ELSEVIER lnt. J. Miner. Process.

44-45 (1996) 349-360

A mechanistic state equation model for

semiautogenous mills
R.. Amestica a, G.D. Gonzalez b, J. Menacho a, J. Barria a
a Centro de InuestigucGn Minera y Metalrirgica, Santiago, Chile
b Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

Abstract

A dynamic model for a semiautogenous grinding mill is developed in the standard dynamic
system form of state and state-output equations and the resulting model is analyzed with this
perspective. The model is based on results obtained under stationary conditions using a pilot SAG
mill and communicated in an earlier paper. From the point of view of the state equations, these
results constitute sub-models representing grinding, classification, transport, and power draw,
which are functions of the mill state and input variables. These sub-models may be easily changed
in this state equation structure to accommodate new developments. Thanks to the form in which
the model has been derived, it may be incorporated in a systematic way to grinding circuits. This
model serves for the study by simulation of control strategies, either manual or automatic, as well
as for testing estimators or soft-sensors for unmeasured variables. Results in accordance with real
cases were obtained using the model for simulating some typical operating procedures.

1. Introduction

In general it is very difficult to design and test control strategies and variable or
parameter estimation schemes for SAG mills using direct on-line or off-line data taken
from a SAG mill. The problem is that SAG mills are very complex systems involving
important nonlinearities and unmeasured disturbances, some of which have fast rates of
change as compared with the plant response time to the commands or manipulated
variables. A previous step, then, using simulation is very convenient, and perhaps
sometimes indispensable, in order find out which are the most promising designs, and
only test these pre-selected designs in the actual plant. In designing models for SAG
mills, or for any plant in general, the purpose for which the model is being developed is
most important. In particular, if the purpose of the model is to design control systems or
systems for the estimating mill variables, a dynamic model is needed that is qualitatively

0301-75 16/96/$15.00 0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0331-7516(95)00045-3
350 R. Amestica et al./lnt. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360

good, i.e., the relations between input, output and internal variables are well represented
by the model regarding rates of change and directions of these changes. As for the
magnitudes the demands may be relaxed, taking into account that the final adjustments
by force require working with the actual plant, although now with preselected control
strategies or estimators and soft-sensors, tested by simulation using the model. However,
the closer the is model to being good also from a quantitative point of view, the easier
shall be he transition from the results obtained by simulation, to the actual plant.
The natural setting for a dynamic model is a system of state equations and
state-output equations, because it is the intrinsic expression of the dynamic physical
phenomena involved. Previous SAG mill models have been derived - and used for
studying control strategies - which at most are acceptable from a qualitative point of
view but have not been matched to any real SAG mill in a qualitative way (Gonzalez et
al., 1987). The state equation form has been implicitly used there but no analysis from
this stand point has been made. The model is mainly phenomenological, and this fact
entails great complexity and a large set of parameters that is practically impossible to
determine from experimental data. Other models are those that may by identified using
data collected by on-line measurements in a plant (Amestica et al., 1993b; Herbst et al.,
1989). In order to be able to do this, these models are relatively very simple and have
few parameters. As a consequence, they are only valid around operating points and the
parameters need to be continually updated. Although these models are very useful for
estimating unmeasured variables in the SAG mil, they are clearly unsuitable for studying
control systems or estimators and soft-sensors. In order to develop a model useful for
these purposes empirical relations involving few parameters may be determined using
the data collected in the experiments with the mill, giving rise to what is defined as a
mechanistic model, although some phenomenological sub models may be retained if
convenient. This is the approach that has been taken here, so that the model has a the
structure of sate and state-output equations in which phenomenological or empirical
relations linking internal variables with inputs and states take the form of static
submodels. The static submodels used here are those to be found in Amestica et al.
(1993a) and a power draw submodel developed by Austin (1990).

2. The state equation model

The state equation model developed here is formed by two stages: (i> a dynamic
balance model for the ore and water mill contents linking the various input, output and
internal variables, and (ii) sub-models for grinding, classification, mass transport, and
power draw, in terms of operating variables such as ore hold-up H,,,, mill power draw
Mp, pulp solids percentage inside the mill, volumetric mill filing fraction J. These
operating variables are in turn functions of the states and the input variables.

2.1. Flow and mill contents variables

Let (Fig. 1) wi = ore mass in size interval i, fi = feed mass ore flow to mill in size
interval i, fi* = feed mass ore flow to grinding chamber in size interval i, pi = ore
 R. Amestica et al./lnt. J. Miner. Process. 44-4.5 (1996) 349-360 351

Mill Feed

Fig. 1.Blockdiagramof the SAGmill showing the phenomena considered in the mill modeling.

discharge flow rate in size interval i,p,* = ore discharge flow rate from grinding
chamber and size interval i, H,,, = mass of ore contents in mill (hold-up), F,,, = total ore
feed flow rate to the mill, P,,, = total ore discharge flow rate from the mill, F * = total
ore feed flow to the grinding chamber, P * = total ore discharge flow from grinding
chamber, FA = water feed flow rate to the mill, PA = water discharge flow rate from the
mill, and WA = water hold-up.
The following column n-vectors, then, may be defined representing mill ore contents
and flows at all size intervals (the superscript T indicating transposition):
w = ( w , ,w2 ,..., wJT, mill ore contents;
f= (f,,fi ,..., f,,jT, mill ore feed flow;
f * = (f, ,f; ,...,f,,* >T, grinding chamber ore feed flow;
PL =: (p; ,p; ,..a,p,* IT, grinding chamber ore discharge flow; and
p = tp,,p*,..., pJT, mill ore discharge.
Clearly,

F=&, p=epi, F=&, P*=&;, and H,,,= kwi (1)

i= I i= 1 i= I i= I i= 1
Let the fine ore be defined as that which passes the discharge grate. Then the fine ore
contents in the mill are given by:

H, = kwi (2)
i,

2.2. Sub-models

The sub-models used here have been either taken from the literature (Austin, 1990) or
derived in AmCstica et al. (1993a) sometimes using results published by other authors
(Forssberg and Zhai, 1988; Gupta et al., 1981; Vanderbeek et al., 1985; Moys, 1986).

2.2.1. Grinding submodel

The grinding mechanism used here is the one used by Amestica et al. (1993a), where
the grinding takes place in the grinding chamber and is represented by the lower
triangullar matrix (M,/H,,,)R- K ER, where M,, is the mill power draw (see below),
KE = diag(KB,KF,..., K:), K,! is the specific grinding rate of the production of fines
below size interval i, and R is a lower triangular matrix filled with ones.
352 R. Amestica et al./Int. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360

2.2.2. Classification submodel

The ore flows emerging from the grinding chamber represented by vector p* are
classified considering the effects of the grate and pulp lifters in such a way that the ore
discharge flows from the mill are given by pi = (1 - ci)p:, where ci = (pi* - pi>/pi
is the ore rejection coefficient of size i in the mill discharge system. It has been found
that ci depends on the mill pulp solids percentage, defined as cr = H,(H, + IV,), after
an analysis of the data collected from pilot mill already mentioned, so that ci = ci(cr).
Fig. 2 gives this relation.
Let C= diag(c,,c, ,..., c,,) be a diagonal matrix containing these coefficients, then,
P= (I- C(C,))P (3)

2.2.3. Mass transport submodel

The ore contents H,,, in the grinding chamber are obtained by a dynamic balance
between the feed flow to the chamber and the discharge flow from it, i.e.,
dfL
-z=*-p *
dt - -
It was assumed that the discharge flow from the grinding chamber, which is
presented to classification is a function of its ore hold-up,
P* = ?I(H,) (4)
In AmCstica et al. (1993a) it has been found that for a certain pilot mill P * = 296,
which has turned out to have the familiar form associated with the discharge of liquids

Size, micro m.

----72.0 % - 7 4.0 % ***=*7 0.1 %

??

Fig. 2. Effect of the mill pulp solids percentage c, on the cjs.

 R. Amestica et al./lnt. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360 353

from vessels. The ore flow discharged from the grinding chamber and presented for
classification at each size interval is
P* P*
pi* = HW or p* = KW (5)
m m
This is SIDbecause the ore mass fraction in size interval j in the grinding chamber is
given by wj/H,,, and, if perfect mixture is assumed, this proportion is kept in the
discharge flow P *. Concerning the water contents H,, it was found from experimental
data that the discharge flow of water from the mill may be expressed as (AmCstica et al.,
1993a)

2.2.4. Power draw submodel

The power draw model given by Austin (1990) and used here is

H,,, + W, + W,
M,,=kD2%(1 -AJ) v f(4) (7)
m
where D and L are the diameter and length of the mill, V, is the internal mill volume, J
the volumetric mill fraction filling occupied by the total hold-up, W, is the mass hold-up
of steel balls, fl+) is a function of the critical speed fraction 4 (Austin, 1990), while k
and A are the experimental parameters of this model, determined by AmCstica et al.
(1993a).

2.3. Decelopment of the SAG mill state equation

2.3.1. D,ynamic balance for the ore

The change of ore mass content in the grinding chamber, dw = wdt, between instants
t and t + dt, is produced by the difference between the input masses f *dt and the
discharge masses p * d t and the changes in ore masses at the different size intervals due
to grind:ing (M,/H,,,>R-KERwdt. Then the balance is
dw
dw=f *dt-p*dt- $R-KERwdt or 5R-KER~ (8)
m dr=f*-p*-H m
From F:ig. 1, fi* =fi + ci(cf)pr, or f * = f + C(c,)p*. Then, substituting this in (5)
and using (3) and afterwards (2),

4: =f + C(c,)p -p* - 2Re1KERw

m
dw W
--CP
dt= H,
354 R. Amestica et al. /ht. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (19961349-360

dw
-=-
dt
(9)

2.3.2. Dynamic balance for the water

The change in the mass of water contents dW, = W,dt in the mill is determined by
dW, = F,dt - P,dt. Then, from (6), and dividing by dt,

2.3.3. State model for the SAG mill

Finally, from (9) and (lo), the state equation for the SAG mill is given by

-=-
(lla)

(lib)
where
1. the state variables of the mill are the masses of ore w,(i = l,...,n) and the mass of
water WA
2. the inputs are: the ore flows given by vector f and the feed water flow given by WA,
and the specific grinding rate matrix K E. (It is assumed that the values of a0 and A,
in (1 lb) and the power draw model parameters k, L, D, V,,, and 4 are know from
design values of the mill or analysis of experimental data.)
That this is indeed a state equation is due to the following reasons. Assume an initial
sate is known at a certain initial time to, and that f and FA are known in a time interval
[ to,tf]. Then, if (11) is really a state equation it must be that the mill states may be
determined in this time interval if f, FA, and K E are known in the same interval.
By (1) H, is found in terms of the state variables. The mill power draw MP
appearing in (7) may also be expressed in terms of the state variables. From (7) it may
be seen that besides H,,, and WA there appears the volumetric mill fraction filling J. But
also J may be expressed in terms of the state variables, as may be easily derived from
AmCstica et al. (1993a). Clearly, from (2), cf is also a function of the state variables.
In order to emphasize these facts, the state equations may be written as,
dw
-=G(w,W,)w+f (124
dt
d%
-=h(w)W,+F, ( 12b)
dt
Then, given f, F, and KE in a time interval [t,,f,], and an initial state given by
w(t,> and WA(tO), the state w(t), WA(t) may be found for all instants in [to, tf 1.
Therefore (1 l>, or in its form (12), is truly a state equation. From this global point of
 R. Amestica et al./Int. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360 355

view, then, the model replicates what happens in reality, since if the actual mill begins to
operate with a certain load of water, and a given ore, what happens thereafter depends
on the way the ore and water feeds are manipulated.
Since the state becomes known for every t in [tO,trl, also Mr, cf, J, p, P, and H,,,,
among olher variables are also known for all t in this interval. In system theory these
variables are known as the output variables, which in general are a function of the states
and the input variables. The set of equations which determine these variables in terms of
states and inputs are called state output equations.
Cluss$kation of the state model inputs. For the purpose of studying control strategies
using this sate model, the input variables may be classified into: (i) commands or
manipulated variables, (ii) measured disturbances, and (iii) unmeasured disturbances. Of
course this classification depends on the instrumentation and actuators available in a
particular plant. For example, in a usual case it may be that:
1. F,,, and FA, i.e., the total ore and water feed flows are manipulated variables
2. f, i.e. the vector containing the ore feed flows at each size interval is an unmeasured
disturbance,
3. KE, the matrix characterizing the ore grindability, is another unmeasured disturbance.

3. Results

Two operating procedures are given here to show the behaviour of the SAG mill state
model: (i) a change in the size distribution of the feed ore, and (ii) a change in the solids
percentage in the feed ore flow.

3.1. Changes in feed size distribution

In order to perform this test, the 27 size intervals used in the model have been
grouped in three size ranges, where the fine size range takes into account the fact that
the grate opening is 12.5 mm:
?? Fine: - 12.5 mm
- Intermediate: + 12.5 to - 102 mm
* Coarse: + 102 mm,
fu) Decrease in intermediate size. Keeping the total feed ore constant the proportion
of intemiediate size range was decreased and compensated with an equal increase of the
coarse range (the fine ore flow remains unchanged). In this manner an increase in the
grinding efficiency of the mill may be anticipated. That such is indeed the case may be
observed in Fig. 3, where the ore discharge flow increases causing a the reduction of the
mill ore contents shown in Fig. 4. The feed ore flow is then increased (Fig. 3) to bring
up the mill load, as a result of which the mill throughput is increased. The water is seen
to follow similar variations as the fine (discharged) ore.
(b) Increase in intermediate size. Now the intermediate size feed ore is increased and
the coarse ore is reduced by the same amount. Since the grinding media is thus reduced,
one may expect that the efficiency of grinding decreases. That this is indeed the case
may be seen in Fig. 5, where the mill filling J increases until the mill operating point
356 R. Amesiica et ul./lnt. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360

-1.5
3.7-
-1.4 E
- (D
I_
-1.3 _L
z=

I_
3.3-
- 1.2 ,
_ S
3.1r 1.1
0 2 4 6 8 10

time, hr

r
- Ore feed - -- Ore - Waterfeed ----- Water
discharge discharge

Fig. 3. Ore.andwater flow rates, in the feed and discharge of the mill, after a reduction of the intermediate ore
feed flow rate and an equal increase of the course feed ore flow.

+ 0.35
zG 0.30
2 0.25
0.20
f 0.15
r 0.10
c 0.0s
0.00 I'0
0 2 4 6 8 10

time, hr

Fig. 4. Hold-up of ore and water in the mill corresponding to the case of Fig. 3.

9.9 - -0.12

5 9.0-
-0.38 = O.
.
$ 9.7- .*-- __ E ._s
0 cc - -__ -0.34 v 2
g 9.6- . . / --5_ - -__ L .k
-__ y
4 9.5- / -0.30 2E FZ
, S L-
E
9.4 f-/ I v 0.26
0 2 4 6 8 10

time, hr

-Pwardraw --- HillfilUg

Fig, 5. Filling and power draw when coarse ore feed is reduced.
 R. Amestica et al. / ht. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360 357

37 T -1.50

e
/------- *
-______..--_---___ --1.40 .

i
--1.30
6
i:
"
1 32 -. --I20 s
$I
3.1 7 1.10
0 2 4 6 a 10

*#h

I-ChfWd ----oredschmp --vvaerfeEd---werbs~

Fig, 6. Feed ore and water flow rates of the mill after a reduction of the coarse ore feed flow rate
corresponding to Fig. 5..

goes the: unstable zone, i.e., the power decreases while the filling increases. The feed ore
is then reduced and the recovery from this condition may be observed in the last part of
the graph of Fig. 5. The corresponding ore and water feed and discharge flows are given
in Fig. 6. As a result the mill throughput is reduced.

3.2. Chmge in feed solids percent

In this test the water feed FA is rapidly increased in order to brimg the mill out of the
unstable condition into which it is beginning to enter. In effect, in Fig. 8 the power is
decreasing while the mill filling is increasing. The feed water is then increased so that
the feed solids percentage drops from 0.78 to 0.74 (Fig. 7). As a result, the power
undergoes a rapid increase matched by a fast decrease if the mill filling. Thereafter both

3.3 T c 1.6

e
*L 38 _---- t
. . _ ----_____
I- 5.
1.5

I.4 j
1 1.3 E
: 3.4
t
G
f 6
12 d
u
2 32 1.1 3
0
I
3$ 1
0 2 4 6 a 10

tilm,hr

I-cxdeed- --orubsdrarge -wterfead - - - - ~ifvdterdschagel

Fig. 7. Feed water flow increase to bring the mill out of an unstable operation.
358 R. Amestica et al./ ht. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360

-0.33

_--- - -\
.
.
*. -0.29
-N
--w_
--__
--__ - _ ___
0.25
0 2 L 6 8 10

time, hr

Fig. 8. Power draw and mill filling corresponding to the case of Fig. 7.

16

.-
027 --_ _ + - - ---__
-_ --_h__-_-
0264 l. 11
0 2 4 6 8 10

tim,hr

I-FillECf0fractiOn ----(XedschargereteI

Fig. 9. Ore discharge rate and fraction of fine ore inside the mill after the step increase of the water feed flow
rate of Fig. 7.

0.65, rO.10
I I

/--- ----_
0 - -------__-___
:
,. 0.35- :.
z _,__----A
I-
0.25 ! 0.05
0 2 4 6 0 10

time. hr

Fig. 10. Changes of the total ore and water hold-ups after reduction of the feed solids percentage.
 R. Amestica et al./lnt. J. Miner. Process. 44-45 (1996) 349-360 359

power and mill filling decrease, showing that the stable region has been entered (Fig. 8).
Fig. 9 shlows that after the feed water increase the ore discharge rate increases very fast
due to the flushing effect of the water. Because of this, at the same time the fine ore size
fraction in the mill decreases rapidly. After the abrupt changes caused by the feed water
flow increase a new condition begins to develop in the mill as the grinding due to the
coarse sizes produces a recovery of the fine size fraction (Fig. 9) inside the mill. Fig. 10
shows the changes and final condition of the total ore an water hold-up.

4. Conclusions

By the use of dynamic balance of ore and water, together with submodels represent-
ing power draw, grinding, mass transport, and classification a state equation for a SAG
mill has been developed in which the states are the mass of water and the ore masses, at
different size intervals, contained in the mill. The submodels may be easily changed
within tlhis model structure to suit new developments, whether in the phenomenological
or empirical aspects. The model has shown a good behaviour when subject to changes in
feed ore size distribution and feed percentage of solids, and the overload condition has
appeared when it should be expected. Besides possible improvements in the submodels
used, this state model also admits improvements in the state equation structure. Indeed,
in order to treat varying grindabilities a variable combination of soft and hard ores may
be represented, in which case the number of state variables representing the ore are
doubled.

Acknowledgements

Research leading to this paper has been funded by: PNUD project CHI 88/011,
Technor!ogical development of comminution in the Chilean industry; Mining and Metal-
lurgical Research Center (CIMM) and FONDECYT (Chile) project 1930885, Soft-
sensors. Experimentation supporting this research was done at CODELCO-Chile,
Chuquicamata Division.

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