters more is that
the food is simple, real (i.e., no arti-
ficial ingredients), and as close to its
natural form as possible.
Consumers therefore appear to be
relying more on their own interpre-
tation of what constitutes healthy
food rather than facts, figures, and
declarations from scientists and
public health authorities. And
according to the Credit Suisse
Research Institute, when it comes
to full-fat foods, they are probably
right to do so. The research body
recently released a report that
states, The stance of most officials
and influential organizations such as
[the World Health Organization] or
[the American Heart Association] is
now well behind research in two
main areas: saturated fats and poly-
unsaturated omega-6 fats.
[S]aturated fat intakes is at worst
neutral for [cardiovascular disease]
risks (2015). Two meta-analysis
studies support this position, indi-
cating that saturated fats do not
increase the risk of cardiovascular
disease and are not associated with
all-cause mortality but polyunsatu-
rated fats are (Chowdhury et al.
08.16 www.ift.org 31 pg
 Total U.S. Retail Sales and Market Forecast for Cheese
2014, de Souza et al. 2015). The
report by the Credit Suisse
Research Institute goes on to blame
trans fats from partially hydroge-
nated vegetable oils for escalating
cardiovascular disease risks and the
increased intake of vegetable oils
and carbohydrates for rising obesity.
Lawrence agrees: [H]igh-fat diets
are more effective for weight loss
and keeping weight under control
than low-fat diets, and it would be
preferable to have mostly saturated $18.6 $19.9 $20.3 $20.6 $21.9 $23.1 $24.1 $25 $26 $26.8 $27.7
and monounsaturated fatty acids in billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion
the diet, he asserts. This goes (est.) (forecast) (forecast) (forecast) (forecast) (forecast)

completely against the cholesterol

hypothesis experts, but they no
longer have a sound basis for their
contention that lower saturated fats
in the diet will improve health or
increase longevity.
U.S. public health authorities
have been reluctant to accept the
growing body of evidence that
debunks the prevailing nutrition
and dietary guidance on fatespe-
cially saturated fatthat has been
promoted to Americans for more
than 30 years. The 20152020 U.S.
Dietary Guidelines for Americans
no longer recommends a limit on
cholesterol intake but still advises
Americans to eat fat-free and
2010 2011 2012
(Sources: IRI Infoscan Reviews and Mintel)
low-fat dairy products and to
restrict consumption of saturated
fats to less than 10% of daily calo-
ries (HHS/USDA 2015). A recently
published study supports this
dietary advice, concluding that satu-
rated fat is associated with a greater
incidence of overall mortality than
unsaturated fats (this study does not
establish causality) (Wang et al.
2016). That study also confirmed
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Photo Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock
that trans fata type of unsaturated
fathas significant negative effects
on health. Meanwhile, at least one
European public health authority is
reconsidering its fat stance: The
British government has asked its
scientific advisory committee on
nutrition to review the fat-limiting
advice in the Eatwell Guide, pro-
duced by Public Health England, to
determine whether revisions may be
necessary (Moss 2016). Despite
authorities indecision, wholesome
foods that naturally contain satu-
rated fat are back on consumers
grocery lists. As a result, butter,
cheese, whole milk, eggs, and bacon
are experiencing significant boosts
in sales.

Wholesome Fatty Foods

Butter is about 70% saturated fat
and contains high amounts of vita-
mins A, B12, D, E, and K as well as
calcium, choline, potassium, and
other essential nutrients. As a con-
sequence, people around the world
are abandoning margarine for but-
ter, viewing it as more wholesome
and far less processed than the par-
tially hydrogenated vegetable oils
that are still perceived to be the
main ingredient in all margarines
(leading brands of margarines are
Alexandra Grablewski/DigitalVision/Thinkstock
08.16 www.ift.org 33 pg
 no longer made with partially
hydrogenated oils). Perhaps no one
is more aware of this trend than
Unilever P.L.C., the worlds largest
maker of margarines and spreads.
The companys sales of its marga-
rine brands have been in steep
decline in developed countries.
Indeed, unit sales of margarine
plummeted by 8.9% in the United
States in 2015, which is part of a
double-digit plunge in U.S. marga-
rine sales since 2000. Conversely,
dollar sales of butter in the United
States have increased by more than
20% since 2013. According to sales
data from IRI, a Chicago-based
market research firm, sales of butter
totaled $2.2 billion in 2013 and $2.7
billion by the end of 2015. In fact,
global unit sales of butter have been
increasing by 4% every year since
2010 and are expected to continue
rising through 2020. Another sign
of butters surging appeal is that
McDonalds Corp. announced in
2015 that it would begin using real
butter instead of liquid margarine
on all English muffins, biscuits, and
bagels on its breakfast menu
(McDonalds Corp. 2015).
MarianVejcik/iStock/Thinkstock
pg 34 08.16 www.ift.org
Consumers switch to whole-
some foods includes a return to
whole milk, which is rich in nutri-
ents: Whole milk is about 3.5% fat,
most of which is saturated (approxi-
mately 65%); it contains all of the
essential amino acids, making it a
complete protein; and it is a good
source of calcium. In addition, two
recent studies indicate that full-fat
dairy benefits human health: One
study determined that people who
consume whole milk and other full-
fat dairy products reduce their risk
of developing type 2 diabetes by up
to 46% while the other indicates
that whole milk and other full-fat
dairy products lower the risk of
overweight and/or obesity by 8%
(Rautiainen et al. 2016, Yakoob et
al. 2016). Unit sales of whole fat
milk increased by 4.5% last year,
according to IRI.
Perhaps due to Americans
unwavering love of pizza, cheese
never really experienced the signifi-
cant dips in consumption that whole
milk and butter did during the years
of the low-fat craze. Nonetheless,
cheese is experiencing a significant
upswing in demand that is a direct
result of consumers desire for natu-
ral foods and snacks. In the United
States, cheese consumption has
increased by more than 40% over
the past two decades, and for the
past four years, cheese has been one
of the top five food categories that
contribute most to supermarket
sales (Daniels 2016). The main
growth driver in the cheese market
has been natural cheeses, not pro-
cessed cheeses; in fact, U.S.
consumption of processed cheeses
has been dwindling since 2010.
Demand for natural cheeses is so
strong among U.S. consumers that
grocers and supermarkets are
expanding their cheese selections
(Sidrane 2015). This will likely
prove to be a prudent move as
Mintel expects cheese sales to
increase by 20% between now and
2020, reaching $27.7 billion.
The upswings in the sales of
cheese and butter are strong, but
neither is as significant as the mete-
oric rise in the demand for bacon. In
the 1980s bacon, along with butter
and whole milk, experienced a sig-
nificant decline in consumption
during the low-fat movement.
Bacons prospects were tarnished
even further when the adverse
effects of nitrates were also propa-
gated in the 1980s. The combination
of the low-fat craze and the nitrate
scare caused bacon sales to decline
by as much as 40%, triggering the
price of pork belly to drop to as low
as $0.19 per pound. Over the past
10 years or so, bacon sales have
grown to more than $4 billion in
annual sales, and the main reason
for bacons resurrection was the
National Pork Boards decision to
market bacon as a flavor enhancer to
fast-food restaurants. In the 1990s,
fast-food establishments began
cooking burgers to well done to
avoid foodborne illness outbreaks
from partially cooked beef.
Apparently, well-done burgers did
not taste that great, but adding a
slice or two of bacon to the sand-
wiches vastly improved their taste
appeal. Bacons reputation as a fla-
vor enhancer grew, and by 2000, it
had become the third most popular
condiment (Sax 2014). Since then,
bacon has expanded well beyond
fast food and is being used to
enhance the flavor of just about
everything: cookies, ice cream,
artisan doughnuts, Brussels sprouts,
gravy, pizza, French fries, pasta,
scallops, shrimp, and so on. As a
result, consumers and foodservice
operations have created bacon
mania: IRI data indicate that unit
sales of bacon increased by more
than 5% between 2013 and the end
of 2015. The demand has caused the
price of a pound of bacon to
increase from $3 a pound in 2005 to
just under $6 a pound now. Besides
its ability to augment the flavor of
many different foods, bacon packs a
lot of nutrients: About 40% of the
fat in bacon is saturated and 60% is
unsaturated (mostly monounsatu-
rated), and it contains high levels of
B vitamins, selenium, phosphorus,
and choline as well as moderate lev-
els of iron, magnesium, and zinc.
For decades, the consumption of
eggs was on the decline due to their
cholesterol content and the now
discredited claim that eating choles-
terol-laden foods such as eggs
adversely affects blood levels of cho-
lesterol (Wartman 2012, Lawrence
2013). In fact, the U.S.
International Trade Commission at
one point estimated that the choles-
terol scare cost the U.S. egg
industry $10 billion (Ferdman
expected to grow to 300 by the
year 2030 (Credit Suisse Research
Institute 2015). Eggs are a compact,
highly nutritious form of fat and
protein; they contain all the B vita-
mins and the full range of amino
acids that make up a complete pro-
tein. In fact, the protein quality in
eggs is often used as the gold stan-
dard against which all other protein
sources, both animal- and non-ani-
mal-derived proteins, are measured.
Eggs are also relatively low in calo-
ries; one large egg contains 70
calories, Kanter adds. Moreover, Vaivirga/iStock/Thinkstock

2014). [A]s more and more
research has indicated that dietary
cholesterol may not raise blood
cholesterol or heart disease risk in
most people, egg consumption has
been on the rise, says Mitch
Kanter, executive director, Egg
Nutrition Center. [M]ore and more
folks are seeking out higher-protein
options throughout the day, and
carbohydrate-based breakfasts in
particular have fallen somewhat out
of favor. Now, eggs are back in con-
sumer diets for breakfast, lunch,
and dinner. In the United States,
per capita consumption has
increased from 239.7 in 1998 to
263.6 (AEB 2016), and it is
eggs are a good natural source of
certain micronutrients that are
missing from many foods, such as
iodine, choline, and vitamin D.
They also contain the antioxidants
lutein and zeaxanthin, which help
prevent macular degeneration.
Fat has always been an essential
nutrient for the human body, and
when it was removed from foods,
particularly the ones that inherently
contain it, the incidence of over-
weight, obesity, and type 2 diabetes
increased dramatically. Perhaps
people consumed more food
because they were simply not sati-
ated (because fat increases the
feeling of fullness) or, more likely,
the ingredients used to replace satu-
rated fatpartially hydrogenated
oils and refined carbohydratesare
far more damaging to human health
than saturated fat. Regardless, the
proliferation of expanding waist-
lines along with a body of research
questioning the link between satu-
rated fat and cardiovascular disease
imply that the adoption of low-fat
and fat-free dietary patterns and
foods has been a health and nutri-
tion failure. As a result, fat is back
and poised to figure prominently on
Americans plates. FT
Toni Tarver is senior writer/editor of Food
Technology magazine (ttarver@ift.org).

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