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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
2. Discussion
Definition of Refrigeration
Refrigeration, the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or from a substance for
the purpose of lowering the temperature. Refrigeration may be defined as the process of
achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool
some product or space to the required temperature.
Early Refrigeration
Ice was harvested and stored in China before the first millennium. Hebrews, Greeks, and
Romans placed large amounts of snow into storage pits and covered this cooling agent with
insulating material. Need a cool drink? Just mix in melting snow or its resulting water. Or bury your
container right into the snow. No snow? Do like the ancient Egyptians: fill your earthen jar with
boiled water and stick it on your roof, exposing it to the nights cool air.
Cooling drinks was popular particularly in Europes southern climates, especially Italy and
Spain. It became en vogue by 1600 in France. By this time, instead of cooling water at night,
people rotated long-necked bottles in water in which saltpeter was dissolved. This solution, it was
discovered, could be used to produce very low temperatures and to make ice. By the end of the
17th century, iced liquors and frozen juices were popular in French society.
For centuries, people preserved and stored their food especially milk and butter in
cellars, outdoor window boxes or even underwater in nearby lakes, streams or wells. Or perhaps
they stored food in a springhouse, where cool running water from a stream trickled under or
between shelved pans and crocks. But even these methods could not prevent rapid spoilage,
since pasteurization was not yet known and bacterial infestation was rampant. It was not unusual
in colonial days to die of summer complaint due to spoiled food during warm weather.
Before 1830, food preservation used time-tested methods: salting, spicing, smoking, pickling
and drying. There was little use for refrigeration since the foods it primarily preserved fresh
meat, fish, milk, fruits, and vegetables did not play as important a role in the North American
diet as they do today. In fact, the diet consisted mainly of bread and salted meats.
Consumer demand for fresh food, especially produce, led to diet reform between 1830 and
the Civil War, fueled by the dramatic growth of cities and the improvement in economic status of
the general populace. And as cities grew, so did the distance between the consumer and the
source of the food.
Ice was first shipped commercially out of Canal Street in New York City, where it was cut, to
Charleston, South Carolina in 1799. Unfortunately, there wasnt much ice left when the shipment
arrived. New Englanders Frederick Tudor and Nathaniel Wyeth saw the potential for the ice
business and revolutionized the industry through their efforts in the first half of the 1800s. Tudor,
who became known as the Ice King, focused on shipping ice to tropical climates. He
experimented with insulating materials and built ice houses that decreased melting losses from 66
percent to less than 8 percent. Wyeth devised a method of quickly and cheaply cutting uniform
blocks of ice that transformed the ice industry, making it possible to speed handling techniques in
storage, transportation and distribution with less waste.
Natural ice supply became an industry unto itself and a large one at that. More companies
entered the business, prices decreased, and refrigeration using ice became more accessible. By
1879 there were 35 commercial ice plants in America, more than 200 a decade later, and 2,000 by
1909. In 1907, 14-15 million tons of ice were consumed, nearly triple the amount in 1880. No
pond was safe from scraping for ice production, not even Thoreaus Walden Pond, where 1,000
tons of ice were extracted each day in 1847.
But as time went on, ice as a refrigeration agent became a health problem. Says Bern
Nagengast, co-author of Heat and Cold: Mastering the Great Indoors (published by the American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers), Good sources were harder and
harder to find. By the 1890s, natural ice became a problem because of pollution and sewage
dumping. Signs of a problem were first evident in the brewing industry. Soon the meat-packing
and dairy industries followed with their complaints. Refrigeration technology provided the
solution: ice mechanically manufactured, giving birth to mechanical refrigeration.
Application of Refrigeration
The domestic refrigerator using natural ice (domestic ice box) was invented in 1803 and
was used for almost 150 years without much alteration. The domestic ice box used to be made of
wood with suitable insulation. Ice used to be kept at the top of the box, and low temperatures are
produced in the box due to heat transfer from ice by natural convection. A drip pan is used to
collect the water formed due to the melting of ice. The box has to be replenished with fresh ice
once all the ice melts.
Today, a domestic refrigerator has become an essential kitchen appliance not only in highly
developed countries but also in countries such as India. Except very few almost all the present
day domestic refrigerators are mechanical refrigerators that use a hermetic compressor and an air
cooled condenser. The modern refrigerators use either HFC-134a (hydro-fluoro-carbon) or iso-
butane as refrigerant.
Refrigeration systems are also used for providing cooling and dehumidification in summer
for personal comfort (air conditioning). The first air conditioning systems were used for industrial
as well as comfort air conditioning. Eastman Kodak installed the first air conditioning system in
1891 in Rochester, New York for the storage of photographic films. An air conditioning system was
installed in a printing press in 1902 and in a telephone exchange in Hamburg in 1904. Many
systems were installed in tobacco and textile factories around 1900. The first domestic air
conditioning system was installed in a house in Frankfurt in 1894. A private library in St Louis,
USA was air conditioned in 1895, and a casino was air conditioned in Monte Carlo in 1901. Efforts
have also been made to air condition passenger rail coaches using ice.
The widespread development of air conditioning is attributed to the American scientist and
industrialist Willis Carrier. Carrier studied the control of humidity in 1902 and designed a central air
conditioning plant using air washer in 1904. Due to the pioneering efforts of Carrier and also due
to simultaneous development of different components and controls, air conditioning quickly
became very popular, especially after 1923.
The most commonly used method of cooling is with vapor-compression cycles, because it is
fairly easy to construct a cooling device employing this method and the cost is low. In fact,
conventional refrigerators use this method of cooling to keep your leftovers and drinks chilled! Air
conditioners also employ a vapor-compression cycle to cool the ambient air temperature in a
room.
The vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs
and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere.
Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four
components: a compressor, a condenser, a thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve
or metering device), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the
thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure,
resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the
thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at
which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes.
This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected heat is
carried away by either the water or the air (whichever may be the case).The condensed liquid
refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an
expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction
results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration
effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant
mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan circulates
the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and
vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same
time, the circulating air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the
desired temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes
heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the water or
air used in the condenser.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a
saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.
This refrigeration cycle is approximately a Rankine cycle run in reverse. A working fluid
(often called the refrigerant) is pushed through the
system and undergoes state changes (from liquid to gas
and back). The latent heat of vaporization of the
refrigerant is used to transfer large amounts of heat
energy, and changes in pressure are used to control
when the refrigerant expels or absorbs heat
energy.However, for a refrigeration cycle that has a hot
reservoir at around room temperature (or a bit higher)
and a cold reservoir that is desired to be at around 34F,
the boiling point of the refrigerant needs to be fairly low.
Thus, various fluids have been identified as practical
refrigerants.
Part 1: Compression
In this stage, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a gas under low pressure and
having a low temperature. Then, the refrigerant is compressed adiabatically, so the fluid leaves
the compressor under high pressure and with a high temperature.
Part 2: Condensation
The high pressure, high temperature gas releases heat energy and condenses inside
the "condenser" portion of the system. The condenser is in contact with the hot reservoir of the
refrigeration system. (The gas releases heat into the hot reservoir because of the external work
added to the gas.) The refrigerant leaves as a high pressure liquid.
Part 3: Throttling
The liquid refrigerant is pushed through a throttling valve, which causes it to expand. As
a result, the refrigerant now has low pressure and lower temperature, while still in the liquid
phase. (The throttling valve can be either a thin slit or some sort of plug with holes in it. When
the refrigerant is forced through the throttle, its pressure is reduced, causing the liquid to
expand.)
Part 4: Evaporation
The low pressure, low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator, which is in contact
with the cold reservoir. Because a low pressure is maintained, the refrigerant is able to boil at a
low temperature. So, the liquid absorbs heat from the cold reservoir and evaporates. The
refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a low temperature, low pressure gas and is taken into the
compressor again, back at the beginning of the cycle.
The schematic diagram of the arrangement is as shown. The low temperature, low
pressure vapor at state B is compressed by a compressor to high temperature and pressure
vapor at state C. This vapor is condensed into high pressure vapor at state D in the condenser
and then passes through the expansion valve. Here, the vapor is throttled down to a low
pressure liquid and passed on to an evaporator, where it absorbs heat from the surroundings
from the circulating fluid (being refrigerated) and vaporizes into low pressure vapor at state B.
The cycle then repeats.
The figure shows a simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram for
different compression processes. The cycle works between temperatures T1 and T2
representing the condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. The various process of
the cycle A-B-C-D (A-B-C-D and A-B-C-D) are as given below:
i) Process B-C (B-C or B-C): Isentropic compression of the vapor from state B to C. If
vapor state is saturated (B), or superheated (B), the compression is called dry compression. If
initial state is wet (B), the compression is called wet compression as represented by B-C.
ii) Process C-D (C-D or C-D): Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure.
iii) Process D-A: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapor through the expansion
value. The pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced.
The process is accompanied by partial evaporation of some liquid. The process is shown
by dotted line.
iv) Process A-B (A-B or A-B) : Heat absorption in evaporator at constant pressure. The
final state depends on the quantity of heat absorbed and same may be wet (B) dry (B) or
superheated (B).
b. In vapor compression cycle, no work is done by the system during the throttling process.
Hence, the network supplied to the cycle increases further by area EDT as compared to the
reversed Carnot cycle. Because,
{(Area RSDO Area RBEO) Area EDT } = Area BSDT
b. In vapor compression cycle, there is a loss of refrigeration effect equivalent to area PQAT
due to increase in entropy during the irreversible throttling expansion.
c. The effect of all these deviations is to increase the compression work required or to
decrease the refrigeration effect and therefore the COP of the vapor compression cycle
will be less than that of reversed Carnot cycle.
In the figure of simple vapor compression cycle, condensation process CD resulted in the liquid
at saturated state D. If it was possible to further cool down the liquid to some lower value say upto
D, then the net refrigeration effect will be increased as (hB hA) > (hB - hA). Hence, the sub
cooling of the liquid increases the refrigerating effect without increasing the work requirement. Thus
COP is improved. The sub cooling may be achieved by any of the following methods:
(i) By passing the liquid refrigerant from condenser through a heat exchanger through which
the cold vapor at suction from the evaporator is allowed to flow in the reversed direction.
This process subcools the liquid but superheats the vapor. Thus, COP is not improved
though refrigeration effect is increased.
(ii) By making use of enough quantity of cooling water so that the liquid refrigerant is further
cooled below the temperature of saturation. In some cases, a separate subcooler is also
made use of for this purpose. In this case, COP is improved.
Hence, the decrease in suction pressure decreases the refrigeration effect and at the same
time increases the work of compression. But, both the effects tend to decrease the COP.
The figure represents the p-v diagram of a compressor. Now, during suction stroke BB,
the vapor filled in clearance space at pressure Pd expands along C-B and the suction valve
opens only when the pressure has dropped down to pS. Therefore, the actual amount of vapor
sucked during the suction stroke is (v1 - v2) while the stroke volume is (v1 - vc). Volumetric
efficiency decreases the refrigeration effect.
Environmental Aspects
The impacts of air conditioning and
refrigeration systems on stratospheric ozone are primarily linked to release of ozone-depleting
refrigerants. Their contributions to global warming stem both from release of refrigerants and from
emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) for associated energy use. Because the energy-related
component has a significantly higher warming impact, phaseout of hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)
refrigerants with less efficient options will increase net GHG emissions. The same conclusion
applies for perfluorocarbon (PFCs), though they are less commonly used as refrigerants.
Integrated assessment of ozone depletion, global warming, and atmospheric lifetime provides
essential indications in the absence of ideal refrigerants, namely those free of these problems as
well as safety, stability, compatibility, cost, and similar burdens.
Both substantial progress in release reductions and the technical innovations to achieve
them. It contrasts the impacts of current refrigerants with alternatives and with the
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) they replaced. The study examines the sensitivity of efficiency to
charge loss. It also summarizes thermodynamic and environmental comparisons of options to
show that phaseout decisions based on chemical composition alone, without regard to attributes
of individual substances, can result in greater environmental harm than benefit.
The margin of safety from the viewpoint of toxicity depends on the degree of concentration
and the duration of exposure to cause harmful effects. An ideal refrigerant should be non-toxic to
humans, animals and plant life even at low concentrations and with long time exposure. The main
concern with the use of hydrocarbon refrigerants is their flammability especially in case of leaks.
Small- and medium-sized refrigeration systems use hermetic compressors (compressor and
motor placed inside a single sealed shell). Large systems, on the other hand, use open-type
compressors that are difficult to seal completely. Similarly, a small amount of leakage also can
occur from other components such as valves, measuring and safety equipment, etc. Refrigerant
leaks are therefore difficult to avoid in large systems. The degree of hazard expected by the use
of a refrigerant depends on factors such as the quantity of refrigerant used, volume of the space
into which the refrigerant leaks, type of occupancy of the room, risk of naked flame or electric
sparks.
Economic Aspects
Advantages
Disadvantages
Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's
ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be
phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However,
systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using
HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they
remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon
dioxide.
With the ultimate phasing out of HCFCs already a certainty, alternative non-
haloalkane refrigerants are gaining popularity. In particular, once-abandoned
refrigerants such as hydrocarbons (butane for example) and CO2 are coming back
into more extensive use. For example, Coca-Cola's vending machines at the 2006
FIFA World Cup in Germany used refrigeration utilizing CO2.[6] Ammonia (NH3) is
one of the oldest refrigerants, with excellent performance and essentially no pollution
problems. However, ammonia has two disadvantages: it is toxic and it is incompatible
with copper tubing.
Refrigeration system
Data Acquisition Instrument
Personnel Protective Devices
Laboratory Manual for ME Lab 3
4. Procedure
1. The leader oriented the group members on what to do and whos in charge of everything that
will be done by the each member during the experiment.
2. The safety officer of the group instructed each member of the group to equip themselves with
the proper Personal Protective Equipment before doing the experiment.
3. All the instruments, materials and measuring devices are borrowed by the Quality Inspector
and inspected by the safety officer to ensure that everything is safe to use.
4. After ensuring that everything is ready, the assistant leader gathered all the members and
went inside the laboratory to begin doing the experiment.
5. The laboratory in-charge or personnel informed prior utilization of laboratory equipment.
6. Every member of the group must know their respective assignments.
7. Check for any loose bolts and nuts; check the refrigeration components, accessories and
auxiliaries for any possible dents, unusual deformed parts.
8. The leader and safety officer must ensure the members that they have Personal Protective
Equipment.
9. Make sure the electrical components are off and initial positions.
10. Make sure that the start-up procedure and shut-down procedure had been read and fully
understand by the group.
1. After the collections of data are completed, Shut down or cut off the power supply of unit.
2. All the instruments, materials and measuring devices that were borrowed by the Quality
Inspector are properly returned at the tool room and was inspected by the safety officer.
3. Ensure that the working area are clean and the as it was when we enter the place.
7. Illustration/Diagram:
8. Conclusion and Recommendation:
For Auxiliaries and accessories, the Compressor Service Valve is used to isolate the
compressor from the system during servicing. When removing the compressor it is required to
keep the refrigerant in the system at its constant amount, although few vapor may escape to
the air during servicing. The Vibration Eliminator is widely used in transport refrigeration to
protect the system from too much vibration during unit operation when in travel. To separate oil
before refrigerant will turn into liquid, Oil Separator is installed before the condenser coil. This
is to collect back the oil that goes together with vapor refrigerant as compressor operates. The
Sight Glass is used to visually identify the condition and amount of refrigerant circulating the
system. It is usually installed at the liquid line where refrigerant is in liquid state. Liquid
receiver is used to collect liquid refrigerant before it travels to the refrigerant flow control. There
are times which the need for liquid refrigerant in the evaporator is lesser than the amount of
liquid that should flow, when the heat load is lesser or when the system reaches its desired
temperature, metering device is partially closed. The Check valve is used to maintain the
refrigerant to flow in one direction. It is installed at the liquid line before the refrigerant control
device where the flow of refrigerant is suddenly hindered as a result of metering action of
metering device. Filter drier is to trap all foreign particles such as solid impurities and moisture
that may harm the system. Suction Accumulator is widely used in some units that are not using
liquid receiver and heat exchanger, but large units are using both to collect liquid refrigerant.
Accumulator separates liquid refrigerant from vapor in a normal process. As refrigerant flows
into accumulator, liquid particles will be collected at the bottom of its tank while vapor rises and
shall be drawn by the suction pressure of the compressor.
Refrigeration systems are used for providing cooling and dehumidification in summer for
personal comfort (air conditioning). Refrigeration & Air Conditioning may refer to the general
process of altering air properties such as temperature, humidity, quality & velocity to achieve
desired conditions. It is a process in which work is done more heat from a low temperature to a
high temperature & typically also from one location to another. Both industrial refrigeration & air
conditioning are based on the same mechanism: The cooling of substance. The refrigeration
system made up of a compressor, evaporator, fan, condenser & expansion device, is the heart
of both systems. Despite this, there are substantial differences between the systems, the
components used, the design methods and the structures they are used in, such as to merit
separate treatment. Today, a domestic refrigerator has become an essential kitchen appliance
not only in highly developed countries. Except very few almost all the present day domestic
refrigerators are mechanical refrigerators that use a hermetic compressor and an air cooled
condenser.
The members of the group concluded that Refrigeration & Air Conditioning really is
important in our daily living, especially nowadays. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning are the
same mechanism, the cooling of substance. There are a lot of advantages regarding with this
topic. One of which is that a refrigerator slows down the proliferation of bacteria in food, so,
food that are stored in refrigerator are not easily spoiled & air conditioner is a great help
especially in office buildings, because it gives comfort to the employers/employees & it also
lessens irritation among them.