Lecture 1.

1: Classification of Engineering Materials and Processing Techniques

Introduction
Materials are an important aspect of engineering design and analysis. The importance of
materials science and engineering can be noted from the fact that historical ages have been
named after materials. In the customer driven competitive business environment, the product
quality is of paramount importance. The product quality has been found to be influenced by the
engineering design, type of materials selected and the processing technology employed.
Therefore, the importance of materials and their processing techniques cannot be undervalued in
todays world. Materials form the stuff of any engineering application or product. It has been
found that the engineers do not give adequate attention to this important subject. Moreover, it has
not been adequately represented in the course curriculum of various universities. Therefore, it
becomes imperative to highlight the importance of engineering materials for all engineers related
to the various aspects of engineering applications.
There is a wide variety of materials available which have shown their potential in various
engineering fields ranging from aerospace to house hold applications. The materials are usually
selected after considering their characteristics, specific application areas, advantages and
limitations. The challenge for designers is to select an optimal material suitable for the specific
design reuqirements. The stringent design requirements generally lead to development of new
materials to meet the specific operating conditions and environments. The new materials are
developed from the conventional materials by either by the intrinsic or the extrinsic modification.
In intrinsic modification, minor alloying or heat treatment is carried out. In extrinsic
modification, external reinforcements are added to the parent material to alter its properties in
order to meet the specific design requirements. The composite materials represent an example of
the extrinsic modification. The modification is usually done to improve the properties of the
existing materials. As the new materials are conceptualized and realized in the laboratories, the
hunt for their commercialization begins.
The engineers are then entrusted with the task of finding suitable techniques which would lead to
high quality cost-effective processing of these materials. In order to achieve this objective, it is
imperative for all engineers to have a fundamental understanding of the existing materials and
their processing techniques. It has been found that there are adequate of courses in the
curriculum of various universities where the processing techniques for metals are dealt in detail.
The processing of non-metals is usually not covered as a core subject at the under-graduate level
and therefore the engineers do not have a fundamental understanding about the processing of
important non-metals such as plastics and ceramics. The course has been designed to study the
basic nature of different non-metals and the manufacturing processes associated thereof. The
various non-metals covered in the course include glasses, ceramics, plastics and different types
of composite materials.

Classification and Selection of Materials:

The first module deals with the classification of the engineering materials and their processing
techniques. The engineering materials can broadly be classified as:

a) Ferrous Metals
b) Non-ferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
c) Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets)
d) Ceramics and Diamond
e) Composite Materials
f) Nano-materials

The engineering materials are often primarily selected based on their mechanical, physical,
chemical and manufacturing properties. The secondary points to be considered are the cost and
availability, appearance, service life and recyclability. In the present day, strict environmental
legislations have forced the designers and engineers to select the environment friendly materials
which have minimum environmental impact. Materials are often selected for their mechanical,
physical, chemical and manufacturing properties for ensuring proper functioning under desired
conditions. When several materials are suitable for a particular design requirement, the cheapest
one is usually selected.

Classification of Processing Techniques

The basic aim of processing is to produce the products of the required quality at a reasonable
cost. The basic processes can be broadly classified as:
 a) Primary Forming Processes
b) Deformative Processes
c) Material Removal Processes
d) Joining Processes
e) Finishing Processes
Most of the engineering materials are processed either individually or in combination by the
above mentioned processes. The processes can further be classified as conventional and
advanced processes. The specific application area of each will depend on the design
requirements and the ability with which a material renders itself to various processing
techniques. The selection of a processing technique for any engineering material would broadly
depend on the properties (mechanical, physical, chemical) of the material and the required
number of parts to be processed.
 Lecture 1.2: Structure and Properties of Non-Metals

Introduction
An important point to understand is what exactly a non-metal is. An easy way to answer the
question is that Which is not a metal is a non-metal. A number of definitions can be given for a
non-metal. There is no generic definition for non-metals as they represent a set of elements
having dictinct physical and chemical properties than metals. According to Macmillan
Dictionary a non-metal is a chemical element that is not a metal, for example carbon or oxygen.
Non-metals are solids and gases and are not good conductors of heat and electricity. Therefore,
Non-metals are a set of elements with physical and chemical properties opposite to those of
metal elements. There are few elements which show the intermediate proeprties of metals and
non-metals. These are known as mettaloids. The division between metal and non-metal elements
can be clearly be distinquished in the periodic table.
The structure of the non-metals is very diverse. The non-metals may exist generally as gases and
solids. Non-metals are the chemical opposites of metals. Non-metals are less reactive than
metals. Non-metals are electronegative. The general physical and chemical properties of the non-
metals have been summarized as follows:

Non-metals: Physical Properties

Non-metals are non-ductile solids
Non-metals are brittle solids
Non-metals are not malleable
Non-metals are soft (except diamond)
Nonmetals are not sonorous (do not produce any sound when hit)
Non-metals are not lustrous and usually have a dull appearance
Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity
Non-metals may exist as solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
Non-metals have lower melting and boiling point than metals
Non-metals: Chemical Properties
Non-metals have higher electronegativities
Non-metals readily gain or share valence electrons (electron acceptors)
Non-metals form oxides that are acidic
Non-metals are good oxidizing agents

The general behavior of non-metals is therefore different from the metals. The technological
advancements have been noted in the field of processing of metals. The primary forming, the
material removal, the joining as well as the finishing processes for most of the metals are well
developed and commercialized. This has been made possible because of the important
characterisitcs of metals, that is, their ductility, malleability and in general formability. Most of
the metals can be easily deformed into thin sheets and wires using processing techniques already
developed.
The general characteristics discussed for non-metals do not render them fit for processing with
the methods and techniques developed for metals. Some of the engineering materials which
present general behavior opposite to that of metals are glasses, ceramics and polymers. The
various other variants of these basic materials, such as, their composites also posses
characteristics that are entirely opposite to that of metals. Therefore, it becomes imperative to
developed understanding of the various processing methods employed to process these materials.
The present course has been divided into six modules. The outline of the course is as follows:
Module 2 deals with the glasses, their properties, melting forming and annealing.
Module 3 highlights the technique of ceramic powder preparation, fabrication of ceramic
products from powders: pressing, casting, vapour phase techniques, sintering, finishing,
machining and ceramic coatings.
Module 4 discusses the various methods of processing plastics such as extrusion, injection
moulding, thermoforming, compression moulding and transfer moulding.
Module 5 addresses an important class of engineering materials called composites. The methods
used for processing of polymer matrix composites such as filament winding and pultrusion have
been explained with process capability and control variables.
Module 6 has been dedicated to the ceramic matrix composites and explains the various
techniques employed to process this important class of engineering materials.
Module 7 finally brings about the closure of the course with emphasis on the secondary
processing of composite materials. Secondary processing in terms of machining and joining of
composites has been addressed with focus on machining induced damage.
 Lecture 2.1: Glass Structure and Properties

Introduction

The word glass is derived from the Latin term glaesum. Glaesum is used to refer to a transparent
material. The first glass object used by man originated from obsidian, a natural volcanic glass.
First man-made glass was found in Egypt around 3500 years ago. Generally, glass can be defined
as an inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization.
Glass is therefore, by definition, an amorphous or non-crystalline solid. The behavior of glass is
similar to amorphous polymers because glass has no distinct melting and freezing point. Today,
there are around 750 different types of commercial glasses available. The commercial glass that
is majorly manufactured around the world is soda-lime glass (sand 63-74%, soda ash 12-16%
and limestone 7-14%). The different uses of glass ranges from windows (flat glass), containers
and cookware to glass with special mechanical, electrical and optical characteristics. Depending
upon the manufacturing process and end use of the product, different constituents can be used.
For example, boron oxide (B2O3) is added to improve heat durability in glass which is used for
cookware, automobile headlamps and laboratory glassware. Similarly silver (Ag) is added in
sunglasses and strontium is added in television screens to absorb radiation.

The commercial glasses mainly used are categorized by following types:

a) Soda-lime glass (high density, low strength, low cost, e.g. beverage containers, window
glass).
b) Lead-alkali glass (low strength, high electrical resistivity, e.g. microelectronics).
c) Borosilicate glass (good chemical and impact resistance, e.g. laboratory glassware,
automobile headlamps, utensils).
d) 96% silica glass (good thermal and chemical resistance).
e) Fused silica (high impact resistance).
f) Aluminosilicate glass (e.g. high-efficacy lamps).

Handling of glass is a critical issue. Glass breakage may take place due to stress concentration,
scratches, impurities present in glass, thermal stresses etc. Depending upon the application, glass
is manufactured using different processes. For example, toughened glass is manufactured by
rapid cooling, which is used in making bullet proof windows. Similarly, wired glass is
manufactured by meshing steel wire into molten glass by rolling process. It is used for making
low cost fire resistant glass which automatically breaks at high temperatures.

Glass structure

Glass is an amorphous or non-crystalline solid that is brittle in nature and the structure is
obtained by melt-quenching process. The glass structure (Figure 1(b)) is also obtained by using
sol-gel and vapor deposition technique. Glass is weak in tension because of its non-crystalline
molecular structure. When load is applied beyond the strength limit, glass breaks without any
prior warning, unlike steel and aluminium where plastic deformation occurs. Therefore, the
atomic structure of the glass is different from the structure of the crystalline materials (Figure
1(a).

(b) (c)
(a)

Oxygen atom Silicon atom Sodium atom

Figure 1. Two-dimensional demonstration of: (a) crystalline structure of silica; (b) amorphous
structure of silica glass; (c) soda silica glass.

The main constituent of glass is silica sand. Almost, all glass contains at least 50% silica. The
structure of the glass is formed by bonding silicon and oxygen ions. Network modifiers (or
intermediates) and network formers such as sodium (Figure 1(c)), may interrupt the continuity or
contribute to the network structure of glass.
There are two main differences between crystalline and amorphous solids; crystalline solids are
formed by repeating geometric arrangement of atoms whereas; amorphous solids have random
atomic arrangement. The second difference is their phase transformation behavior (Figure 2)
when they are heated. For example, the transformation phases of crystalline and amorphous
solids can be understand by examining silica (SiO2) which can exist in either state. When silica is
in crystal form and is heated at a temperature Tm (freezing or melting point), it becomes liquid. It
is observed that at melting point the specific volume of crystalline solids changes abruptly which
causes sharp changes in physical properties. Whereas the amorphous structure of silica softens
gradually (start softening at temperature Tg) when those are heated because there is a wide
temperature range between the solid and liquid state. The temperature Tg is the glass transition
temperature of the solids.

Softening
Sp Super-cooled liquid Stable liquid
eci
B
fic E
Amorphous solid Melting
vol
um C
F
e

D
Crystal

Tg Tm

Temperature

Figure 2. Phase transformation of crystalline and amorphous solids on heating.

Glass properties

The behavior of glass is linearly elastic and brittle. The stress-strain curve for the glass is shown
in Figure 3. In compression, the glass is very strong and its compressive strength can reach up to
10,000 MPa. But in tension, when stress level exceeds 100 MPa, glass fails easily. The failure of
glass is due to the stress concentration at surface flaws as no plastic flow is possible in glass. For
the most commercial glasses, Youngs modulus of elasticity (E) ranges from 55-90 GPa and the
Poisson's ratio () ranges from 0.16-0.28. The fiberglass which is drawn from the molten glass
has tensile strength ranges from 0.2-7 GPa. The glass fiber is stronger than the steel and most of
the time used as a reinforcing material to form reinforced plastics. The other important properties
of glass are low thermal conductivity, high dielectric strength, resistance to corrosion on attack
by water and acid.

Steel

Str
ess Gl
ass

Strain

Figure 3. Stress versus strain diagram of steel and glass.

 Lecture 2.2: Glass Processing - I

Glass melting
Glass can be made by variety of methods, but in most cases, it is produced by melting raw
materials at an elevated temperature. This process involves raw materials selection, weighing,
mixing of components in appropriate proportion and removal of impurities to get a homogeneous
melt. Large scale commercial melting takes place in refractory tanks which are further connected
to series of glass forming machines. The melting of batch components takes place in furnaces.
The selection of furnace depends upon the quantity and type of glass being produced. Most of
the furnaces are made up of refractory blocks which can work at temperatures more than 1500C.
The different types of furnaces commonly used are unit melter, recuperative melter, electric
melter and regenerative furnace. The batch materials to manufacture glass can be divided into
following five categories according to their role in the process: glass former, flux, modifier,
colorant and fining agent. Glass formers are one of the most important components present in
any glass. Silica (SiO2), boric oxide (B2O3) and phosphoric oxide (P2O5) are the most common
type of glass formers present in oxide glass. The use of silica glass is wide but melting
temperature of silica is too high (1600-1725C). To reduce the processing temperature of silica,
different types of flux such as Na2O and PbO can be used. The addition of fluxes to silica
reduces the overall cost of glass processing but results in degradation of properties. To overcome
this problem, different property modifiers or intermediates such as boron, sodium, magnesium,
titanium, and calcium can be used to modify the properties of glass. Colorants are used to control
the color in the final glass. The amount of iron oxides (impurities) present in the glass results in
unintentional change in color of glass. The other types of colorants used are gold and silver.
These types of colorants change glass color by forming colloids in glasses. Finally, fining agents
such as arsenic, antimony oxides, potassium and sodium nitrates are added to raw materials to
remove bubbles from the melt. As the raw materials melt and react inside the furnace, carbon
dioxide and water emission takes place which causes formation of bubbles. The high temperature
and low viscosity is maintained to raise the gas bubbles at the upper surface of the melt and
hence removed from the melt. Fining is important because it controls the homogeneity of glass
by eliminating bubbles. Batch particles size and their mixing in proper proportion are other
factors that provide homogeneity in glass structure.
Nowadays, large scale production of glass industries uses computers to control mixing of
different constituents and feeding of mixture into the furnace. In recent years, oxygen is typically
used in glass making to enhance the combustion of glass. The benefits of using oxygen are
improved furnace effectiveness, reduced pollution, good quality glass and longer furnace life.

Glass forming
Glass forming is an intermediate stage in glass manufacturing process. It comes in between glass
melting and annealing. Manufacturing of almost all commercial glass comprises of different
stages. The stages of glass manufacturing are illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic of typical glass manufacturing process.

In forming stage of glass manufacturing, viscosity of molten glass changes gradually with
temperature. Glass forming permits molten glass to be shaped into flat sheets and filaments by
controlling the viscosity. For example, viscosity of the glass must increase slowly as the
temperature drops to produce full lead crystal and the viscosity of the glass must increase rapidly
as the temperature drops to manufacture glass fiber. Depending upon the applications, there are
different processes of forming the glass. The most common type of glass forming process can be
categorized as:

Flat glass
Flat glass, sheet glass, or plate glass is made by two processes. The processes are float glass
process and rolled glass process. Both of these processes are continuous method. Thickness of
the glass plate formed by these processes ranges from 0.8 to 10 mm.
In float glass process (Figure 2), a ribbon of glass is made by pouring molten glass from the
furnace to a bed of molten metal such as tin, lead and low melting point alloys under controlled
atmosphere. The molten glass floats on a thin bath of molten metal and then moves through the
temperature-controlled kiln (also known as Lehr) and solidifies. The temperature of glass is
maintained at 1000C for a long period of time to separate irregularities and to get the desired flat
surface. Glass produced by this technique has uniform thickness, smooth surface and does not
require any further grinding and polishing.

Figure 2. Float glass process of forming flat glass.

In the drawing or rolling process (Figure 3), the continuous stream of molten glass from a
furnace passes through a pair of water cooled rollers. Generally, this process is used to make
patterned glass and wired glass. The patterned glass is made by passing the glass through the
rollers at a temperature of 1050C. This type of glass is made in a single pass process. Gap
between the rollers are adjusted to get the desired thickness of flat-sheet glass. Similarly, wired
glass is made by meshing steel wire into molten glass by rolling process. It is used for making
low cost fire resistant glass which automatically breaks at high temperatures.

Figure 3. Rolling of flat glass.

Glass fibers
Fiberglass is available in two types: continuous glass fiber and short glass fiber (glass wool).
The first one is used in fabrication of composite materials and latter one is used for thermal
insulation.
Continuous glass fiber is produced by drawing molten glass through multiple orifices. The
speed during drawing can be upto 500 m/s. Fibers of small diameter (2m) can be produced by
this process. The process is schematically shown in Figure 4 (a).
In glass wool process (Figure 4 (b)), the molten glass is ejected from a rotating head by
centrifugal spraying process. The rotating head or spinner cup contains more than 2000 holes.
Since the holes diameter of spinner is very small, only fine fiber is formed. Air is supplied from
the top to direct the fiber downward and to reduce the temperature. As the fibers descend, the
binder is mixed to achieve the required wool criteria. The amount of binder decides the
mechanical properties of wool. In this process, the diameter of the fiber can be achieved from 20-
30m.

Figure 4. Glass fiber processing: (a) continuous glass filament process; (b) glass wool process.

Glass tubing
In this process, molten glass flows around a rotating hollow cone-shaped or cylindrical mandrel
through which air is supplied continuously to avoid the collapsing of glass tube while the glass is
drawn out by set of rollers. The temperature and flow rate of blown air determine the diameter
and thickness of the glass tube. The process is shown in Figure 5.
 Figure 5. Continuous glass tubing process.

Toughened or tempered glass

Glass can fracture due to stress concentration. To avoid the fracture of glass, local high
compressive stresses are induced near the surfaces. This is done by thermal toughening of glass.
Initially, the glass plate is heated to 650C after which the outer surface is rapidly cooled by air
blasts. Due to which thin compressive layer is created at the outer surface and the center of the
glass becomes the region of tensile stresses. This causes the self-equilibrium. The glasses used in
glazed door and making tabletops are made by this process and is termed as toughened or safety
glass.

Laminated glass

It is made by bonding of two or more pieces of safety glass. The adhesive mostly used for
bonding is polyvinyl butyral (PVB). Depending upon the number of safety glass layers, the
strength of the glass may be increased or decreased. Nowadays, laminated glass is produced by
bonding number of annealed glass layers with plastic interlayers. This type of glass is used in
automobile windshields where strength is one of the key issues.
 Lecture 2.3: Glass Processing II

For specific purposes, there are other types of commercially available glasses such as
annealed glass, tinted glass, coated glass and self-cleaning glass. The processing of these
types of glasses has been discussed in this chpater:

Annealed glass

Annealed glass is a type of glass that is manufactured by without any heat treatment. When
glass is heated above a transition point and cools slowly, without any quenching the glass
becomes annealed. Due to this it has very low strength and thermal resistance. Compare to
the toughened glass annealed glass is six times weaker. But use of annealed glass cannot
be avoided as the heat treatment of very large glass panel is very challenging. Therefore,
the use of annealed glass is limited and mostly used in windows.

Tinted glass

Tinted or heat-absorbing glass may be refer to any glass that is formed by adding colorant
or thin film coating of any material that reduces transmission of light. Depending upon the
color and film thickness, the light transmission differs from 14 to 85%. The most common
use of tinted glass is in automobile windows.

Coated glass

Coated glass also known as reflective glass is manufactured by stacking of several layers of
metal oxides on float or tint glasses by means of vacuum magnetism control and cathodic
sputtering.

Self-cleaning glass

Self-cleaning glass has microscopic coating of titanium oxide of thickness 15m on the
outer surface of glass. The photo-catalytic effect of titanium dioxide film absorbed ultra-
violet light, which breaks down or loosens any organic dirt on the surface. As the film
surface is hydrophilic in nature causes rain water to spread evenly over the surface which
results in uniform washing and preventing spots when the surface dries. Self-cleaning
glasses are largely used in building, automobile and other technical applications.

Glass annealing

Glass products sometimes have induced residual stress unlike metal products if cooling is
not done at a sufficiently low rate. In order to release the internal stresses, the temperature
of glass melt is held steady over a long period time. This process is known as annealing.
Annealing is a process of controlled cooling and heating of a material to remove residual
stresses. The process may be carried out in a thermally insulated chamber known as a lehr.
Glass contracts as it cools down because of its low thermal conductivity. Moreover, when
there is large amount of stress developed inside the glass, it will break automatically to
relieve the stress. Therefore slowing down the cooling rate will enable less temperature
difference throughout the bulk of material and that will cause less stress.Temperature
variation may cause crack or shatter of glass in the absence of annealing process.
Annealing removes thermal stresses from the glass caused by quenching process and hence
increase the overall strength.
The annealing process is shown in Figure 1. In annealing process, the glass is heated until
the temperature reaches a stress-relief point, i.e. annealing temperature (also known as
annealing point) at a viscosity () of 1013 Poise. At the annealing temperature, the glass is
still in a hard state but at the same time it is soft enough to relieve thermal stresses. The
glass is then allowed to remain at the annealing point for some period of time until the
temperature is even throughout. The soaking time depends upon the size, thickness and
type of the glass. The glass is then cooled to a temperature below the strain point (=1014.5
Poise) at a predetermined rate. Subsequently, the temperature can be dropped to ambient
temperature at a rate limited by thermal conductivity, heat capacity and thermal expansion
coefficient and thickness of the glass. Annealing time may range from a few minutes to few
months. For example, at the strain point annealing, time is few hours, while at the stress-
relief point, stresses relax within several minutes. Stresses that are still present below the
strain point are not possible to remove and are permanently present in the glass.
 Soaking period

Cooling period

Temperature (oC)
Heating period

Time (Hours)

Figure 1. A general annealing curve for common glasses.

 Lecture 1 Ceramics: I

The word ceramic is derived from the greek term keramos, which means potters
clay and keramikos means clay products. Till 1950s, the most important types of
ceramics were the traditional clays, made into pottery, bricks, tiles etc. Ceramic
artefacts play an important role in historical understanding of the technology and
culture of the people who lived many years ago.
A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic material and is often crystalline.
Traditional ceramics are basically clays. The earliest application was in pottery. Most
recently, different types of ceramics used are alumina, silicon carbide etc. Latest
advancements are in the bio-ceramics with examples being dental implants and
synthetic bones.
A comparative analysis of ceramics with other engineering materials is shown in table
1. The purpose of presenting this comparative analysis is to show importance of
ceramics among different engineering metals and polymers. This comparison would
enable to justify application areas of ceramics.

Table 1 Comparison of ceramics with metals and polymers

Property Ceramic Metal Polymer

Density Low High Lowest

Hardness Highest Low Lowest

Ductility Low High High

Wear resistance High Low Low

Corrosion resistance High Low Low

Thermal conductivity Mostly low High Low

Electrical conductivity Mostly low High Low

Applications
o Pottery products, sanitary ware, floor and roof tiles
o Crucibles, kiln linings, other refractories
o High end applications such as in ceramic matrix composites, tiles in space
shuttle, bullet proof jackets, disk brakes, ball bearing applications, bio-ceramics

Classification of ceramics materials

Ceramics can be classified in diverse ways i.e. there are number of ways to classify the
ceramic materials. Most commonly, the ceramics can be classified on the following basis:
- Classification based on composition
- Classification based on applications
The detailed classification is shown in figure 1.

Classification of
ceramics materials

Classification based on Classification based on Application

composition applications

Silicate ceramics Glasses Containers, household,

optical glasses
High performance advanced
Oxide ceramics ceramics Sensors, engine rotors
valve bearings
Traditional vitreous ceramics
Non-oxide ceramics Sanitary ware, tiles, bricks
Cement & Concrete
Structural, composites
Glass ceramics Natural Ceramics
Rocks & minerals, bones

Figure 1 Classification of ceramics materials

Classification based on composition
(i) Silicate ceramics
Silicates are materials generally having composition of silicon and oxygen (figure 2a).
Four large oxygen (o) atoms surround each smaller silicon (Si) atom as shown in figure
2b. The main types of silicate ceramics are based either on alumosilicates or on
magnesium silicates. Out of these two, the former include clay-based ceramics such as
porcelain, earthenware, stoneware, bricks etc. while the latter consists of talc-based
technical ceramics such as steatite, cordierite and forsterite ceramics. Silicate ceramics
are traditionally categorized into coarse or fine and, according to water absorption, into
dense (< 2 % for fine and < 6 % for coarse) or porous ceramics (> 2% and > 6 %,
respectively).

Figure 2 (a) Silicate ceramics Figure 2 (b) Structure of silicate ceramics

(ii) Oxide ceramics

Oxide ceramics include alumina, zirconia, silica, aluminium silicate, magnesia and other
metal oxide based materials. These are non-metallic and inorganic compounds by nature
that include oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen. Oxide ceramics possess the following
properties:
(a) High melting points
(b) Low wear resistance
(c) An extensive collection of electrical properties
These types of ceramics are available with a variety of special features. For example,
glazes and protective coatings seal porosity, improved water or chemical resistance, and
enhanced joining to metals or other materials.
Oxide ceramics are used in a wide range of applications, which include materials and
chemical processing, radio frequency and microwave applications, electrical and high
voltage power applications and foundry and metal processing.
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is the most important technical oxide ceramic material. This
synthetically manufactured material consists of aluminium oxide ranging from 80 % to
more than 99 %. (figure 3a and 3b).

Figure 3 (a) Aluminium oxide Figure 3 (b) Structure of aluminium oxide

(iii) Non-Oxide ceramics

The use of non-oxide ceramics has enabled extreme wear and corrosion problems to be
overcome, even at high temperature and severe thermal shock conditions. These types of
ceramics find its application in different spheres such as pharmaceuticals, oil and gas
industry, valves, seals, rotating parts, wear plates, location pins for projection welding,
cutting tool tips, abrasive powder blast nozzles, metal forming tooling etc.

(iv) Glass ceramics

These are basically polycrystalline material manufactured through the controlled
crystallization of base glass. Glass-ceramic materials share many common characteristics
with both glasses and ceramics. Glass-ceramics possess an amorphous phase and more
than one crystalline phases. These are produced by a controlled crystallization procedure.
Glass-ceramics holds the processing advantage of glass and has special characteristics of
ceramics.
Glass-ceramics yield an array of materials with interesting properties like zero porosity,
fluorescence, high strength, toughness, low or even negative thermal expansion, opacity,
pigmentation, high temperature stability, low dielectric constant, machinability, high
chemical durability, biocompatibility, superconductivity, isolation capabilities and high
resistivity. These properties can be altered by controlling composition and by controlled
heat treatment of the base glass.
 Lecture 2 Ceramics: II

Ceramics which were traditionally being used for pottery and clay products only, these days are
finding application in electronics, aerospace, bio-applications etc. The application spectrum of
ceramics has increased because ceramics possesses specific properties such as corrosion
resistance, wear resistance, high hardness, low density etc. The classification of ceramics based
on the application is as follows:

(i) Glasses
Glasses are based on Silicate (SiO2) along with other additives to shrink the melting point and to
impart special characteristic properties.
Glasses are mainly used in the manufacturing of the following products;
(a) containers
(b) households
(c) optical glasses etc.

(ii) High performance advanced ceramics

These are basically special ceramics having outstanding measures in terms of toughness, wear
resistance, electrical properties, etc. Its applicative demand has rose to a larger extent in the last
decade and finds its need in cutting tool, grinding, bearing, sensor, laser, superconductor etc.

(iii) Traditional vitreous ceramics

All the clay-based products within ceramics come under this category. Applications are easily
noticeable in porcelain, sanitary ware, tiles, bricks, refractories etc.

(iv) Cement and concrete

Cement and concrete ceramics are basically multiphase materials that is these materials exist in
more than one phase.
(v) Natural ceramics
Natural ceramics include rocks, minerals, ores that are extracted from the earth and are produced
by the laws of nature. Bones also come under natural ceramics.
Crystal Structure of Ceramics
Because ceramics are composed of at least two elements, and often more, their crystal structures
are generally more complex than those for metals. The atomic bonding in these materials ranges
from purely ionic to totally covalent. Generally, ceramics exhibit a combination of these two
bonding types, the degree of ionic character being dependent on the electro negativities of the
atoms. The bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic bonding than in
metallic. The strength of the ionic bond depends on the charge on each ion and the radius of each
ion. There exists a combination of stronger ionic and covalent bonds.

Properties of Ceramic materials

The properties of the materials depend upon the types of atoms present, the types of bonding
between the atoms and the way the atoms are packed together. A wide range of properties of
ceramics can be obtained due to the variation in crystal structure of ceramics. The crystal
structure of ceramics is relatively more complex than metals. Depending upon the bonding, there
exits different types of properties in ceramics. Type of Bonding in Ceramics leads to:
- high melting point
- low thermal expansion
- high elastic modulus
- high hardness
- good chemical resistance
- brittleness

Figure 1 shows the summary of properties of ceramics before moving towards the processing
aspects of ceramics. These are not only the advantages or disadvantages but shows overall
properties of ceramics.
 Figure 1 Properties of ceramics materials

Strength of ceramics
Ceramic materials possess wide variety of properties which make them upcoming and promising
materials. Strength of the ceramics is one of the governing properties for selecting specific
application area. Strength of ceramics mainly depends upon the following points:
o Smaller the particle size, the higher is the strength of ceramic
o Dense microstructure enhances strength
o An increased toughness leads to enhancement in resistance to fracture
o High particle aspect ratio may be useful in enhancing toughness

Electrical properties of ceramics

o Electrical conductivity of most of ceramics is low. Therefore, ceramics are used
for electrical insulations.
o Electrical conductivity depends on applied field
o Some ceramics show semiconducting properties
o Ceramic also show temperature dependent superconducting properties

Typical applications of ceramics

 Pottery, floor and roof tiles, bricks, cookware, sanitary ware
High temperature applications such as lining material in furnaces, crucibles
Bullet proof armor, hard coatings, bio-medical implants, ball bearings, watch
making etc.
 Lecture 3.3: Ceramic powder preparation

The processing of raw ceramics into ceramic products requires the preparation of ceramic
powders. The application and quality of the product defines the type of powder preparation
required. The application spectrum of ceramics ranges from household items to space-shuttle.
The raw materials for powder preparation are generally natural minerals such as Quartz, Zircon,
fireclay. The raw materials need to be processed in order to convert them into the desired
products with special characteristics. The type and nature of processing may be different for
different products and applications.

Characteristics of powders
Every raw material should possess some desirable characteristics for further processing. Some of
the important characteristics of powders which define the quality of the final ceramic product
should be kept in mind. Desirable characteristics depend upon the quality of product and
application.
These characteristics are:
Chemical composition
Phase composition
Particle size
Particle size distribution
Particle shape
Agglomeration

Ceramic powder processing

Ceramic powder processing can be broadly divided into two categories. One is chemical
processing of powders using the products of chemical reaction which are in the form of powders.
Second processing technique is mechanical preparation methods in which a direct contact of
particles takes place with some agents (such as Grinding /milling).
Mechanical preparation method: Milling/Crushing/Grinding
Mechanical preparation method involves crushing, milling in a ball mill or grinding ceramic raw
materials into small particles. A ball mill is a machine with a rotating hollow cylinder partly
filled with steel or white cast iron balls. Depending on the powder amount and the powder
properties, different types of mills are used for dry and wet grinding.

Ball Milling
Ball Mill grinds a material by rotating a cylinder with hard balls, causing them to fall back into
the cylinder and onto the material to be ground. The impact of balls is important for reduction in
size of the particles. Ball milling is mostly used for brittle materials. The diameter of the mill
decides the speed of the mill. Generally, the rotational speed does not exceed 20 RPM. Diameter
of cylinder is inversely proportional to the rotational speed. The larger the diameter, the slower
the rotation. If the speed is too high, it begins to act like a centrifuge and the balls do not fall
back, but stay on the perimeter of the mill. Figure 1 shows the schematic of various mechanisms
of crushing the ceramic powder. These are roll crushing (figure 1a), ball mill (figure 1b) and
hammer milling (figure 1c).
In roll crushing method, there are basically two rollers; one is fixed roller and the other is
adjustable roller on which the lumps of ceramic raw material are dropped through hopper. When
roller starts rotating, the raw material is pressed inside the roller as shown in figure 1a and fine
particles of ceramic powder are obtained on the other side. The size of the powder can be varied
as per the requirement. This can be done by changing the space between the rollers through
adjustable roller using adjustable screw.
In case of ball milling as shown in figure 1b, black sphere represents balls of some harder
material and the green balls represent the ceramic particles. The ball mill rotates continuously
and the collision between harder balls and ceramic particles occurs repeatedly and ceramic
powder is prepared.
In hammer milling process, a hammer is rotated inside the chamber and large size lumps of raw
ceramic are crushed into very fine ceramic powder. As shown in the figure 1c, there is a grain
hopper from where raw material is moved into the chamber through delivery device. There are
four independent hammers attached to the rotor. Raw material is hammered down and fine
ceramic powder is taken away.
Figure 1 Mechanical preparation method, to obtain ceramic particles: (a) roll crushing (b) ball
mill and (c) hammer milling
 Lec-4: Ceramic Powder Preparation I

Synthesis of ceramics powders

Production of high quality ceramic powders for high technology ceramics is becoming one of the
most urgent issues in the ceramic industries. In particular, the development of fine ceramic
powders with unusual and superior properties will be of great interest. The principal driving
force is essentially one of technical and economical advantage that can be achieved through the
use of these new materials in a wide range of applications, varying from improved diesel engines
made with ceramic components, gas turbine engines for automotive and stationary power
generation, advanced electronic and magnetic materials, fibre optics and more recently ceramic
superconductors.
The preparation of ceramic products typically involves heating process of ceramic powders,
which must undergo special handling in order to control purity, particle size, particle size
distribution, and heterogeneity. These factors play an important role in the properties of the
finished ceramic part. In principle, it is possible to distinguish finished ceramics made of
naturally harvested materials from fully synthetically prepared starting materials. While most of
the binary oxide ceramics such as alumina or silica can be processed from natural sources,
complex synthetic routes must obtain non-oxide ceramics and more complex oxides such as
high-temperature superconductors. Both the natural products and the synthetic materials must be
controlled in terms of their chemical compositions, homogeneity, specific shape, particle size,
and particle size distribution.
There are mainly two approaches for synthesis of ceramic powders. One is the mechanical
method and the other is the chemical method.
Mechanical methods are mainly of two types:
(a) Mixed oxide process or solid-state reaction process: This is the most widely used
processes as it is suitable for the mass-production of cost-efficient powders. Highly pure
ultra-fine powders are synthesized via gas-phase reactions.
(b) High-energy ball milling or liquid-phase synthesis: This method is helpful for
producing homogeneous fine ceramic powders and involves the co-precipitation method and
a hydrothermal synthesis.
Solid-state reaction process
Solids do not react with solids at room temperature.
High temperature must be used.
Direct reaction of solids to form the final product.
Solid-solid reactions are simple to perform.
Raw materials are often readily available at low cost.
High temperatures, chances of contamination, chances of non-homogeneity.
The rate of reaction depends on the rate of nucleation, rates of diffusion of ions and surface area
contact between the reacting solids. The solid state reaction scheme for single crystal is shown in
figure 1.

Figure solid state reaction scheme

For the synthesis of the ceramics powder commonly used chemical methods are:
(a) sol-gel methods
(b) co-precipitation method
(c) hydrothermal method
(d) combustion method etc.
The solgel process
The solgel process involves the manufacturing of oxide ceramics via hydrolysis of metal salts
or peptization of metal oxides with subsequent coagulation of the product colloids (colloidal
gels). Alternatively, it may involve the hydrolysis of alcoholic solutions of metal alkoxides,
formates, acetates or acetylacetonates forming polymeric gels. The formation of colloidal gels is
preceded by the formation of a sol, whereby the suspended colloidal particles are in either
electrostatic or steric interaction by means of surface-active or polymer substances. Upon
destabilization of the sol particles, it coagulates and forms a 3-D gel. Unlike the polymer gels,
the formation of colloidal gels is reversible.
The hydrolysis of metal alkoxides dissolved in alcohol leads to condensation reactions and
ensuing formation of inorganic polymers with M-O-M as a structural unit. This reaction is driven
towards completion by removal of the product water. Both linear and cross-linked polymers can
result from partial hydrolysis, depending on the stoichiometric ratio of water and alkoxide, and
the concentration of the added acid or base catalyst. Progressive poly-condensation gradually
leads to gel formation. In the next step, the wet gel is transformed to a xerogel by the extraction
of the solvent (drying process). The conversion of the M-O-M containing polymer or gel into
metal oxide (which can be considered as a macromolecule) is accomplished via heat treatment in
several calcination steps entailing the following reactions subject to the temperature:
1. 100200C: Separation of adsorbed solvent particles (water, alcohol).
2. 200600C: Decomposition of organic residues and hydroxide, nitrate, sulfate,
etc.
3. 100700C: Inter and intermolecular separation of water and alcohol forming the
corresponding metal oxide.
The solgel process may also be used to create monodisperse, sub micrometer powder particles
which could aid sintering because of a better packing density. The solgel process is also applied
for the production of oxide glass fibers and ceramic fibres, as well as for surface modification.
The solgel coating of glass has been used in industry since the early 1970s. Depending on the
composition of the glass layer, it is possible to manufacture reflective or anti-reflective films,
passive, and doped coatings (for microelectronics). Furthermore, it is also possible to produce
films, which, due to their low thermal expansion compared with the substrate, generate
compression stress, thereby drastically increasing the mechanical strength of the glass. A further
application of the solgel process is the production of organically modified silicates, the so-
called ormosils.

Precipitation Method
In this method, a solid product is achieved from a liquid solution.
The reactions are initiated by altering the temperature and pressure of the solution
Chemical precipitation agent may also be used in some cases
Hard agglomerates may form which may require grinding leading to
contamination

Both the chemical and mechanical methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. The
mechanical method is successful for a large-scale production of bulk ceramic powders at its low
cost and easy adaptability. In conventional solid-state method, high temperature and heating for
prolonged time makes successful the particles coarse. Fine powders mainly prepared by chemical
process have an improved homogeneity; densifications and the chemical precursors used in this
process can easily be refined to increase the purity. However, in many cases, the chemical routes
generally involve complex techniques when compared to the conventional solid-state methods.
In addition to these powder manufacturing processes, some new methods such as chemical
vapour deposition (CVD) and polymer pyrolysis have been applied to create high-purity starting
materials with defined properties. In three processes, the ceramic solid is synthesized on the basis
of lower molecular, inorganic or elemental organic precursors. The correlation between the
structure of the molecular precursors and the nanostructure of the derived materials and their
properties will provide the focal point for detailed experimental studies.
 Lecture 5 Processing of Ceramic Parts - Pressing

A wide variety of fabrication processes are used to prepare ceramics powder for ceramic
product. The process for a particular product is based on the material, shape complexity of the
product, property requirements and cost. Processing of ceramics generally involves three basic
steps:
Ceramic Powder Preparation (crushing/milling/grinding)
Mixing powder particles with additives (to impart special characteristics)
Shaping, drying and firing the material
Ceramic fabrication processes can be divided into six common categories as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Various processes used in fabricated ceramic products

Pressing
Pressing is one of the simplest methods of ceramic powder processing for development of
ceramic based products. Raw material is crushed in fine powders which is mixed with additives
and then processed into useful products. In pressing operation, powder containing little amount
of water is compacted under pressure. A wide range of traditional and advanced ceramic based
products are processed by powder pressing method which includes electronic and electrical
ceramic items, floor and wall tiles and insulator of spark plug. Powder pressing can be carried
out in number of ways which are as follows (figure 2):
 Figure 2 Powder pressing techniques
Dry pressing
Dry pressing technique is used for simple shapes such as abrasive products and whitewares. The
schematic of dry pressing technique is shown in figure 3. Water content in the powder mixture is
very low (less than 4%). Various binders (organic as well as inorganic) may be added in the
mixture depending on the requirement. Production rate is high in dry pressing method and close
dimensional tolerances are achieved. The advantages associated with dry pressing technique are
maximum production rate and better tolerance control. The disadvantages of this process include
non-uniformity in density and wear resistance of dies.

Figure 3 Dry pressing technique

Wet and hot pressing
In wet pressing method, product is processed under high pressure in a mold. Moisture content is
relatively high (10-15%). In wet pressing technique, production rate is high and it is possible to
handle intricate shapes but the process is suitable for smaller jobs and there is not better control
over dimensional accuracy.
In hot pressing method, both pressure and temperature are applied which reduce the void content
of the part and produces a denser and stronger product. The advantage of hot pressing technique
is that strong and dense parts can be comfortably processed. The demerits of this process are the
requirement of controlled atmosphere and shorter life of dies.

Iso-static pressing
Iso-static pressing is used to obtain uniform density in the product. Insulators of spark plug are
fabricated by iso-static pressing method. Powder mixture is placed around a central mandrel pin
in a flexible mold on which fluid pressure is applied from outside. The schematic of iso-static
pressing is shown in figure 4. There is uniform density distribution in parts process with iso-
static pressing but this process requires high infrastructural cost.

Figure 4 Iso-static pressing technique

 Lec-6: Processing of Ceramic Parts II

This chapter continues the discussion on processes of ceramic product fabrication. The chapter
covers the discussion on casting, sintering and vapour phase techniques.

Casting
Casting is the ceramic processing technique in which powders are cast into useful shapes. The
process selection is based on the powder material being processed, the shape desired and the
property requirements of the part. Treatment of the starting powders is usually required for slip
and tape casting, and the treatment depends on the product. Fabrication of products from
ceramics powder based on casting processes includes extrusion, jiggering, die pressing, and
injection molding.

Slip casting
A SLIP is a suspension of ceramic particles in a liquid. A porous mould made of plaster of paris
(POP) is used in slip casting. The slip must have optimum fluidity to flow easily into the mold.
The slip is poured into the mould and the capillary action of the porous mould draws water from
the slip and forms a solid layer on the inside of the mould. When the desired part thickness has
been obtained, the excess slip is drained out. The part is partially dried in the mould to cause it to
shrink away from the mould and develop adequate rigidity for handling. The slip is continuously
supplied to replenish the absorbed water for solid ceramic parts. The sequence of operations in
slip casting is schematically shown in figure 1.
This process is an economical way to form complex shapes and is used for hollow objects such
as art ware and sanitary ware. Slip preparation is critical to slip casting and requires optimization
among a number of factors, including viscosity, solids contents, slip stability, casting rate, drying
rate, and drying shrinkage.
Pressure casting has begun to replace conventional slip casting. In pressure casting, pressure is
applied to the slip to supplement or replace the capillary action of the porous mold. The
advantages of pressure casting over conventional slip casting are higher casting rate, ability to
automate the process, and extension of the useful application of slip casting to colloidal nonclay
powders.
 Figure1: Sequence of operations in slip-casting process using ceramic powder

Sintering
In sintering process, ceramic powder mixture is heated at sufficiently high temperature in a
controlled atmosphere. Bonding of the particles of powder mixture takes place at high
temperature. The type and strength of the bond depends on several factors such as
recrystallization temperature, grain growth, diffusion mechanism etc. The governing factors in
sintering process are sintering time, temperature and atmosphere of heating chamber. Mechanism
of sintering process is complex which depends on various variables. There are two popular
mechanisms which occur during sintering operation as (Figure 2):
 Figure 2 Sintering mechanisms

In liquid phase sintering process, bonding can take place at interface of two particles in liquid
phase. When the powder mixture is heated, it forms a viscous liquid which promotes
densification by viscous flow. A lot of traditional ceramic products such as dinnerware, sanitary
ware, and electrical porcelain are processed through liquid state sintering.
In solid-state sintering process, bonding between the particles takes place through diffusion
process. Solid-state sintering mechanism is predominant mechanism in many advanced ceramic
products.

Vapour phase techniques

Vapour phase techniques are becoming popular and finding its place in many applications. There
are two basic vapour phase processes which are (Figure 3):

Figure 3 Vapour phase processes.

In chemical vapour phase technique, ceramics are brought in contact with a heated surface
through gases containing atoms where gases react and form a coating. The process is widely used
to make a ceramic coating on metals and carbide tools. Wear resistance coatings are also
developed with this method.
Sputtering is another method to achieve ceramic coatings. Reactive sputtering is the most
commonly used sputtering method. In this technique, materials to be coated are vaporized from
target material by the application of magnetron. These vaporized atoms are deposited on a
substrate (material to be coated) at a constant temperature where a reaction takes place on the
substrate to form coating.
 Lecture 7 Ceramics: Secondary Processing

Before the product is put to use, many times one has to put some additional operations (such as
surface finish, trimming, additional details, tolerance level, dimensional accuracy etc.) to give
the pre-decided shape and features to the product. Therefore, to incorporate special
characteristics, one has to go for secondary processing.
A secondary operation is necessary to:
Achieve the required dimensional accuracy
Surface finish
Specific geometrical features
Since ceramics generally have high hardness, the conventional machining
processes used for finishing metals cannot be used for ceramics.

Secondary operations
Before understanding the different secondary operations, one should focus on the properties of
ceramics which has to be kept in mind before advocating the use of certain secondary operation.
The selection of secondary operation depends on the properties of ceramics. A blind application
of any of the conventional method of machining on to the ceramic product and is not going to be
able to give the geometrical features that are required in final ceramic product. Understanding
the properties of ceramics and accordingly choosing the secondary operation generates the
specific geometrical features in a most efficient and effective manner.
The selection of the process depends on the properties of the ceramics such as:
Brittle
High hardness
High melting point
Electrical conductivity
Thermal conductivity

Ceramics coatings
Ceramic coatings are used to improve surface characteristics for many applications. Ceramics
coatings are used to improve the resistance to indentation, wear and erosion. Also, ceramic
coating improves the resistance to corrosion because coating separates the substrate from direct
exposure to the environment. Coatings are also used to improve the aesthetics aspects by
imparting special surface texture, finish and colour. It is comparatively not that relevant as one
has to justify the cost effectiveness of the process. Coating extends the useful life of many
components.
Ceramic coatings are a special film layer used in consumer applications and industrial hard
materials to protect them from wear and tear. Coatings play a big role in keeping the strength and
quality of materials such as metals, plastic and many other products. Coatings can have varied
thickness and are deposited by different means.
The coating process consists of the following steps:
The part is thoroughly cleaned.
Part is blasted inside and out.
The part is sprayed with the coating.
Next it is baked at 500 Degrees.
Finally, it is polished to have the required coated ceramics.

Three common techniques of coating are;

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
Chemically Formed Processes (CFP)

Physical vapor deposition (PVD)

A vaporization coating technique involves transfer of material on an atomic level. It is an
alternative process to electroplating. This process is basically used to deposit thin layers of
material to reduce friction and wear, or to act as a diffusion barrier. The schematic of physical
vapour deposition technique is shown in figure 1.
 Figure 1 Physical vapor deposition

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

Chemical vapor deposition technique is used to grow a thin layer of a ceramic material on the
surface of the substrate. A solid material is deposited from a vapor by a chemical reaction
occurring on normally heated substrate surface. The solid material is obtained as a coating, a
powder, or as single crystals. It is a high temperature process (1000C). It is carried out in
vacuum chamber where the disassociation of gases take place, which then reacts at the working
surface to form a solid coating. The important experimental conditions in CVD process are:
a) Type of substrate material
b) Substrate temperature
c) Composition of the reaction gas mixture
d) Total pressure gas flows etc.
Typical application of CVD process is coating of cutting tools with titanium nitride (TiN).
Diamond and other carbon coatings are also produced.

Advantages of CVD process

Conformal shape
Produces highly dense and pure materials
Uniform films with reproducibility
 High deposition rates
Average operating cost

Chemically Formed Processes (CFP)

Ceramic coating is carried out with the help of various chemically formed processes. It is used
for enhancing the wear or corrosion resistance of a component. Thickness of the coating through
CFP lies in between 10 and 100 microns.

Advantages of CFP process

o Large components of several meters can be coated.
o The coatings are chemically bonded to the substrate and are fully dense (i.e. no
porosity).
o Coatings afford excellent resistance to corrosion.

Finishing
Another frequently used secondary operation is finishing process. Various ceramic products need
some finishing to achieve the required dimensional tolerance or surface finish. Since ceramics
powders generally have high hardness, the conventional machining used for finishing metals
cannot be used.
The finishing processes used can be one or more of the following;
(a) Diamond cut
(b) Lapping
(c) Honing
(d) Grinding
(e) Core drilling is the most common finishing techniques, but ultrasonic cutting and laser
drilling and cutting are frequently used.

Advantage of finishing
(a) Increased dimensional accuracy
(b) Improved surface finish
(c) Make minor changes in part geometry
 Lecture 4.1: Thermoplastics and Thermosets

The word plastic comes from the Greek word Plastikos, meaning able to be shaped and
molded. Plastics can be broadly classified into two major groups on the basis of their chemical
structure i.e. thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

Thermoplastics
The material that softens when heated above the glass transition temperature or melting
temperature and becomes hard after cooling is called thermoplastics. Thermoplastics can be
reversibly melted by heating and solidified by cooling in limited number of cycles without
affecting the mechanical properties. On increasing the number of recycling of thermoplastics
may result in color degradation, thereby affecting their appearance and properties. In the molten
state, they are liquids, and in the mushy state they are glassy or partially crystalline. The
molecules are joined end-to-end into a series of long chains, each chain being independent of the
other. Above the melting temperature, all crystalline structure disappears and the long chain
becomes randomly scattered.
The molecular structure of thermoplastic (figure 1) has an influence on the chemical resistance
and resistance against environmental effects like UV radiation. The properties may also vary
from optical transparency to opaque, depending on the molecular structure. The important
properties of the thermoplastics are high strength and toughness, better hardness, chemical
resistance, durability, self lubrication, transparency and water proofing.
With the application of heat, thermoplastic softens and it can be molded into desired shapes.
Some thermoplastics can be joined with the application of heat and pressure. There are several
techniques available for the joining of thermoplastics such as mechanical fastening, fusion
bonding, hot gas welding, solvent bonding, ultrasonic welding, induction welding, and dielectric
welding.
The different types of thermoplastic are: Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Acetals,
Acrylics, Cellulosics, Fluorocarbons, Polyamides, Polycarbonates, Polyethylene (PE),
Polypropylenes (PP), Polystyrenes, Polyetheretherketone, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Liquid
Crystal Polymers (LCP), Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS) and Vinyls.
 Figure 1 Molecular structure of thermoplastics

Applications
Thermoplastics can be used to manufacture the dashboards and car trims, toys, phones, handles,
electrical products, bearings, gears, rope, hinges and catches, glass frames, cables, hoses, sheet,
and windows, etc.

Thermosets
The property of material becoming permanently hard and rigid after cooling when heated above
the melting temperature is called thermosets. The solidification process of plastics is known as
curing. The transformation from the liquid state to the solid state is irreversible process, further
heating of thermosets result only in the chemical decomposition. It means that the thermosets
cant be recycled. During curing, the small molecules are chemically linked together to form
complex inter-connected network structures (figure 2). This cross-linking prevents the slippage
of individual chains. Therefore, the mechanical properties (tensile strength, compressive
strength, and hardness) are not temperature dependent, as compared to thermoplastics. Hence,
thermosets are generally stronger than the thermoplastics.
 Figue2 Molecular structure of thermosets

The joining of thermosets by thermal processes like ultrasonic welding, laser welding, and gas
welding is not possible, but mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding may be used for low
strength applications.
The different types of thermosets are Alkyds, Allylics, Amine, Bakelite, Epoxy, Phenolic (PF),
Polyester, Silicone, Polyurethane (PUR), and Vinyl Ester.

Applications
Thermosets are commonly used for high temperature applications. Some of the common
products are electrical equipments, motor brush holders, printed circuit boards, circuit breakers,
encapsulation, kitchen utensils, handles and knobs, and spectacle lenses.

Processing Techniques for Plastics

Plastic materials are synthetic and semi-synthetic organic solids and it can be easily processed.
The processing stages of plastics may be heating, forming and cooling in continuous or repeated
cycles. The processing of plastic product depends on the shape of the final product and types of
plastic material (thermoplastics or thermosets) being used. The complex plastic product can be
produced in a single operation. The processing of plastic may be automated and suitable for mass
production.
Thermoplastics can be processed by heating up to the glass transition temperature and formed
into the desired shape with the application of pressure, for examples, thermoforming,
compression molding, and blown film extrusion.
The processing of thermosets can be completed in two steps; first it can be melted and then
poured into the mold to make a desired shape, for examples, casting, extrusion, and injection
molding.

Structure of Plastics
The basic structure of plastics depends upon its molecular chains formulated during chemical
reaction (figure 3). A single repeating unit in a molecular chain is called monomers. There are
two different types of chemical reactions which take place during processing i.e. polyaddition
and polycondensation. In polyaddition, the monomers bond to each other without the loss of any
other atoms, for example alkene. In case of polycondensation, the two different monomers
combine to form a single molecule with the loss of atoms, for example: formation of polyester
lost hydrogen molecules.
On the basis of structure, plastics can be classified into four categories i.e. linear structure,
branched structure, cross-linked structure, and network structure.

Figure 3 Structure of plastics

Linear Structure: The monomers are linked together to form linear chains (figure 4). The van
der waals interaction takes place between the linear chains. Some common examples are nylon,
high density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyester.
 Figure 4 Linear structure

Branched Structure: The monomers are joined to form long chains with branches of different
lengths (figure 5). For examples: low density polyethylene, glycogen and starch.

Figure 5 Branched structure

Cross-linked Structure: The monomers are combined together to form cross-linked chains
(figure 6). Chains are connected by covalent bonds. For example: rubber, bakelite.

Figure 6 Cross-linked structure

Network Structure: The monomers are joined together to form a large three dimensional
network, for example: epoxy, phenol formaldehyde.
 Figure 7 Network structure
Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement of
the atoms in space. Isomers may be in two form i.e. stereoisomers and geometrical isomers.
Further, geometrical isomers can be divided into the trans and cis isomer depending upon atoms
in space, for example: 1, 2 dichloroethene (figure 8). Two chlorine atoms are joined on opposite
side of the double bond is called trans isomer. If the chlorine atoms are joined on the same side is
called cis isomer.

Trans Cis
Figure 8 1, 2 dichloroethene

The monomers are organic carbon based molecules. Covalent bonds hold the atoms in the
molecules together and secondary bonds hold groups of chains together. For example,
polyethylene is made from ethylene monomers (figure 9). The two mers are joined together with
the application of heat, pressure and catalyst which is called polymerization to form polyethylene
chains.

Figure 9 Polymerization of polyethlene

The polyethylene chains are elongated thousands times greater than its crystalline structures
when stretched. The mechanical properties of plastics depend upon the number of carbon atom
present into the polymeric chain. Some of the common plastic monomers are shown in table 1.

Table 1 Chemical formula of plastic monomers

Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)

Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS)

Polytetrafluoroethylene Polymethyl
(PTFE) methacrylate
(PMMA)

Mechanical Properties of Plastics

The mechanical properties of the plastics are given below:
(a) Hardness: Plastics are not very hard, their hardness being comparable to that of brass and
aluminum. Generally, thermosets are harder than thermoplastics. The temperature of the material
substantially affects its properties. The hardness of commonly used plastics is in the range of 5-
50 BHN.

(b) Stress-Strain Behavior: When the plastic is subjected to uni-axial load, it deforms
permanently and ultimately fails as shown in figure 10. Tensile strengths of plastics may be in
the range of 10 to 100 MPa. The modulus of elasticity for plastic is in the range of 10 MPa to
4000 MPa. Tensile strength decreases with increasing temperature. Some of the plastics are
brittle in nature. The mechanical properties of the plastics depend upon the strain rate,
temperature, and environmental conditions.
 Figure 10 Stress- strain behavior of plastic

(c) Creep: The molecular weight of the polymer affects its creep behavior. As the molecular
weight of the polymer increases, it becomes more creep resistant. When a plastic is subjected to a
constant load, it deforms continuously. The plastic will continue to deform slowly with long time
or until fails. The creep depends on several factors such as: types of plastic, load applied,
temperature and time.

(d) Fatigue Behavior: Fatigue failure of thermosets is brittle in nature, but in case of
thermoplastic failure occurs due to initiation of crack propagation. The flexural fatigue strength
of plastics may be in the range of 105 - 107 numbers of cycle to failure at room temperature
(20C).
 Lecture 4.2: Processing of Plastics

General Behavior of Polymer Melts:

The research and development in the areas of polymer melts has increased due to its nonlinear
behavior. The rheological behavior of polymer melts depends on the three factors:
(a) Structure of the molecules
(b) Development of a realistic fluid dynamics
(c) Molecular orientation formed during polymerization
The polymer melts are highly viscous liquids, and its viscous flow is often connected with large,
rubberlike elastic deformations. Polymer melts can be elongated without rupture. The viscosity
of polymer melts is much higher than the molecular weight. Polymers have the long chain
molecules with high molecular weights. The molecules are entangled together, increasing its
effective molecular weights. The high viscosity of polymer melts comes from molecular
entanglements. As shear rate increases, the molecules orient more along the flow direction and
the degree of molecular entanglements decreases. Thus, the elasticity increases and the viscosity
decreases with increasing shear rate.

Polymer Melt Viscosity as a Function of Shear Rate

The viscosity of polymer melt at a constant temperature is a function of shear rate. The viscosity
behavior can be understood in terms of molecular mechanism. The viscosity of a polymer melt is
constant and it does not depend on shear rate and at very low shear rate, it follows Newtonian
behavior. Molecular entanglements are constantly dissipated as the molecules slide each other by
flow and are reformed at the same time by the kinetic motions of molecular segments. At very
low shear rates, the rates of dissipation and reformation of entanglement are the same, and the
degree of entanglements remain constant.

Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena

Crystallization rates are governed by the nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation becomes
slower at higher temperatures. The melting behavior of semi crystalline polymers is intermediate
between that of crystalline materials (sharp density change at a melting temperature) and that of
a pure amorphous material (slight change in slope of density at the glass-transition temperature).
The melting temperature increases with the rate of heating, thickness of the lamellae, and
depends on the temperature at which the polymer was crystallized. Rigid chains have higher
melting temperatures. Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain bonds, so the glass and
melting temperatures depend on:
Chain stiffness
Size and shape of side groups
Size of molecule
Side branches
Cross-linking

Casting
Casting involves processing plastic material into a required shape. Plastic material is melted and
it is poured in to the mold cavity. The molded part is cooled and solidifies in the mold cavity and
molded part is ejected.

Working Principle
A mixture of plastic material, catalyst, and various additives is heated into oven above the
melting temperature and poured into the mold cavity until the mold is filled. The molten plastic
is gravity filled into the mold cavity. The application of heat accelerates the polymerization
process into the mold cavity and hence it is cured. The molded part is allowed to cool and
solidify, allowing the plastic product to be ejected from the mold cavity. Generally, air cooling is
preferred. A mold release spay is used on the mold surface prior to casting. The process cycle for
casting is very short.
There are two types of mold i.e. rigid and flexible. Rigid mold can be made of metals, plaster,
and epoxy to produce soft and flexible parts or rigid parts. Flexible mold is made of silicone,
latex, and urethane to produce hard plastic parts.

Material Used
Thermosets (such as polyesters, urethanes, phenolics, and epoxy) and thermoplastics (acrylics
and nylons) can be used for casting.
Process Parameters
The main process parameters which affect the casting process are:
Melting temperature of plastic
Pouring temperature
Cooling rates

Applications
It is used to produce variety of toys like designer toys, garage kits, ball-jointed dolls, sheet,
wheels, either individual parts or entire models of objects like trains, aircraft, boat and ships.

Advantages
Low initial investment cost
Dimensional stability
High production rate
Flexible parts can be made

Disadvantages
This is more labor intensive than injection molding
Complex shape cannot be produced
 Lecture 4.3: Extrusion of Plastics
Extrusion
Extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process. The plastic material is melted with the
application of heat and extruded through die into a desired shape. A cylindrical rotating screw is
placed inside the barrel which forces out molten plastic material through a die. The extruded
material takes shape according to the cross-section of die. The schematic of extrusion process is
shown in figure 1.

Working Principle
In this process, plastic material in the form of pellets or granules is gravity fed from a top
mounted hopper into the barrel. Additives such as colorants and ultraviolet inhibitors (liquid or
pellet form) can be mixed in the hopper. The plastic material enters through the feed throat and
comes into contact with the rotating screw. The rotating screw pushes the plastic beads forward
into the barrel. The barrel is heated using the heating elements up to the melting temperature of
the plastic. The heating elements are used in such ways that gradually increase the temperature of
the barrel from the rear to the front.
There are three possible zones in a rotating screw i.e. feed zone, melting zone, and metering
zone. In the feed zone, the plastic beads melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel.
The plastic material is completely melted in the melting zone. A thermostat is used to maintain
the inside temperature of the barrel. The overheating of plastics should be minimized which may
cause degradation in the material properties. A cooling fan or water cooling system is used to
maintain the temperature of the barrel during the process.
At the front of the barrel, the molten plastic leaves the screw and travels through a screen pack to
remove any contaminants in the molten plastic. The screens are reinforced by a breaker plate.
The breaker plate assembly also serves to create back pressure in the barrel. The back pressure
gives uniform melting and proper mixing of the molten plastic material into the barrel. After
passing through the breaker plate, molten plastic enters into die. The die gives the desired shape
of plastic product. An uneven flow of molten plastic would produce unwanted stresses in the
plastic product. These stresses can cause warping after solidification of molten plastic. Plastics
are very good thermal insulators and therefore it is very difficult to cool quickly. The plastic
product is cooled by pulling through a set of cooling rolls.
 Figure 1 Extrusion process

Extrusion Process Parameters

There are five important process parameters to be considered before extrusion process:
Melting temperature of plastic
Speed of the screw
Extrusion pressure required
Types of die used
Cooling medium

Screw Design:
The design of screw is important for plastic processing. It has mainly three different functions:
namely, feeding mechanism; uniform melting and mixing of plastic and finally it generates the
pressure to push the molten material through die. A screw length (L) is referenced to its diameter
(D) as L/D ratio. Generally, L/D ratio is used as 24:1, but for more mixing and output, it may
increase up to 32:1. There are three possible zones in a screw length i.e. feed zone, melting zone,
and metering zone.
(a) Feed zone: In this zone, the resin is inserted from hopper into the barrel, and the channel
depth is constant.
(b) Melting zone: The plastic material is melted and the channel depth gets progressively
smaller. It is also called the transition or compression zone.
(c) Metering zone: The molten plastic is mixed at uniform temperature and pressure and
forwarded through the die. The channel depth is constant throughout this zone.

Types of Extrusion Process

The extrusion process is broadly classified into seven different types depending upon the specific
applications.
(a) Sheet/Film Extrusion
In this extrusion process, the molten plastic material is extruded through a flat die. The cooling
rolls are used to determine the thickness of sheet/film and its surface texture. The thickness of
sheet can be obtained in the range of 0.2 to 15 mm. The thin flat sheet or film of plastic material
can be made. Generally, polystyrene plastic is used as a raw material in the sheet extrusion
process.

(b) Blown Film Extrusion

In the blown film process, the die is like a vertical cylinder with a circular profile. The molten
plastic is pulled upwards from the die by a pair of nip rollers. The compressed air is used to
inflating the tube. Around the die, an air-ring is fitted. The purpose of an air-ring is to cool the
film as it travel upwards. In the center of the die, there is an air inlet from which compressed air
can be forced into the centre of the circular profile, and creating a bubble. The extruded circular
cross section may be increased 2-3 times of the die diameter. The bubbles are collapsed with the
help of collapsing plate. The nip rolls flatten the bubble into double layer of film which is called
layflat. The wall thickness of the film can be controlled by changing the speed of the nip rollers.
The layflat can be spooled in the form of roll or cut into desired shapes. Bottom side of the
layflat is sealed with the application of heat, and cut across further up to form opening; hence it
can be used to make a plastic bag. The die diameter may vary from 1 to 300 centimeters.
Generally, polyurethane plastic is used in this process. The schematic of blown film extrusion is
shown in figure 2.
 Figure 2 Blown film extrusion

(c) Over Jacketing Extrusion

This is also called wire coating process. In this process, a bare wire is pulled through the center
of a die. There are two different types of extrusion tooling used for coating over a wire i.e.
pressure or jacketing tooling as shown in figure 3. If intimate contact or adhesion is required
between the wire and coating, pressure tooling is used. If adhesion is not desired, jacketing
tooling is used. For pressure tooling, the wire is retracted inside the die, where it comes in
contact with the molten plastic at a much higher pressure. For jacketing tooling, the wire will
extend and molten plastic will make a cover on the wire after die. The bare wire is fed through
the die and it does not come in direct contact with the molten plastic until it leaves the die. The
main difference between the jacketing and pressure tooling is the position of the wire with
respect to the die.

Jacketing coating Pressure coating

Figure 3 Over jacketing extrusion process
(d) Tubing Extrusion
In this process, the molten plastic is extruded through a die and hollow cross sections are formed
by placing a mandrel inside the die. Tube with multiple holes can also be made for specific
applications, by placing a number of mandrels in the center of the die.

(e) Coextrusion
Coextrusion is the extrusion process of making multiple layers of material simultaneously. It is
used to apply one or more layers on top of base material to obtain specific properties such as
ultraviolet absorption, grip, matte surface, and energy reflection, while base material is more
suitable for other applications, e.g. impact resistance and structural performance. It may be used
on any of the processes such as blown film, overjacketing, tubing, sheet/film extrusion. In this
process, two or more extruders are used to deliver materials which are combined into a single die
that extrudes the materials in the desired shape. The layer thickness is controlled by the speed
and size of the individual extruders delivering the materials.

(f) Extrusion Coating

Extrusion coating is used to make an additional layer onto an existing rollstock of paper, foil or
film. For example, to improve the water resistant of paper polyethylene coating is used. The
applications of extrusion coating are liquid packaging, photographic paper, envelopes, sacks
lining for fertilizers packaging and medical packaging. Generally, polyethylene and
polypropylene are used.

Materials Used
The different types of plastic materials that can be used in extrusion process are Polyethylene,
Polypropylene (PP), Acetal, Acrylic, Nylon (Polyamides), Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Polycarbonate.

Applications
The extrusion process is used for manufacturing rods, plates and tubes, wire and cable coating,
hose liners, hose mandrels, filaments, sheet, multilayer film, medical packaging and food
packaging, etc.
Advantages
High production volumes
Relatively low cost as compared with other molding process
Design flexibility
Short lead times
Coating of wire can be done to achieves desired properties
Continuous part can be produced

Disadvantages:
Limited complexity of parts
Uniform cross section can only be produced
 Lecture 4.4: Transfer Molding and Compression Molding
Transfer Molding
Transfer molding process combines the principle of compression and transfer of the polymer
charge. In the transfer molding, polymer charge is transferred from the transfer pot to the mold.
The mold is cooled and molded part is ejected. The schematic of transfer molding process is
shown in figure1.
In this process, the required amount of polymer charge is weighted and inserted into the transfer
pot before the molding process. The transfer pot is heated by the heating element above the
melting temperature of the polymer charge. The liquid charge is gravity filled through the sprue
to the mold cavity. A piston and cylinder arrangement is built in the transfer pot so that the
resin is squirted into the mold cavity through a sprue. The plunger is also preheated in the
transfer pot. The plunger is used to push the liquid polymer charge from the transfer pot into the
mold cavity under pressure. The mold cavity remains closed as the polymer charge is inserted.
The mold cavity is held closed until the resin gets cured. The mold cavity is opened and the
molded part can be removed once it has hardened with the help of ejector pin. The sprue and gate
attached to the molded part have to be trimmed after the process has been completed.
 Figure 1 Transfer molding process

This is used for mass production. It has short production cycle and smaller tolerances and more
intricate parts can be achieved. It produces more waste material; therefore it is the more
expensive process. The mold cavity can be made from metals such as aluminum or steel for
larger production.

Process Parameters
Heating time
Melting temperature of the charge
Applied pressure
Cooling time

Materials Used
Generally, thermoset plastics (such as epoxy, polyester, phenol-formaldehyde, vinyl ester,
silicone) are processed by transfer molding process, but certain thermoplastic materials can also
be processed.

Applications
This process is widely used to encapsulate items such as integrated circuits, plugs, connectors,
pins, coils, and studs. It is suitable for molding with ceramic or metallic inserts which are placed
in the mold cavity. When the heated polymer fills the mold it forms bonding with the insert
surface. Transfer molding is also used for manufacturing radio and television cabinets and car
body shells.

Advantages
Fast setup time and lower setup costs
Low maintenance cost
Plastic parts with metal inserts can be made
Design flexibility
Dimensionally stable
 Uniform thickness of parts
Large production rate

Disadvantage:
Wastage of material
Production rate lower than injection molding
Air can be trapped in the mold

Compression Molding
Compression molding process is one of the low cost molding methods as compared to injection
molding and transfer molding. It is a high pressure forming process in which the molten plastic
material is squeezed directly into a mould cavity by the application of heat and pressure to
conform to the shape of the mold. The schematic of compression molding process is shown in
figure 2.

Working Principle
In this process, the predetermined amount of charge of plastic material is placed in the lower half
of a heated mold cavity. The plastic material is preheated before inserting into the mold cavity to
reduce the temperature difference between the material and the mold cavity. The mold cavity is
closed with upper movable half mold and pressure is applied to compress the material in to the
mold cavity. This causes the raw material to be squeezed out to take the shape of the mold
cavity. The application of the heat and pressure increases the polymerization process. Hence,
plastic material is cured. The temperature of the mold cavity is usually in the range of 130-
200C. Generally, the hydraulic pressure is required in the range of 7-25 MPa to squeeze the
plastic material. The mold cavity is then cooled for sometimes so that molded plastic part gets
solidified. The mould cavity is then opened and the final product is taken out with the help of
ejector pin. The molded part may require the finishing operation.
In compression molding, the charge of plastic material may be inserted into the mold cavity
either as a powder, granules or as a preformed. The manufacturing cycle time (heating, cooling,
and part ejection) may be long (about 1-6 minutes). For high production rate, it is desirable to
have multi cavity molds. Compression mold cavity can also be available in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes; therefore plastic products can be manufactured into different shapes and sizes.
There are four important factors to be considered before compression molding process:
Amount of plastic material (charge)
Heating time and melting temperature of plastic material
Pressure required to squeeze the material in to the mold cavity
Cooling time

Two different types of molding compounds i.e. bulk molding compound (BMC) and sheet
molding compound (SMC) are commonly used in compression molding process.
In bulk molding compound, the plastic materials are blended with fillers and short fibers and
placed into the mold cavity. In SMC, the long fiber sheet is usually cut according to the mold
cavity and placed into the mold surface. The resin is placed on the fiber sheet. It is a layer by
layer making process. The process is completed until desired thickness is obtained. The long
fiber sheet results in better mechanical properties as compared with the bulk molding compound
products. In both the molding compounds (BMC and SMC), the plastic materials are conformed
to the mold cavity, with the application of heat and pressure.

Figure 2 Compression molding setup

Materials Used
Different types of thermosets and thermoplastics materials can be used for compression molding
process. For example: Epoxies, Urea formaldehyde (UF), Melamine formaldehyde (MF),
Phenolics (PF), Polyester, Polyamide (PI), Polyamide-imide (PAI), Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS),
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Torlon, and Vespel.

Applications
Compression molding process is used for manufacturing electrical and electronic equipments
(electrical wall receptacles, circuit breakers, television cabinets, radio cases, electric plugs and
sockets, electrical switch, fuse box, electricity meter housing), brush and mirror handles, trays,
cookware knobs, clothes dryer blower fan blade, cooking utensils, milling machine adjustment
wheel, water testing equipment buttons, dinnerware, appliance housings, aircraft main power
terminal housing, pot handles, dinnerware plates, automotive parts (such as hoods, fenders,
scoops, spoilers, gears), flatware, buttons, buckles, and large container. Compression molding is
also suitable for heavy molding applications.

Advantages
The advantages of the compression molding process are as following:
Low initial setup costs and fast setup time
Heavy plastic parts can be molded
Complex intricate parts can be made
Good surface finish of the molded parts
Wastes relatively little material as compared with other methods
The molding process is cheaper as compared to injection molding

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the compression molding process are as following:
Low production rate
Limited largely to flat or moderately curved parts with no undercuts
 Lecture 4.5: Injection Molding

Injection molding is the one of the most commonly used manufacturing process for the plastic
components. It is used to manufacture thin walled plastic parts for a wide variety of shapes and
sizes. In this process, the plastic material is melted in the injection chamber and then injected
into the mold, where it cools and finally the finished plastic part is ejected.

Working Principle
In this process, the plastic materials usually in the form of powder or pellets are fed from hopper
into the injection chamber. The piston and cylinder arrangement is used to forward the
material inserted from the hopper in to the injection chamber. The plastic material is heated in
the injection chamber with the application of heating elements. The cooling system is also used
to maintain the temperature of the injection chamber. The molten plastic material is then injected
into the mold cavity through a nozzle. The molded part is cooled quickly in the mold. Thereafter,
the final plastic part is removed from the mold cavity. The process cycle for injection molding is
very short, typically between 2 to 60 seconds. The complete injection molding process is divided
into four stages: clamping, injection, cooling and ejection.

Clamping: The two halves of the mold must be tightly closed, before the molten plastic material
is injected into the mold. One half of the mold is attached to the injection unit (nozzle) and other
half is allowed to slide on the guide ways. The clamping of mold is operated hydraulically which
it pushes the moving half part of the mold towards the fixed part to make an air tight chamber.
The force and the time required to close and open the mold depends upon the machine capability.

Injection: During this process, the plastic material is melted by the application of heat and
forwarded through the piston towards the nozzle and finally into the mold. The function of
torpedo in the heating zone is to spread the molten plastic into the thin film. The molten plastic is
then injected into the mold cavity quickly. The amount of material that is injected into the mold
is referred to as the shot volume. The injection time can be estimated by the shot volume,
injection power and pressure. The schematic of injection molding process is shown in figure 1.
 Figure 1 Injection molding setup

Cooling: The injected molten plastic begins to cool as soon as it comes in contact with the mold
surfaces. As the molded part cools, it will solidify into the desired shape of the product.

Ejection: The molded part, which is attached to the rear half of the mold has to be ejected from
the mold. When the mold is opened, an ejector mechanism is used to push the part out of the
mold. Force must be applied to eject the plastic part because during cooling the molded part
shrinks and adheres to the mold surface. A mold release agent should be sprayed onto the mold
surfaces prior to injection of the material. Once the molded part is ejected, the mold will be
closed for the next shot to be injected.
The important process parameters that have to be considered during the injection molding
process are: injection temperature and pressure, shot volume, mold temperature, cooling time,
ejection temperature, and cycle time.
Some of the common injection molding defects are flash, blister, warping, bubbles, unfilled
sections, jetting, sink and ejector marks. These defects can be eliminated by optimal selection of
the process parameters.

Materials Used
The injection molding process can be used to process materials such as Acetal, Acrylic,
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Cellulose Acetate, Polyamide (Nylon), Polycarbonate,
Polyester, Polyether Sulphone (PS), Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Polyetherimide,
Polyethylene, Polyphenylene Oxide, Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS), Polypropylene (PP),
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), and Elastomers.

Applications
This process can be used to manufacture thin walled plastic housing products which require
many ribs and bosses on the interior surfaces. These housings are used in a variety of products
including household appliances, electronics, and automotive dashboards. Other common thin
walled products include different types of open containers, such as buckets. It is also used to
produce several daily use items such as toothbrushes or small plastic toys, many medical devices,
including valves and syringes.
The advantages and disadvantages of the injection molding process are given below:
Advantages
Higher production rate
Close tolerances on small intricate parts
Minimum wastage of material
Complex geometry can be easily produced
Disadvantages
Tooling cost higher
High setup cost
Large undercuts cant be formed
 Lecture 4.6: Thermoforming
Introduction
Thermoforming is a plastic manufacturing process in which the thermoplastic sheets are formed
with the application of heat and pressure in a mold. The thermoplastic sheet is held horizontally
over a mold surface and clamped with a holding device. The sheet is heated up to predetermined
temperature using a heating element called heater. The thermostat is used to maintain the
temperature of the heater. When the temperature becomes substantially high in the mold, the
temperature is controlled by adjusting the heater and providing the cooling air. The thermoplastic
sheet softens with the application of heat and is pressed into or stretched over the mold surface
by application of air pressure or by any other means. The softened sheet conforms to the mold
shape and it is held in place until it cools. The mold cavity is opened and the thermoformed part
is released. Some of the plastic materials require air cooling in order to make those rigid quickly,
because plastic materials have low thermal conductivity. The excess material is then trimmed out
from the formed part. Excess material can be reground, mixed with unused plastic, and again
reformed into thermoplastic sheets. Thin sheet (up to 1.5 mm) and thick sheet (about 3 mm) can
be formed easily.
Thermoforming set-up usually consists of the clamping unit, heaters, mold, and air cooling
system. The molds should be cleaned after every cycle, as materials in the mold can cause the
change in the shape of the finished goods.
There are mainly three different types of thermoforming process depending upon the pressure
required i.e., vacuum forming, pressure forming and matched die forming.

(a) Vacuum Forming

In this process, the vacuum pressure is used to form the heated thermoplastic sheet into
the desired shape. The thermoplastic sheet is placed on the mold surface and fixed with
the help of clamping unit. The sheet is heated until it is softens and thereafter vacuum
needs to be applied quickly. A surge tank is used to quickly pull the air out between the
mold cavity and the sheet. When the vacuum is created, the sheet conforms to the shape
of the mold cavity. The formed part is cooled and then ejected from the mold cavity. The
schematic of vacuum forming process is shown in figure 1.
(b) Pressure Forming The pressure forming process is closely related to vacuum
forming. In this process, the air pressure required is much higher as compared to the
vacuum forming. The preheated plastic sheet is placed on the mold surface, and then air
pressure is applied quickly above the sheet as shown in figure 2. The high pressure is
developed in between the softened sheet and the pressure box. Due to high pressure, the
preheated plastic sheet can be deformed into the mold cavity in a fraction of a second.
The formed sheet is held in the mold cavity for cooling for a few seconds. The formed
part thereby solidifies and is ejected from mold cavity. Prototype parts can also be made
using pressure forming process.

Figure 1 Vacuum forming process

Figure 2 Pressure forming

 (c) Matched die Forming Matched die forming is also called mechanical forming. In
this process, mold consists of two parts i.e. die and punch as shown in figure 3. The
thermoplastic sheet is heated with the application of heat until it softenes. The preheated
sheet is placed into the mold surface (that is called die) and through punch pressure is
applied on the hot sheet. The air in between the die and softened sheet is evacuated by
using vacuum pump, and therefore the thermoplastic sheet conforms to the mold shape.
The formed part is cooled and ejected from the mold cavity.

Figure 3 Match die forming

The important process parameters that are considered during the thermoforming process are
heating temperature, heating time, vacuum pressure, air pressure, mechanical pressure, cooling
time and ejection mechanism.

Materials Used
The different types of thermoplastic materials which can be processed using thermoforming
process are: Acrylic (PMMA), Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Cellulose acetate, Low
density polyethylene (LDPE), High density polyethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP),
Polystyrene (PS), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Applications
Thermoforming process is used for variety of applications, for example, food packaging,
automotive parts, trays, building products and aircraft windscreens. Thick gauge parts are used as
cosmetic surfaces on permanent structures such as trucks, medical equipment, material handling
equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, spas and shower enclosures, vehicle door and
dash panels, refrigerator liners, utility vehicle beds, and plastic pallets. Thin gauge parts are
primarily used to package or contain a food item, disposable cups, containers, lids, blisters and
clamshells.
The advantages and disadvantages of the thermoforming process are given below:
Advantages:
Extremely adaptive to design requirement
Rapid prototype development
Low initial setup costs
Low production costs
Less thermal stresses than injection molding and compression molding
Good dimensional stability

Disadvantages:
Poor surface finish
Parts may have non-uniform wall thickness.
All parts need to be trimmed
Ribs and bosses cannot be molded easily
Limited number of materials can be used
Very thick plastic sheets cant be formed
 Lecture 4.7: Rotational Molding and Blow Molding

Rotational Molding
The rotational molding is a high temperature and low pressure plastic forming process. The
powder is inserted into the closed split mold and rotated in biaxial to produce a hollow part. The
schematic of rotational molding process is shown in figure 1.

Working Principle
The plastic material in the form of powder is inserted into the mold. The mold is heated in an
oven and rotated biaxial until the powder has melted. The molten powder is adhered to the mold
wall and makes a thin layer. The mold is opened and finished part is removed.
The mold is rotated at different speeds in order to avoid the accumulation of molten powder. The
amount of time required to heat the powder at molten temperature in to the oven is important. If
the oven is heated for long time, powder will degrade and it will affect the mechanical properties.
If the mold is heated short time, the powder may not be completely melted, resulting in large
bubbles in the powder. The formed part must be cooled through the air so that it solidifies
slowly. The formed part will shrink on cooling, and facilitating easy removal of part. The cooling
rate must be kept within a certain range. The water cooling should be avoided, because formed
part may shrink and warped after cooling.
 Figure 1 Rotational molding

A mold release agent should be used to quickly remove the formed part. Mold release can reduce
cycle times and defects of finished product. Three different types of mold release agent may be
used i.e. sacrificial coating (silicones), semi-permanent coating, (polysiloxane), and permanent
coating (polytetrafluoroethylene).

Process Parameters
The amount of powder
Heating temperature and time
Rotational speeds
Cooling rates

Material Used
Thermosets and thermoplastic material can be used, for example: low density polyethylene
(LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Applications
Additives for weather resistance, flame retardation can be incorporated. Products that can be
manufactured include storage tanks, bins and refuse containers, airplane parts, road cones,
footballs, helmets, and rowing boats.

Advantages
Allows complex mold split lines.
Allows molded threads and mold-in inserts.
Allows a wide range of surface finishes (textured, smooth, or polished).
Very little waste.
Low residual stresses
Tooling is less expensive
Suitable for both low-volume prototypes and high-volume production runs
Disadvantages
Slow production speed. It usually takes about one hour to complete the process
Lower precision

Blow Molding
Blow molding is a manufacturing process that is used to produce hollow plastic parts by inflating
a heated plastic until it fills a mold and formed the desired shape. The schematic of blow
molding process is shown in figure 2.

Working Principle
In this process, the thermoplastic in the form of small pellets or granules is first heated above the
melting temperature and molded into a preform using injection molding process. These preforms
are used to feed into the blow mold. The preform is heated above the glass transition temperature
and formed into a hollow tube which is called parison. The parison is then clamped between two
mold halves and inflated by high air pressure until it conforms to the inner shape of the mold.
The air pressure is required as 60 to 140 psi depending upon the material used. The preform is
always stretched from the center of the part during the process. This is a single stage process, as
both preform manufacturing and bottle blowing are performed in the same machine. The formed
part solidified as it is cooled inside the mold. The mold halves are separated and the final product
is removed. Final part may be trimmed.

Figure 2 Blow molding

Generally, mold can be made of metal. Cycle time depends upon the finished part wall thickness.
If the part wall thickness is 1.5 mm, the cycle time will be 40 to 50 seconds.

Process Parameters
Amount of plastic material
Melting temperature of plastic material
Air pressure required
Cooling time

Materials Used
Different types of thermoplastic material are used, for example: High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE), Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),
Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), and Polycarbonate (PC).

Applications
Different types of plastic products can be manufactured by this process such as bottles in
different shape and size, jars, and containers, ducting, fluid oil tanks, mugs, and toys.

Advantages
Low tooling cost
Fast production rates
Ability to mold complex part with uniform thickness
Little scrap generated
Large hollow shape can be produced
Produced parts can be recycle

Disadvantages
Limited to hollow parts
Thick parts cant be manufactured

Machining of Plastics
Most of the finished plastic products are produced directly by molding processes. But some of
the complex plastic products that cant be directly manufactured by the molding process and
require finishing operations to give final shape, to improve dimensional accuracy and final
finish. The life cycle of plastic products are very short, and if limited numbers of plastic product
are molded for specific application then machining becomes more economical. All plastic
materials (thermosets and thermoplastic) cant be machined, because some of the plastic
materials are soft and flexible in nature. The machining of plastic material depends on the two
factors i.e. cutting tool material and rigidity of the material being cut. The machining of plastics
is different from metal due to its rigidity. The rigid plastic materials can be machined easier; but
more flexible and softer plastic materials are very difficult to machine. The softer and flexible
plastic materials can also be machined with the application of specially designed jigs and
fixtures.
It is well known that the plastics have lower thermal conductivity therefore heat generated during
machining cant dissipate quickly. At higher machining speed, plastic may soften due to heat
induced during machining and the machined surfaces may get smeared. Therefore, cooling
medium (air or lubricant) is required during the machining. Generally, compressed air is used for
machining of plastics. Because lubricant or liquid coolant may react with the plastic material
during machining and it can degrade the mechanical properties or surface quality. A strong jet of
compressed air or coolant serves three purposes i.e. it cools the workpiece as well as cutting tool,
it helps to remove chips quickly and improves the surface finish of machined surface.
An important point is to be noted that while the machining of thermoplastics produces
continuous swarf, but thermosets produce chips form. The chips are always removed rapidly in
order to carry away as much heat from the surface as possible.
The high speed steel (HSS), carbon steel, and carbide tool materials are commonly used for
machining of plastic materials. Machining with carbide tool may improve the surface finish of
plastic product. A large number of machining methods (such as turning, drilling, milling,
threading and tapping, sawing, and grinding) can be used for plastics which have been discussed
as follow:

Drilling: All types of hard plastic material can be drilled. Generally, standard twist drill is used
for drilling of plastics. During drilling of thermosets, cracking around inlet and exit hole edges
are common. Moreover, higher drill point angle induces more stress along thickness direction as
compared with lower drill point angle. Therefore, especially designed twist drill (drill point angle
may be varies from 60 to 90, and rake angle 0) should be used for drilling of plastics. The heat
generated by the drill causes the thermoplastic to expand and shrink up on cooling. Hence, to
maintain the drilled hole sizes, allowance has to be made in drill sizes (0.002 to 0.16 mm
depending upon the drill size). The operating variables (feed rate and cutting speed) should be
high so that the material can be easily drilled and chips are removed quickly. Drilling forces
(thrust force and torque) slightly decrease as the cutting speed increases. At higher cutting speed,
surface finish will improve. Drilling with carbide tool materials gives better surface finish. While
drilling with thick sheet (thickness 3 times greater than drill diameter), cooling air or lubricant
should be used.

Reaming: It can be carried out after drilling or boring operation to provide both accuracy and
good surface finish. Generally, spiral-fluted reamers are used. The reaming can be done dry, but
use of water coolants will improve the surface finish. Standard cooling oils or lubricants should
be avoided.

Threading and Tapping: Threading should be done using single point with carbide insert. The
coarse series of threads should be used because less frictional heat will be generated. Tapping is
the process of cutting internal threads. The tapping speed should be low. It is also recommended
that oversized tapes should be used because of elastic recovery of plastic materials. Coolant may
be used for both threading and tapping operations.

Sawing: Band saw and circular saw with buttress thread or widely spaced thread should be used
in order to easy removal of chips. The speed of the saw blade should be used in the range of 300
to 900 m/min for better cut. Feed rate should be high. It should also minimize the friction
between the saw blade and the work, and even blocking of the saw. A clamping fixture should be
used in order to avoid vibrations and consequent rough cutting or even rupture. Tungsten carbide
saw blades provide an optimum surface finish.
Turning: Turning speed should be in the range of 90 to 180 m/min and low feed rate should be
preferred. Fine grained C-2 carbide tool is generally used for turning operations. Sharp tool bits
with 10 to 15 clearance angles and 10 to 20 positive rake angles should be used for better
operations.

Milling: Two flute end mills, face mills and shell mills with inserts as well as fly cutters can be
used. Down-milling is normally recommended to reduce heat by dissipating it into the chip. Fast
table travel and high spindle speed will improve the surface finish, but low travel speed will
generate excessive heat that can cause melting. Fixtures should be used for providing adequate
support to the workpiece. Mist type water cooling is recommended.

Grinding: It is rather difficult to grind the thermoplastics due to high amount of heat generated
and it results in the clogging of the abrasive wheel. A low grade grinding wheel with open grain
spacing with the application of coolant should be used. Generally, hard materials are better
ground with finer grit size wheels and soft materials are better suited for grinding with coarse grit
wheels. The wheel specification, 54 and 46 grits are recommended for thermosets and
thermoplastics, respectively.

Advantages
Plastic product can be manufactured with short lead times
Ability to manufacture low volumes economically
Thicker wall sections can be machined
Heavy molded plastic can be machined
The power required to machine plastics are low
Chips can be recycled

Disadvantages
Soft and flexible plastic cant be machined easily
Relative high cost of block plastic material
High volume of chips to be removed
For increase in production by machining will require robust jigs and fixtures
 Heat generated in the machining process cant dissipated quickly
Dust producing plastics require an effective dust collection system
 Lecture 5.1: Composite Materials
Introduction
Todays market is totally governed by the customers. The customers are God and the ultimate
goal is to provide the best product quality. Materials are the main stuff of engineering design
but the challenge is to select the optimal material according to the requirement because an
ever-increasing variety of materials are now available, each having its own characteristics,
applications, advantages and limitations. The different categories of materials are:
Ferrous Metals
Nonferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets)
Ceramics and Diamond
Composite Materials
Nano-materials, shape-memory alloys
Properties of the materials are very crucial when selecting a material for a specific
requirement. Some of these properties are:
Mechanical properties: Strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue, and
creep. The strength to weight ratios of materials are also important, particularly for aerospace
and automotive applications.
Physical Properties: The density, specific heat, thermal expansion and conductivity,
melting point, electrical and magnetic properties.
Chemical Properties: Oxidation, corrosion, general degradation of properties, toxicity,
flammability are the important factors to be considered.
Manufacturing Properties: Castability, Formability, Machinability and Weldability are
important. The methods used to process materials to the desired shapes can adversely affect
the products final properties, service life and cost.
The other factors which should be considered when selecting materials for products:
The economic aspects of material selection are as important as technological
considerations of properties and characteristics of materials.
Substitutes or additional processing may be required that can contribute significantly
to the product cost.
Product design may be modified to take advantage of standard dimensions of raw
materials and thus avoid extra manufacturing costs.
 The appearance of materials after they have been manufactured into products
influences their appeal to the consumer.
Color, feel and surface texture are the characteristics that are considered before
making a decision about purchasing a product.
Time and service dependent phenomenon such as wear, fatigue, creep and
dimensional stability are important.
Galvanic corrosion between mating parts made of dissimilar metals.
Recycling and proper disposal of materials, at the end of designed life has become
increasingly important.
Composite materials
Composite materials have been developed in response to the need for man-made materials
with unusual combinations of properties such as high specific strength and stiffness in one
direction or a combination of high strength and toughness not available from any single
material. Composite materials are engineered materials which has two main constituents. One
is discontinuous phase and other is continuous phase (figure 1). The discontinuous phase is
known as reinforcement which is incorporated in continuous phase known as a matrix. The
reinforcements are normally stronger than the matrix and both phase are completely insoluble
in each-other. The composite may contain reinforcements in different geometries. The
potential pay-off for composites materials is so high that they have become one of the fastest
developing research and development areas of materials science.

Figure 1 Building blocks of composite.

Classification of composites:
Composites may be classified either on the type of matrix material incorporated or geometry
of reinforcement used in the fabrication of composites. According to the type of matrix
material used, there are three types of composites:
1. Metal matrix composites (MMCs)
2. Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
3. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
In metal matrix composites, metals like Aluminium (Al), Magnesium (Mg) and Copper (Cu)
are used as matrix materials. Widely used reinforcements in MMCs are silicon carbide (SiC),
Alumina (Al2O3) and Tungsten (W).
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) incorporate ceramics as matrix material. Example of
matrix materials in CMCs are: Aluminides, Silicon carbide and Silicon nitride. Reinforcing
materials used are: Silicon carbide, Alumina, Silicon nitride etc.
Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are the most common and widely used composites. In
PMCs, polymers are used as matrix material. PMCs consist of glass, carbon, or other high
strength fibers as reinforcement in a thermoset or thermoplastic matrix. The resulting
materials are strong, stiff, and corrosion resistant. Polymer matrix composites offer several
advantages over traditional metals and alloys such as flexibility in design, easy processing
and ability to produce near net shape products. The family of PMCs is large, therefore it is
further subdivided into two groups which are:
1. Synthetic fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites
2. Natural fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites
 Lecture 5.2: Composite Materials: Classification and Applications

Synthetic fiber reinforced polymer composites:

Synthetic fiber based composites incorporates synthetic fibers as reinforcement with
thermoset or thermoplastic polymer matrix. Details of constituents are given in figure 1.
Recently composites are emerging as a viable alternative to traditional materials in wide
range of applications such as automotive industry, railways, aerospace and marine
application. PMCs are also finding its space in sports goods (Fishing Rods, Tennis Rackets,
Bicycles etc.) and musical instruments (Guitars, violin bows, Woodwinds etc.). Soft magnetic
such as sensors screens, frequency convertors etc. are also incorporating polymer matrix
composites. Light weight property of composite materials makes them favorable choice for
automotive parts because weight of the automobile body has direct influence on fuel
economy.

Figure 1 Matrix and reinforcements of PMCs

Corrosion resistant property of the PMCs makes them eligible for marine application and
other ground piping system and storage. Now, PMCs are also used as a material in turbine
blade production especially for wind energy sector. Though these composites possess high
structural properties and currently capture a large application area but the main drawback
associated is that these composites are non bio-degradable in nature which has led to the
development of environmental friendly natural fiber polymer composites.
Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites:
Petroleum- based synthetic fibers, resins and composites are non-biodegradable and cause
major ecological, environmental and global energy crisis. Due to high environmental
awareness and tight environmental rules and regulations these days, bio-based composites are
emerging as an alternative to synthetic fiber based composites and now most of the work is
focused on replacing synthetic fibers, like glass with fully bio-degradable environmentally
friendly lignocellulosic natural fibers. Moreover, these natural fibers provide a viable and
abundantly available substitute to expensive and non-renewable synthetic fibers. The green
composites in which natural fibers (like flax, abaca, bagasse, banana, kapok, kenaf, sun
hemp, hemp, jute, henequen, pineapple leaf fiber and sisal) reinforced polymer matrices (both
from non-renewable and renewable resources) prove to be competitive or even better
alternatives than synthetic fibers (glass, carbon, aramid) reinforced composites. Natural fibers
reinforced polymer bio-composites have attracted more and more attention due to ecological
and global energy problems. Due to their relative cost-effectiveness, their ability to recycle,
light weight and comparable properties, research attention have been focussed towards the
development of superior quality natural fiber reinforced composites. The use of natural fibers
in polymer composites has increased.
Natural fiber based polymer composites are either partially bio-degradable or completely bio-
degradable composites. In case of partially bio-degradable composites, natural fibers are
reinforced with petroleum based synthetic polymers. These polymers are non-biodegradable
in nature. Completely bio-degradable composites use natural fibers reinforced with bio-
degradable polymers. Example of bio-degradable polymers are poly lactic acid (PLA), poly
vinyl alcohol etc. These composites are also known as green composites. Most widely used
natural fibers are plant fibers which are obtained from different parts of the plant. The
complete classification of plant fibers is given in figure 2. Some of the animal fibers and
mineral fibers are also gaining interest in the recent past.
 Figure 2 Classification of plant fibers.

Classification based on geometry of reinforcement:

All type of composites discussed in the above section can also be further classified according
to the type of reinforcement used. The detailed classification is given in figure 3. Fibrous
composites are those which contain reinforcement in the form of fibers. Continuous fiber
composites incorporate long fibers. Long fibers may be oriented in one direction only, known
as uni-directional composites. When fibers are reinforced in woven mat form, these are
known as bi-directional composites. Discontinuous fiber composites incorporate short fibers.
These short fibers may be in random orientation or preferred orientation fashion. Particulate
composites incorporate reinforcement in the form of particles and this particle reinforcement
may observe a random or preferred orientation in the matrix. In filler composites, composites
are filled by a secondary material along with the main reinforcement. The percentage of filler
material is quite less than the main reinforcement. Particle fillers are the most commonly
used filler materials to improve the properties of matrix materials. Flake composites
incorporate reinforcement in the form of flakes. These flakes primarily have a two
dimensional geometry and possesses an appreciable thickness. In case of laminated
composites, fibers in the mat form are reinforced with matrix. These reinforcing mats may be
randomly oriented fiber mat, uni-directional fiber mat or bi-directional (woven) fiber mat. In
case of hybrid composites, two or more different types of reinforcing materials are
incorporated within the matrix. The purpose of hybrid composites is to manipulate the
properties of resulting composite as per the specific requirement. For example, incorporation
of SiC to the glass-epoxy composites is a type of hybrid composite.

Figure 3 Classification based on reinforcement.

 Lecture 5.3: Processing methods of polymeric matrix composites

Though the composites possess numerous favourable properties like light weight, corrosion
resistant, integral surface finish, good mechanical properties, ease of transportation and
installation, but there are many challenges associated with composite technology which
becomes important to understand. Some of the challenges are discussed here:

Though these are tailor-made materials, but it becomes very confusing and difficult
task to choose best processing method and associated controlling parameters in order
to achieve the specific properties.

The physical, mechanical and chemical properties of fiber and reinforcement are
entirely different. The blending of these two components of substantially different
properties is key point to get the composite of desired properties.

Generally, the adhesion efficiency between reinforcement and matrix is poor. This
requires several techniques (fiber treatment, coating of fibers, addition of additives,
fillers and catalyst) to improve the interfacial adhesion between fiber and matrix. This
interfacial zone is prone to failure and this is a challenging task to avoid defects and
subsequent failure at interfacial region.

Unlike the conventional materials, composite materials are composed of two

components which are entirely distinct. Therefore, the tooling requirement is different
because tool comes in contact with two types of materials simultaneously having
different properties. One type of tooling which is good for matrix material may
damage the reinforcement at the same time or vice-versa.

It is difficult to control processing parameters during primary and secondary

processing of composites because different conditions are required for different
components of composite (fiber and matrix) which leads to the optimization of
processing methods.

Polymer matrix composites are developed using a variety of processing techniques

which are broadly classified as open mold processes and closed mold processes. Hand
lay-up, Filament winding and Autoclave method come under open mold processes.
The Compression molding, Injection molding and Transfer molding are example of
closed mold processes.
Properties of composites
Composites offer combined properties of reinforcement and matrix which are not available in
nature. Composite properties cannot be defined only on the basis of either reinforcement or
matrix. The beauty of this combination (fiber-matrix system) is that they provide high
fracture toughness at high strength levels, a property impossible to obtain with a single
material. The strong but brittle fibers provide high strength, while the plastic flow at the tip of
the crack in the matrix reduces stress concentration, absorbs energy and provides fracture
toughness.
The matrix plays an important role in determining the overall properties of the composites.
The matrix isolates the fibers from one another in order to prevent abrasion and formation of
new surface flaws and acts as a bridge to hold the fibers in place. A good matrix should
possess ability to deform easily under applied load, transfer the load onto the fibers and
evenly distribute stress concentration. It deflects the cracks that may occur in fibers in the
longitudinal direction and transfers the resulting load increase over appreciable lengths of
adjacent fibers, as well as, redistributing the load to both segments of the broken fiber. The
overall properties of the composites depend on the geometry, orientation and percentage of
reinforcing material. Some of the special features of composites can be summarized as
follows:
1. Composites offer high strength to weight ratio, high specific modulus, high fatigue
strength, good structural properties, good impact strength and abrasion resistance.
2. Generally, composites are anisotropic materials, but they can also be made isotropic
with selective reinforcement and processing method.
3. Composites can be produced to near net shape. Therefore, composites offer capability
of part consolidation which replaces various joints and bonds. This in turn reduces part
complexities and failure of the component due to reduction in stress concentration zones.
4. These materials are corrosion resistant and durable as compared to metals and alloys.
5. Composites possess high damping characteristics, good dimensional stability and low
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) as compared to metals.
6. As composites are tailored material, these offer high design flexibility. Complex
geometries, intricate objects are possible to fabricate with composites.
7. Because of numerous advantages associated with composites, these materials have
got its place in almost every field of application like aerospace, automobiles,
construction, sport goods etc.
To evaluate physical properties of composites, simple rule of mixture can be applied
successfully as follows:
Density of the composite
c = mVm + fVf
Tensile strength of the composite:
c = mVm + fVf
Elastic modulus of the composite:
Ec = EmVm + EfVf
Where:
Vf + V m = 1
Vf , Vm: volume fractions of reinforcement and matrix
m, f: densities of matrix and reinforcement
m, f: tensile strength of matrix and reinforcement
Em, Ef: elastic modulus of matrix and reinforcement
 Lecture 5.4: Hand Lay-up and Spray Lay-up

Hand lay-up technique

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The infrastructural
requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are quite simple. First of
all, a release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of polymer to the
surface. Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good
surface finish of the product. Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand
mats are cut as per the mold size and placed at the surface of mold after perspex sheet. Then
thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion with a
prescribed hardner (curing agent) and poured onto the surface of mat already placed in the
mold. The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush. Second layer of mat is then
placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer
layer to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present. The process is repeated
for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After placing the
plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mold plate which is then
kept on the stacked layers and the pressure is applied. After curing either at room temperature
or at some specific temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken
out and further processed. The schematic of hand lay-up is shown in figure 1. The time of
curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy
based system, normal curing time at room temperatur is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly
suitable for thermosetting polymer based composites. Capital and infrastructural reuirement
is less as compared to other methods. Production rate is less and high volume fraction of
reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds
application in many areas like aircraft components, automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board,
deck etc. Generally, the materials used to develop composites through hand lay-up method
are given in table 1.
 Table 1 Raw materials used in hand lay-up method

Materials used

Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, unsaturated polyester,

polyurethane resin

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana,
nettle, hemp, flax etc.)

(all these fibers are in the form of unidirectional mat, bidirectional (woven)
mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers)

Figure 1 Hand lay-up method.

Spray lay-up

The spray lay-up technique can be said to be an extension of the hand lay-up method. In this
technique, a spray gun is used to spray pressurized resin and reinforcement which is in the
form of chopped fibers. Generally, glass roving is used as a reinforcement which passes
through spray gun where it is chopped with a chopper gun. Matrix material and reinforcement
may be sprayed simultaneously or separately one after one. Spray release gel is applied on to
the mold surface to facilitate the easy removal of component from the mold. A roller is rolled
over the sprayed material to remove air trapped into the lay-ups. After spraying fiber and
resin to required thickness, curing of the product is done either at room temperature or at
elevated temperature. After curing, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken
out and further processed further. The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for
composite processing. The schematic of the spray lay-up process is shown in figure 2. Spray
lay-up method is used for lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath tubs, fairing of
trucks etc. This method provides high volume fraction of reinforcement in composites and
virtually, there is no part size limitation in this technique. Generally, the materials used to
develop composites through spray lay-up method are given in table 2.

Figure 2 Spray lay-up method.

Table 2 Raw materials used in spray lay-up method

Materials used

Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, unsaturated polyester,

polyurethane resin

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana,
nettle, hemp, flax, coir, cotton, jute etc.)

(all these fibers are in the form of chopped short fibers, flakes, particle
fillers etc.)
 Lecture 5.5: Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a type of continuous automated closed molding, composite processing method.
The basic mechanism of putrusion system is same as that of the metal extrusion process. The
only difference is that in extrusion process, material is pushed through the dies whereas in
pultrusion, material is pulled through the dies. Reinforcement in terms of continuous rovings
or fiber mats is unrolled from creel holding rolls and passes through a resin tank. In resin
tank, fibers are dipped thoroughly to get completely wetted fibers. Now, these resin saturated
fibers are guided to the hot die where the desired profile is given to these resin impregnated
fibers with the help of dies. Curing of the composite also takes place in this section due to
heating. Now, the cured composite profile is pulled with the help of gripper coming from the
hot dies. Finally, putruded profiles are cut with the help of a cutter which is inbuilt after the
pulling mechanism in the putrusion system. The schematic of pultrusion system is shown in
figure 1. Sometimes, in the resin tank, some filler materials are added which also go with the
fiber roving. Though, excess resin is removed in the hot die portion due to pressure, but in
some pultrusion systems, a pre-former is used in between the resin tank and hot die. In the
pre-former, excess polymer is squeezed out and uncured composite is generated which is then
passed through hot die section. The pultrusion process is generally used and is suitable for
thermoset polymer composites and a constant cross section profile of the composite product
is produced on a continuous basis. As the cross section of product is uniform, the fiber
distribution and alignment and resin impregnation is good in this process. Though rate of
production is high but a large variation in area of cross-section is difficult to achieve. The
expenditure requirement to start pultrusion process is low as compared to other costly and
complex molding processes.

Important components of putrusion process:

There are mainly six components in the pultrusion system which govern the processing of
composites. These components are:
1. Fiber Creels
2. Preformer
3. Resin impregnation systems
4. Hot dies
5. Pulling mechanism
6. Cut off saws
The creel should be located in such a way that it should provide uniform and controlled
tension to roving while transferring to the pultrusion system. For continuous and
uninterrupted supply of the roving strand, a second back-up roving package is also provided
besides running package. The shape and size of creel is decided on the basis of number of
roving packages to be handled and its dimension and the distance to be maintained in
between the strands. Preform plates are critical component of pultrusion system as it properly
aligns and feeds the reinforcement to the heated die. If pre-forming system is not properly
functioning, it may lead to bad quality output and failure of pultrusion system. Resin
impregnation system has a resin bath tank. The size of the tank depends upon the volume of
resin to be handled. Resin impregnation system may have a heating arrangement for the resin
to enhance fiber wetting but the working life of bath is decreased due to heating system. The
commonly used resin impregnation system is dip bath system which is also known as open
bath. It allows the reinforcement travelling from the creels down into the bath and the resin
coated fibers comes out through a guided bar located into the bath. Heating dies are the main
component of any pultrusion system where part to be produced is given shape and is cured.
Pulling system pulls the product from the heated dies on a continuous basis. Generally, a
caterpillar belt is used in the pulling system. The last unit of pultrusion system is cut off saw
which cut the pultruded product in desired size. Most commonly, a flying type of cut off saws
are used in the pultrusion system. A flying cut off is movable unit which moves with the
same speed as the pultruded product moves. The advantage of this movement is that the
cutting edge of the component is square and straight. Sometimes, water is used as coolant and
lubricant for cutting blades during cutting which is known as a wet saw. It also flushes the
dust and debris generated during cutting to the filter. A dry-cut saw uses a continuous rim
diamond blade which does not require any coolant or lubrication during cutting and it gives
clean cut of the product.
 Figure 1 Pultrusion system.
Raw materials used in the pultrusion system:
A wide variety of reinforcement and resin systems are used to fabricate composite materials
with exceptional properties. The reinforcing materials used are: glass (E-glass and S-glass),
carbon, aramid fibers in the form of roving strands, mat (continuous filament mat, chopped
strand mat) and fabrics. Specific properties can be achieved by altering the design of the
fabric reinforcement. Sometimes veils are also used in pultrusion system to achieve high
quality surface layer of the pultruded component. These veils may have pre-printed designs
and logos that appear in the final product. Generally, unsaturated polyester, epoxy, vinyl ester
resin and phenolic resins are used as matrix materials. The fillers and additives are also
incorporated during composite fabrication as per the design requirement.
Application:
1. Products like solid rods, tubing, and long flat sheets are easily fabricated with pultrusion
process.
2. Simple and constant cross sectional structural sections such as channels, angled and
flanged beams.
3. Tool handles for high voltage work, and third rail covers for subways.
Advantages of pultrusion system:
1. This is a low cost automated system where human involvement is least which
produces high quality products.
2. The surface finish of the product is high as compared to other composite processing
methods.
3. The production rate is high as it is a continuous production process.
4. It is a straight forward and simple process which does not require specific labour
skills.
 5. Easy handling and low maintenance.
Disadvantages of pultrusion system:
1. The process is mainly suitable for constant cross sectional areas. Tapered and
complex shapes can not be produced with this method.
2. Control of fiber orientation is not possible in the pultrusion system.
3. Thin wall parts can not be produced with this system.
 Lecture 5.6: Compression molding

Compression molding is a well known technique to develop variety of composite products.

It is a closed molding process with high pressure application. In this method, as shown in
figure 1, two matched metal molds are used to fabricate composite product. In compression
molder, base plate is stationary while upper plate is movable. Reinforcement and matrix are
placed in the metallic mold and the whole assembly is kept in between the compression
molder. Heat and pressure is applied as per the requirement of composite for a definite period
of time. The material placed in between the molding plates flows due to application of
pressure and heat and acquires the shape of the mold cavity with high dimensional accuracy
which depends upon mold design. Curing of the composite may carried out either at room
temperature or at some elevated temperature. After curing, mold is opened and composite
product is removed for further processing. In principle, a compression molding machine is a
kind of press which is oriented vertically with two molding halves (top and bottom halves).
Generally, hydraulic mechanism is used for pressure application in compression molding.
The controlling parameters in compression molding method to develop superior and desired
properties of the composite are shown in figure 2. All the three dimensions of the model
(pressure, temperature and time of application) are critical and have to be optimized
effectively to achieve tailored composite product as every dimension of the model is equally
important to other one. If applied pressure is not sufficient, it will lead to poor interfacial
adhesion of fiber and matrix. If pressure is too high, it may cause fiber breakage, expulsion of
enough resin from the composite system. If temperature is too high, properties of fibers and
matrix may get changed. If temperature is low than desired, fibers may not get properly
wetted due to high viscosity of polymers especially for thermoplastics. If time of application
of these factors (pressure and temperature) is not sufficient (high or low), it may cause any of
defects associated with insufficient pressure or temperature. The other manufacturing factors
such as mold wall heating, closing rate of two matched plates of the plates and de-molding
time also affect the production process. Generally, the raw materials used to fabricate
composites through compression molding process are given in table 1.
Figure 1 compression molding method
 Figure 2 Critical process parameters of compression molding method

Application:

1. Method is equally applicable for both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer based
composites.
2. A very wide application spectrum ranging from kitchen goods to automobiles, toys,
electrical items and aeroplane parts.
3. Typical products include automobile panels, roof, life gates, battery trays, fenders,
hoods, bumpers, spoilers, air deflectors furniture kitchen bowls and trays, dinnerware,
buttons, large containers, recreational vehicle body panels, medical equipments
(ultrasound equipments).
Table 1: Raw materials used in compression molding process
Materials used
Matrix Thermosetting: Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin,
Unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin, Urea formaldehyde.
Thermoplastic: polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), nylon,
polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cellulose acetate, polyether-
ether ketone (PEEK), Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polystyrene
(PS) biodegradable polymers such as poly lactic acid (PLA), poly vinyl
alcohol (PVA), soy based plastic, starch based polymers etc.
Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana,
nettle, hemp, flax etc.)
(all these fibers may be in the form of unidirectional mat, bidirectional
(woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers,
short fibers, chopped fibers)

Advantages of the Compression Molding Process

1. Production rate is high as the mold cycle time is in few minutes.
2. Good surface finish with different texture and styling can be achieved.
3. High part uniformity is achieved with compression molding process.
4. Good flexibility in part design is possible.
5. Extra features like inserts, bosses and attachment can be molded in during the
processing.
6. Raw material wastage is minimum.
 7. Maintenance cost is low.
8. Residual stresses are absent or negligible in the molded component.
9. Twisting and shrinkage in product is reduced therefore dimensional accuracy is good.
Disadvantages of compression molding process
1. Due to expensive machinery and parts, the initial capital investment associated with
compression molding is high.
2. The process is suitable for high production volume. It is not economical for making a
small number of parts or for prototyping applications.
3. It is a labour intensive process.
4. Sometimes secondary processing (trimming, machining) of product is required after
compression molding.
5. Sometimes uneven parting lines are there.
6. There is limitation on mold depth.
 Lecture 5.7: Filament winding

In filament winding method, fiber strands are unwind and passed continuously to the resin
tank. In resin tank, fiber strand are impregnated completely with the resin. Now, these resin
impregnated strands are passed onto a rotating mandrel. These strands are wound around the
mandrel in a controlled manner and in a specific fiber orientation. The schematic of filament
winding is shown in figure 1. Fiber tension is critical in filament winding because
compaction is achieved through the fiber tension. The fiber tension affects the percentage of
fiber reinforcement and porosity content in the composite which in turn affects the properties
of the processed composite product. The fiber tension depends upon the type of fiber, its
geometry and the winding pattern required on the rotating mandrel. The fiber tension should
be at optimal level because too high fiber tension may break the fiber completely or initiate
fiber fracture at the surface. Curing of the composite is done with heat, generally in an oven
and final composite product is taken out of the mandrel. To remove the metallic mandrel
from the composite part, hydraulic rams may be used. For complex geometry of composite
part, the mandrel used may be of soluble plaster which can be washed out after processing or
it may be a collapsible rubber and materials having low melting point. The profile of the
mandrel is exactly the same as that of the final product is required. In some cases, mandrel
becomes the integral part of the assembly. A carriage is used to keep the roving in place and
to direct them to the mandrel. A high fiber volume fraction can be achieved in the composite
with this processing technique. Cores may be used in this method but normally, product is in
single skin. Now a days, computer controlled machines are used which independently
monitor every movement of the whole process.

Figure 1 Filament winding process.

 The main components of filament winding are as follows:

1. Fiber creel
2. Resin impregnation system
3. Carriage
4. Rotating mandrel

The raw materials used for composite processing through filament winding method are
given in table 1.

Table 1 Raw materials used in filament winding method

Materials used
Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin
Reinforcement Glass fiber (E and S-glass), carbon fiber, boron fiber, aramid fiber
(all these fibers are in straight filament directly coming from creel.
Any kind of woven mat or stitched into a fabric form are not used in
filament winding)

Application:
1. Composite products like storage tanks, pipelines, vessels, gas cylinders, fishing rods,
missile cases, rocket motor cases, ducting, cement mixture, sail boat mast, aircraft
fuselages and golf club shafts are very common to be developed with this method.
2. Now, the application spectrum of filament winding has expanded to complex
engineered non-spherical and non-cylindrical composite products with the use of
sophisticated machinery and software.

Advantage:

1. High strength to weight ratio is possible to achieve with this process.

2. High degree of uniformity in fiber distribution, orientation and placement.
3. Labor involvement is minimal as it is an automated process.
4. Filament winding method is suitable to process composite parts requiring precise
tolerances.
5. Fiber orientation in a specific direction is possible in this process.
6. Cost of the composite part processed through filament winding method is substantially
low as compared to other manufacturing methods as this process involves less and low
cost material to produce high strength component.
7. Design flexibility in composite part is possible with the change in winding patterns,
material and curing option.
8. The size of the component is not restricted.
9. For high production volume, process automation results in cost saving.

Disadvantage:

1. Capital investment is relatively high.

2. Very precise control over the mechanism is required for uniform distribution and
orientation of fiber.
3. Composite product configuration be such that it should facilitate in mandrel extraction.
4. It is not possible to produce the reverse curvature (female feature).
5. For some applications, mandrel may be expensive and surface of the composite part may
not be satisfactory.
6. Fiber direction can not be changed within one layer of winding.
 Lecture 5.8: Injection molding process

Injection molding process is a closed molding process. The process is suitable for both
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer based short fiber reinforced composites. The
schematic diagram of injection molding process is shown in figure 1. Fibers and polymer are
either preblended or mixed manually and fed into the hooper. The mixture goes into the
heated barrel where softening of the material takes place due to heating from the barrel. As
the screw rotates, mixing of fiber and resin takes place and at the same time the blend is
pushed towards the converging section of barrel where it is injected through nozzle into the
mold cavity with high pressure. If natural fibers are used as reinforcement instead of
synthetic fibers, sometimes, a separate hooper to feed the natural fibers into the barrel may be
provided near the injection end of screw. Because, if natural fibers are mixed with resin and
fed to the barrel, fibers have to travel the whole distance of the barrel and extensive fiber
damage may take place due to high heating and shearing action for long time. Providing
separate hooper, natural fibers will mix with soft resin and readily injected into the mold
cavity. The raw materials used in injection molding are given in the table 1.

Figure 1 Injection molding process.

Table 1: Raw materials used in injection molding process

Materials used
Matrix Thermosetting: Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin,
Unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin, Urea formaldehyde,
Thermoplastic: polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), nylon,
polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cellulose acetate, polyether-
ether ketone (PEEK), Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polystyrene
(PS) biodegradable polymers such as poly lactic acid (PLA), poly vinyl
 alcohol (PVA), soy based plastic, starch based polymers etc.
Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, Mica, natural plant fibers (sisal,
banana, nettle, hemp, flax etc.)
(all these fibers are used in the form of short fibers, flacks, chopped fibers
and fillers)

Reaction injection molding

Reaction injection molding is one of the advanced processing methods for composite
manufacturing. In this method, two reacting ingredients are mixed by impingement and
injected into the mold cavity. Chemical reaction starts immediately after mixing the materials
and polymerization takes place. Short fibers and fillers can be used as reinforcement which
are added in the containers of reacting ingredients. Polymerization process completes in few
seconds (5-30 seconds). Major portion of reaction injection molding process acts as a high
pressure pump. This process is suitable only for thermosetting resin where a curing reaction
takes place within the mold cavity. Another variation of reaction injection molding is
structural reaction injection molding. In this method, instead of using chopped, short fibers
and fillers, continuous woven fiber mat or chopped strand mat can be used. These fabrics are
already placed into the mold cavity similar to resin transfer molding and resin mixture is
injected over it where resin rapidly reacts, polymerizes and cures to process composite
product. Reacting ingredients such as isocyanates, polyurethanes, and polyamides do fast
polymerization process and cycle time of the process is reduced and production rate is
substantially enhanced. The schematic diagram of reaction injection molding is shown in
figure 2.
 Figure 2 Reaction injection molding process.

Application

The process is well suited for high production volume at low cost especially for automotive
parts. Typical examples are: Automotive panels, air spoilers, fenders, body panels, fascia, and
pickup truck boxes.

Advantages

1. All types of polymers (thermosetting resin and thermoplastics) can be processed with
injection molding process.
2. Fibers tend to become aligned during injection into mold cavity as they pass the nozzle,
this characteristic can used in the composite part design to optimize directional
properties.
3. In reaction injection molding, no heat energy is required and mold cost is also low.
4. Structural reaction molding is suitable for producing structural parts in high volume at
low cost. Small to large complex geometries of composite parts can be produced with
this technique.
Disadvantage

1. Mainly suitable for chopped fiber reinforcement.

2. The initial capital investment is high.
3. Due to high shearing action into the barrel and nozzle, extensive damage to the fibers
may take place.
4. Due to high tooling cost and operation cost, it is not preferred for small production
run.
5. Polymer burning may take place onto the cylinder walls and then peeling into the melt
which appears as black spots onto the surface of composite part.
6. If a little moisture is present in the fiber or polymer, it will appear in the form of
bubble onto the finished part.
7. High fiber reinforcement can not be achieved in this process.
 Lecture 5.9: Pre-pregging and Sheet Molding Compounds

Pre-pregging
Sometimes, fibers are initially saturated with resinous materials (thermosetting) which keep
the fibers in place. These pre-impregnated layups of the fibers are known as prepregs.
Prepregs are further used in composite processing. Depending upon the fiber positions,
prepregs are known as uni-directional, bi-directional prepregs etc. In case of uni-directional
prepregs, all the prepregs can be stacked in one orientation to achieve a composite laminate
whose properties will be good in a particular direction. To process a composite laminate,
whose properties will be almost same in all directions, prepregs are stacked in various
directions. These preprega are available as tapes, cross-plied sheets and fabrics. Curing is
carried out during or after shaping. Prepregs are fabricated with continuous filaments rather
than chopped random fibers which increases strength and modulus. When pre-pregs are
stored for further processing, a removable backing support is provided to avoid sticking of
layers. These backings also provide an additional means to keep the fibers in place. These
prepregs can be developed from synthetic fibers (glass, carbon, aramid) and natural fibers
(Curaua, flax, hemp etc.). Polyesters, phenolics, poly vinyl esters, polyamides and epoxy
resins are used as resinous material for pre-preging. Some of the thermoplastics such as
Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), and Polyethyleneimine (PI) are
also used for specific applications. Carbon fibers are used in aircraft parts, sport goods etc.
Aramid fibers are used in making bulletproof vest application. Glass fiber prepregs are
commonly used in electrical circuit boards.

The processing of prepregs involves simple steps which are as follows:

1. The fibers are drawn from the fiber creel onto a belt through a fiber guide where fiber
are flattened and aligned.
2. After the fiber positioning, two top and bottom backing sheets (usually polyethylene
sheets) coated with resin of sufficient thickness are brought together with fibers. A
release gel is used on the surface of backing sheets for smooth removal of these sheets
after processing.
3. The coated resin on the backing sheets may contain fillers, additives and catalyst as
per the requirement.
4. Now, all these layers of backing sheet and fibers are compacted with rollers
repeatedly.
 5. Controlled heating may be provided to slightly cure the resin but too much heating
will cause too stiff prepregs.
6. The sheet is trimmed and stored as a prepreg in a cool dry place.
7. If resin is in solid form instead of liquid at room temperature, then a solvent is used to
dissolve the resin. Dissolved resin is applied on the fibers and the most of the solvent
is removed during heating stage.
Application
Prepregs are used in wide variety of application such as aerospace goods, interiors, sporting
items, medical application, rocket nozzles, automotive body parts, fishing poles etc.
Advantages of Prepregs
1. Porosity and void content is low.
2. There is better control over fiber weight fraction in the composite.
3. Processing cost is low.
4. Better control over the thickness of the laminate.
5. High strength to weight ratio due to application of long fibers.
6. Part uniformity is high.

Disadvantages of Prepregs
1. Extreme care is required during packing and storage of prepregs.
2. Refrigeration is required for storage of prepregs.

Sheet molding compounds

Sheet molding compounds (SMC) process is one of the main processing methods for fiber
reinforced polymer composites. Initially, continuous SMC sheets are fabricated with short
fibers impregnated with resin system. Continuous fiber roving is chopped into short fibers
which fall at uncured resin poured onto a continuously moving belt. The schematic of sheet
molding compound process is shown in figure 1. Sometimes, catalyst and additives are mixed
with resin and the mixture is poured onto the moving belt. The fibers are distributed in
completely randomly oriented fashion on the belt. These SMC sheets are stored for a definite
period of time to achieve dimensional stability and consistency. SMC sheets are cut as per the
structure of the product to be produced to the rough dimensions. These sheets are placed in a
heated mold at a specific constant temperature. Due to heating, polymer losses its viscosity
and fills the mold completely. Curing of the component is done at some specified
temperature. After certain period of time, component is taken out from the mold and finished
through trimming for end product. Most commonly, continuous glass fiber roving is chopped
and incorporated with resin. Carbon and other fibers can also be used depending upon the
part to be produced from SMC sheets. The most commonly used resin materials are
polyesters, poly vinyl esters with cross linking agents such as styrene and acrylic resin
material. Some filler materials such as clay, calcium carbonate and other low cost or wastes
are incorporated in the resin to reduce overall cost and to increase dimensional stability.
Generally, peroxides are used in the resin as a catalyst to enhance the curing properties of the
resin. Sometimes, thickening agents are also used to increase the viscosity of resin. Sheet
molding compounds are more common raw materials for compression molding process.
Commonly available SMC sheets contain either randomly oriented short fibers, combination
of unidirectional fibers with randomly oriented short fibers and mixture of randomly oriented
short fibers with continuous fibers in specific orientation.

Figure 1 Sheet molding compound manufacturing process.

 APPPLICATION

This technique is used for many application areas like automotive, electrical, electronics,
sanitary ware, furniture and other structural components.

Advantage:

1. SMC method is used to produce near net shape.

2. Rate of production is high.
3. It is a low cost high volume production technique with moderate strength.
4. Part reproducibility is excellent.

Disadvantage

1. High Fiber-volume fraction in the composite is not achieved.

 Lecture 5.10: Resin Transfer Molding and Autoclave Molding

Resin transfer molding

Resin transfer molding is a closed molding process. In this technique, as the name
indicates, resin is transferred over the already placed reinforcement. Reinforcement in
terms of either woven mat or strand mat form is placed on the surface of lower half
mold. A release gel is applied on the mold surface for easy removal of the composite.
The mold is properly closed and clamped. The clamping can be done either perimeter
clamping or press clamping mechanism. The resin is pumped into the mold through
ports and air is displaced through other vents. The uniformity of resin flow can be
enhanced by using a catalyst as an accelerator and vacuum application. After curing, the
mold is opened and composite product is taken out. The schematic of resin transfer
molding process is shown in figure 1. Resin transfer molding can incorporate soft or
hard mold depending upon the expected duration of run. For soft mold, thermosetting
polymers like epoxy and polyester can be used for molding material. For hard mold,
materials like steel and aluminium can be used. The cost of mold varies from very low to
high cost mold with short to long life molds. The process can be automated to reduce
cycle time. For complex shapes to be produced, preformed fiber reinforcements are
used. The viscosity of the resin plays an important role in resin transfer molding process
because injection time depends upon viscosity of the resin. If viscosity of resin is high,
high pressure is required which may cause displacement of fibers, known as fiber wash.
The raw materials used in resin transfer molding are given in table 1.

Table 1 Raw materials used in resin transfer molding

Materials used
Matrix Epoxy, Methyl Methacrylate, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin
Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana,
nettle, hemp, flax etc.)
These fibers are used either individually or in combined form as a woven
mat, unidirectional mat or chopped strand mat.
Mineral fillers may also be added to improve surface finish and fire
retardancy
 Figure1 Resin transfer molding.

Important components of resin transfer molding process:

There are mainly five components in the resin transfer molding system which govern the
processing of composites. These components are:
1. Resin and catalyst container
2. Pumping unit
3. Mixing chamber
4. Resin injector
5. Molding unit

There are two separate containers for resin and catalyst. Resin container is larger than
the catalyst container. Both the containers have separate outlets which pass through
pumping unit and opens in mixing chamber. Pumping unit transfers the resin and
catalyst to the mixing chamber. Resin and catalyst is mixed thoroughly in the mixing
chamber. Resin injector is used to inject the mixture to the mold cavity. Molding unit
has two halves namely upper half mold and lower half mold. Heating arrangement is
integrated with molding unit. Vents are provided to release the gases in the mold cavity
during clamping.
Application:
1. Hollow shapes and complex structure can be produced.
 2. Automotive body parts, big containers, bathtubs are commonly processed through

resin transfer molding technique.

Advantages:
1. Composite part produced with this method has good surface finish on both side
surface of the product.
2. Any combination of reinforced materials (including 3D) in any orientation can be
achieved.
3. Fast cycle time can be achieved through temperature control tooling device.
4. Process can be manual control, semi-automated or highly automated.
5. Composite part thickness is uniform which is determined by the mold cavity.
6. There is low emission during composite processing.
7. Strict dimensional tolerances are possible to achieve.
8. Ability to incorporate inserts and other attachments into mold.
9. The process does not require high injection pressure.
10. Material wastage is reduced as near net shape parts are produced.
11. Higher production rate is associated with process automation.

Disadvantages:

1. Mold cavity limits the size of the composite.

2. High tooling cost.
3. There is limitation on reinforcing materials due to the flow and resin saturation of
fibers.
Vacuum Bag Molding
In vacuum bag molding, vacuum is created to remove entrapped air, gases and excess
resin. As the lay-up of reinforcement (it may be a woven mat or other fabric form)
and resin is completed then a non-adhering film of nylon or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
is placed over the lay-up and sealed. These films forms a bag through which vacuum
is created within the mold and at this condition composites are cured either at room
temperature or at any specific temperature. In this process, atmospheric pressure is
used to suck air under vacuum bag which compacts composite layers down and
produces a superior quality laminate.
Pressure Bag Molding
 Pressure bag molding process which is same as the vacuum bag molding process with
the only difference of air pressure. Air pressure is applied to eliminate entrapped
gases and excess resin to the film or bag of poly vinyl alcohol or nylon which covers
the lay-ups of fiber and resin matrix. Sometimes, pressurized steam is also used
instead of air which has dual benefits. Steam removes excess air as well as provides
curing to the composite part.

Autoclave molding
Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding
method with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and
pressure to the composite product during curing. In this method, prepregs are stacked in
a mold in a definite sequence and then spot welded to avoid any relative movement in
between the prepreg sheets. After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is vacuum
bagged to remove any air entrapped in between the layers. The schematic of autoclave
molding process is shown in figure 2. After a definite period of time when it is ensured
that all air is removed, the entire assembly is transferred to autoclave. Here, heat and
pressure is applied for a definite interval of time. In this process, matrix is uniformly
distributed and intimate contact is achieved through proper bonding between fibers and
matrix. After the processing, the assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then vacuum
bag is removed. The composite part is taken out from the mold. Initially, a release gel is
applied onto the mold surface to avoid sticking of polymer to the mold surface. The raw
materials used in these techniques are given in the table 1.

Figure 2 Autoclave molding process.

 Table 1: Raw materials used in autoclave molding process
Materials used
Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, Unsaturated polyester,
polyurethane resin and thermoplastic resins,

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber

(all these fibers may be in the form of unidirectional mat, bidirectional
(woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers)

Application:
The process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio
components such as aircraft parts, marine, military, space craft and missiles.
Advantages
1. This composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement in
the composite part.
2. This method is applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer
composites.
3. High degree of uniformity in part consolidation, better adhesion characteristics
between layers and good control over resin and reinforcement is achieved.
4. No void content in the finished part due to removing entrapped air through vacuum.
5. If cores and inserts are used, there is better bonding of these attachments due to
vacuum bag processing.
6. Complete wetting of fibers is achieved.

Disadvantages
1. There is limitation on part size which depends upon autoclave size.
2. It is a costly technique for composite processing.
3. Rate of production is low and skilled labour is required in this process.
 Lecture 6.1: Ceramic Matrix Composites

Introduction
The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word keramikos. Keramikos is used to refer to
pottery. In general, ceramics may be defined as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic
bonding and in few cases covalent bonding. Ceramic materials are typically crystalline in nature.
Ceramics are inorganic and non-metallic solids that are typically available in the form of powder
materials. Monolithic ceramic materials possess several desirable properties, such as high
moduli, high compressive strength, high temperature capability, high hardness and wear
resistance, low thermal conductivity and chemical inertness. The high temperature proficiency
of ceramics makes these materials very attractive for extremely high temperature applications.
However, owing to their very low fracture toughness, ceramics are not appropriate for structural
applications. When ceramic materials are subjected to mechanical or thermal loading,
catastrophic failure takes place because ceramics do not exhibit plastic deformation as metals
plastically deform due to their high mobility of dislocation. Even a minor crack can propagate so
quickly or can grow to critical sizes that result in a sudden failure. Such type of failure in
ceramic materials occurs because of one deadly characteristic, namely, lack of toughness.
Thus, one of the prime purposes of producing ceramic matrix composites is to improve the
toughness. The main purpose of using reinforcement (such as fibers, particles and whiskers) in
polymer matrix composites (PMCs) and metal matrix composites (MMCs) is to increase the
strength of the composites whereas, the reinforcement used in ceramic matrix composites
(CMCs) increases toughness of the composites.
By definition ceramic matrix composites are materials in which one or more distinct ceramic
phases are intentionally added to another, in order to enhance some property that is not possessed
by the monolithic ceramic materials. In ceramic matrix composites, a given ceramic matrix is
reinforced with either discontinuous reinforcement, such as particles, whiskers or chopped fibers
or with continuous fibers. The basic reinforcements which are included in the ceramic matrices
are carbon, glasses, glass-ceramics, oxides and non-oxides. The main function of the matrix is to
keep the reinforcing phase in the desired orientation or location and act as a load transfer media
as well as protect reinforcement from the environment. Whereas, the primary aim of the
reinforcement is to provide toughness to an otherwise brittle matrix. Filler materials in particle
form are also sometimes added to the matrix materials during the processing of CMCs to
enhance the properties such as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion
and hardness. Particles with different shapes such as spherical, irregular and faceted are
commonly used during the processing of CMCs. The schematic of morphology of the different
particulate reinforcements is shown in Figure 1.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 Particulate morphology (a) Spherical (b) Irregular (c) Faceted

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) can be processed either by conventional powder processing
technique or by other more specific and customized techniques. The processing temperature for
CMCs is extremely high compared to polymer or metal matrix composites which leads to a very
difficult and expensive processing. Some advantages and disadvantages of using ceramic matrix
composites are listed below:

Advantages of ceramic matrix composites

a) Excellent wear and corrosion resistance in a wide range of environments and
temperatures
b) Higher strength to weight ratio
c) Higher strength retention at elevated temperature
d) Higher chemical stability
e) Non-catastrophic failure
f) High hardness
g) Lightweight

Disadvantages of ceramic matrix composites

a) Processing routes for CMCs involve high temperatures can only be employed
with high temperature reinforcements
 b) CMCs are designed to improve toughness of monolithic ceramics, the main
disadvantage of which is brittleness
c) High processing temperature results in complexity in manufacturing and hence
expensive processing
d) Difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion between the matrix and the
reinforcement lead to thermal stresses on cooling from the processing temperatures

Applications
Ceramic matrix composites overcome the major demerits (such as brittle failure, low fracture
toughness and limited thermal shock resistance) of monolithic ceramics. Therefore, the use of
these materials has captured the fields where high temperature and excellent wear and corrosion
resistance are the principal matters of concern. One of the most important applications of
ceramic matrix composites is in production of cutting tools which are made up of SiC whisker
reinforced aluminium oxide for machining of hard to machine materials. Moreover, ceramic
matrix composites are widely used in several engineering applications such as in heat
shield systems, gas turbines components (combustion chambers, stator vanes and turbine blades),
rocket engines, components for burners, flame holders, hot gas ducts, brake disks and brake
system components for airplanes or cars which experience extreme thermal shock, bearing
components that necessitate high corrosion and wear resistance.
 Lecture 6.2: Ceramic Matrix Composites: Fundamentals and Properties

The purpose of developing the ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) is to improve the desirable
properties of ceramics with adding reinforcements and limiting their inherent weaknesses. The
development of CMCs imparts various improvements over ceramics such as:

Degree of anisotropy on incorporation of fibers

Increased fracture toughness
Elongation to rupture up to 1%
Higher dynamic load capability
The increase in toughness in CMCs can be explained by energy dissipation mechanism where
fiber matrix debonding, crack deflection, fiber bridging and fiber pull-out are the common failure
mechanisms.
Some common examples of CMCs are:
Continuous SiC fiber reinforced glass-ceramics
Zirconia-toughened and SiC whisker toughened alumina
Carbon-Carbon composites
Carbon-carbon composites are the hoariest ceramic matrix composites developed by the
aerospace industry in the middle of the 1950s. These types of CMCs are specially used for rocket
motor casing, heat shields, leading edges and thermal protection.

Properties of ceramic composites

Typical mechanical, electrical and chemical properties exhibited by ceramic composites are
discussed below.
Mechanical Properties
Tensile and compressive behavior
Fracture toughness
Creep
R-Curve behavior
Fatigue resistance
These are important mechanical properties which have to be investigated before advocating the
use of a ceramic matrix composite for a particular application. Because, there are large number
of combinations of matrix and reinforcement available to develop ceramic matrix composites,
one cannot discuss the mechanical property of each and every combination that how it would
behave under various loading environments. But, in general, important mechanical properties in
context of ceramic matrix composites have been discussed here:

Tensile and compressive behavior

Tensile and compressive behaviour of ceramic matric composites can be explained with the help
of stress strain curve. When testing of a ceramic material is being carried out, stress strain is
obtained as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Stress-strain curve for ceramic material

There would be a sudden failure for ceramic material. This is how a monolithic ceramic would
behave. In case of ceramic matrix composites, ceramic matrix is reinforced with different
reinforcements (particulate and continuous fiber reinforcement). For particulate ceramic matrix
composites, it is showing higher stress to failure as compared to the monolithic ceramics as
shown in the figure. For continuous fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites, there is not a
sudden or catastrophic failure. The failure is a non catastrophic type and there is certain
percentage of elongation in fiber reinforced ceramics which improves the fracture toughness of
the material.
Fracture toughness
Fracture toughness is the limitation for ceramics. But, in case of ceramic matrix composites,
fracture toughness improves due to reinforcements. How toughening takes place and fracture
toughness improves in case of reinforced ceramics (which is better as compared to monolithic
ceramics) can be explained with the help of toughening mechanisms.

R-curve behavior
For a given material, R-curve behavior exhibits resistance to crack propagation which increases
with increasing crack length. For any material, R-curve is an important characteristic in terms of
the mechanical performance because it defines a degree of tolerance of the material. Therefore,
the strength of the materials becomes insensitive to the flaw size. Toughened zirconia material is
reported to have shown pronounced R-curve.

Creep
It is a function of stress, time and temperature. For any given material, it occurs by diffusion,
dislocation motion, grain boundary sliding, or softening of grain boundary phases. The presence
of the second phase can have a significant effect, either positive or negative, on the rate at which
a material creeps. Many ceramic composites which contain glass have poor creep resistance
because glass enhances grain boundary sliding. In case of some whisker-reinforced ceramic
composites (e.g. SiC whisker in Si3N4) also no improvement in creep behavior was reported.

Fatigue resistance
In case of cyclic loading of ceramic based products, if there is even minor crack, it may
propagate rapidly and sudden failure may occur. In case of fiber reinforced ceramics, cracks may
be arrested by the reinforcement in ceramics and failure can get delayed. Therefore, the fracture
toughness of ceramic matrix composites has to be investigated in order to find the number of
cycles to failure for a particular product.
Apart from mechanical properties, other properties of ceramic matrix composites that should also
be considered are:
 Electrical Properties
Thermal Response
Chemical Inertness/Corrosion resistance

Toughening Mechanisms
As fracture toughness of ceramic matrix composites is higher as compared to monolithic
ceramics, it is important to look at different toughening mechanisms to why and how
toughening is taking place due to fiber reinforcement. The schematic explanation of these
mechanisms is shown in figure 2. There are basically three main toughening mechanisms:

1. Crack Impeding
It is basically crack arresting mechanism. Arresting of cracks takes place because fracture
toughness of fibers is greater than that of the matrix. Crack may propagate in the matrix but it
will not be able to tear open the fibers and thereafter propagate through the fibers.
2. Fiber (or whisker) Pull-out
The reinforcement can be in terms of fibers or whiskers and these may be pulled out of the
matrix. Fibers have high transverse fracture toughness which causes failure along the
fiber/matrix interface due to pulling out of fibers from the matrix.
3. Crack Deflection
Weak fiber/matrix interfaces deflect the crack.

Crack impeding Fiber pull-out Crack deflection

Figure 2 Schematic of toughening mechanisms

 Lecture 6.3: Powder Processing: Ceramic Matrix Composites

Challenges in Processing of Ceramic Matrix Composites

There are certain issues and challenges which limit the processing of ceramic matrix composites
and therefore, there application spectrum is also limited. The following points should be taken
care of during processing of ceramic matric composites:
Processing routes for CMCs involve high temperatures can only be employed
with high temperature reinforcements.
The high temperature properties of the reinforcement are also important during
service.
Difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion between the matrix and the
reinforcement lead to thermal stresses after cooling from the processing
temperatures.

Processing approaches for CMCs

Solid, liquid, or gas phase processing of ceramic matrix composites typically involve the
infiltration of the matrix onto the reinforcement while processing. During processing of ceramic
matrix composites, main objectives are attaining least porosity, uniform distribution of
reinforcement and excellent bonding strength between fiber and matrix.
Number of processing techniques has been explored for ceramic matrix composites, the most
predominant processing methods for ceramic matrix composites include:
(1) Powder Processing/Hot /Cold Pressing
(2) Slurry Infiltration/Impregnation
(3) Polymer Infiltration and Pyrolysis
(4) Chemical Vapor Infiltration/Impregnation
(5) Reaction Bonding Processes
(6) Directed Oxidation

Powder Processing
This technique is generally used to fabricate discontinuously reinforced ceramic matrix
composites. The process is only efficient for very small reinforcement such as whiskers and
particulates. Processing of long discontinuous fibers is troublesome as it breaks into short fibers
during mixing and consolidation phase. The basic processing steps involved in powder
processing are mixing (short fibers/ whiskers with slurry of ceramic powder), drying and hot
pressing. Typical fabrication sequence for powder processing is shown in Figure 1.

Mixing of raw materials

(matrix and reinforcement)

Green body fabrication

(cold pressing, injection molding)

Green body machining

Binder burn-out

Consolidation and densification

(sintering, hot pressing & HIP)

Inspection

Figure 1 Fabrication steps in powder processing

The common challenge in processing of composite materials is voids content in the final product
that can be minimized through uniform dispersion of the reinforcement and matrix powder.
Another way to improve consolidation and diminish porosity is to use super fine ceramic
particles and hot pressing or hot isostatic pressing (HIP). Hot pressing is typically used to
produce various cutting tools that can be used to machine hard-to-machine materials. Optimum
packing can be achieved when the particle size distribution contains about 30% by volume of
small particles and 70% by volume of large particles. Addition of whiskers to slurry can result in
undesirable increase in viscosity. Furthermore, whiskers with a large aspect ratio, greater than
50, tend to tangle and form bundles or loose clumps.
Near net shape can be typically produced by introducing binder to the reinforcement and matrix
through cold forming processes such as uniaxial pressing, cold isostatic pressing, tape casting,
extrusion and injection molding. Secondary operations can be performed on green body without
facilitating any damage after cold pressing. Binders should be burnt out during the consolidation
process.

Challenges in powder processing

The steps involved in powder processing are simple but there are many challenges involved in
processing of ceramic matrix composites through powder processing. Some of these challenges
are:
1. Hydrostatic tensile stress may be developed due to difference in coefficient of
thermal expansion of the reinforcement and matrix.
2. Homogeneous mixture of the constituents cannot be achieved readily.
3. High proportions of the toughening phase cannot easily be achieved.
4. Mixing and pressing operations results in damage to whiskers.
5. Fibers and whiskers can form a network that may inhibit the sintering process.
6. Reduced packing efficiency.
 Lecture 6.4: Chemical Vapour Infiltration

Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI) is widely used to develop Ceramic Matrix Composites. This
method is used to deposit solid materials like carbon, silicon carbide, boron nitride and other
refractory materials in a porous structure by the decomposition of vapors. CVI is similar
to Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) as CVD implies deposition onto a surface, whereas CVI
implies deposition within a body.

Processing of Ceramic Matrix Composites via CVI process

A ceramic continuous fiber structure (porous preform) is prepared and placed in the reactor to act
as the reinforcement phase. Reactant gases or vapors are supplied to the reactor which flow
around and diffuse into the preform (Figure 1). The decomposition of the reactants fills the
space between the fibers, forming composite material in which matrix is the deposited material
and dispersed phase is the fibers of the preform. The diameter of the fibers gradually increases as
the reaction progresses as shown in figure 2.

Figure 1 Stages in Chemical Vapor Infiltration Process

 Figure 2 Chemical Vapor Infiltration Growth

Chemical Vapor Infiltration Reactor

Chemical vapor infiltration reactor is the main functioning body in CVI process. The schematic
diagram of reactor is shown in figure 3. CVI reactor consists of three mail parts which are:
a) A feed system
b) A heating chamber
c) An effluent system
 Figure 3 Chemical Vapor Infiltration Reactor

When the chemical vapor infiltration process is carried out isothermally, the surface pores are
likely to be closed first which results in restriction of gas flow to the inside of the preform. To
avoid such restriction of gas flow, a modified chemical vapor infiltration process is adopted
which includes a forced gas flow and a temperature gradient.

Different types of CVI processes:

Isothermal/isobaric CVI process: The reactant gas is supplied to the preform at a
uniform temperature and pressure. It is a very slow process as it has a low rate of diffusion.

Temperature gradient (TG-CVI): In this process the vapor diffuses initially to the
hotter surface of the preform and then to the cooler surface. The temperature difference
enhances the gas diffusivity. The vapors decompose mostly in the hot inner surface as the
rate of the chemical reaction increases with increase in temperature. Due to the prevention
from early closure of the surface pores, this method allows better densification of the
ceramic matrix.

Isothermal-forced flow (IF-CVI): In this process, vapors are forced into the uniformly
heated preform. The rate of the deposition is increased by the increase in infiltration of the
forced reactant gas.

Thermal gradient-forced flow (F-CVI): This process is the combination of the both
TG-CVI and IF-CVI processes which enhances the infiltration of the vapors. A schematic
representing the same is shown in figure 4. This process also reduces the densification time.
Temperature difference in preform is achieved by heating the above region while the bottom
region is cooled. Forced flows are determined by the difference in the pressure of the
entering and exhaust gases.

Pulsed flow (P-CVI): In this process, the surrounding gas pressure changes rapidly. The
pressure changes repeatedly during each cycle. Each cycle consists of the evacuation of the
reactor vessel followed by its filling with the reactant gas.
 Figure 4 Chemical Vapor Infiltration Process with Pressure and Temperature Gradients

Advantages
Low residual stress due to low infiltration temperature
Large, complex shape product can be produced in a near-net shape
Enhanced mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and thermal shock
resistance
Various matrices can be fabricated
Very low fiber damage

Disadvantages
Production rate is very low
Residual porosity is very high (10-15%)
High capital and production costs

Applications
Mostly used to produce carbon and silicon carbide matrix composites
Heat exchanger, radiant burner tubes, flame tubes and other high-temp furnace
parts are commonly processed by this process
 Lecture 6.5: Ceramic Matrix Composites: Processing

This lecture mainly focuses on the two important techniques of processing ceramic matrix
composites. These techniques are slurry infiltration and liquid infiltration process. In these
techniques, reinforcement is in solid state and matrix is in liquid state.

Slurry Infiltration/Impregnation
Slurry infiltration process is used to fabricate ceramic matrix composites. In this process, the
matrix in the form of a liquid or slurry which infiltrates the fibre preform resulting in a
composite. In other words, in this process, impregnation of the reinforcing phase takes place in a
tank containing the matrix phase (liquid slurry).
The slurry typically consists of the following:
Matrix powder
Liquid carrier (water or alcohol)
An organic binder
Various parameters such as particle size distribution, binder type and amount, powder content
and carrier medium have a significant effect on composite part quality. The matrix powder is the
most important aspect of this process as the liquid carrier and the organic binder is removed
during the process.
The particle size of the matrix powder should be less than the fibre diameter as it results in
reducing porosity as well as leads to thorough impregnation. Infiltration into the fiber preform
can be improved by adding certain wetting agents in the slurry. After infiltration, the liquid
carrier is allowed to evaporate.
The resulting prepreg (a combination of fibre reinforcement and the slurry) can then be layed-up
on a tool for consolidation. The organic binder must be burnt out before starting the
consolidation process.

Processing stages
The slurry infiltration process involves two main stages (Figure 1):
Stage-1: Incorporation of the reinforcing phase into slurry of the consolidated matrix.
The fibres are impregnated by passing them through the slurry tank. The impregnated fibres are
then taken over by the take up drum. The prepreg thus formed is in the form of tapes which is cut
into the desired size. Then, the different layers of tapes are stacked together and the binder is
burnt out before the consolidation takes place.

Stage-2: Matrix consolidation by hot pressing.

After the burning of the binder from the stacked tapes, it is subjected to consolidation by hot
pressing which results in the desired ceramic matrix composite.

Figure 1 Slurry Infiltration Process

Advantages
Low porosity (due to hot pressing and use of continuous fiber reinforcement).
Good mechanical properties. (because of continuous fibre reinforcement).
Composites with uniform fiber distribution can be processed.

Disadvantages
High melting point matrix materials cannot be processed.
Damage of reinforcing phase may occur during the hot pressing.
 Relatively small and simple parts can be be fabricated.

Liquid infiltration
It is similar to the resin transfer molding process which is used for the processing of polymer
matrix composites. The schematic of liquid infiltration process is shown in figure 2.
The three major issues to be considered in the liquid infiltration process are:
a) Chemical reactivity: The process is done at an elevated temperature and at high
temperatures; the reinforcement and the matrix may react resulting in unnecessary
reaction which deteriorates the bonding between the reinforcement phase and the matrix
phase.
b) Melt viscosity: The melt viscosity of the ceramics is high compared to that of
metals, which can result in the inability of the ceramic infiltrant to infiltrate into the
fibrous ceramic preform.
c) Wettability of the reinforcement: The infiltrant may not be able to wet the
reinforcement resulting in improper bonding which further leads to the failure of the
product at the interface of reinforcement and the matrix.

Figure 2 Liquid Infiltration Process

The preform is kept in a closed chamber which is surrounded by the heating coils to attain the
desired temperature for the infiltration to take place as shown in the figure 2. The infiltrant
infiltrates into the preform under pressure with the help of a piston as shown in figure. 2.

Advantages
Matrix of homogeneous structure can be processed.
The matrix can be formed in a single processing step.
Fiber preform in any form (fiber, whisker or particle) can be infiltrated by this
process.

Disadvantages
Infiltration of performs is a complicated task as the ceramics have higher melt
viscosities than metals.
The differential shrinkage between the matrix and reinforcing phase causes crack
formation during solidification.
High melting points of ceramics results in greater possibility of reaction between
the liquid matrix and the reinforcement.
 Lecture 6.6: Ceramic Matrix Composites: Processing and Post Processing

This lecture discusses another two processing techniques for the fabrication of ceramic matrix
composites which are directed metal oxidation process and sol-gel process. This chapter also
covers the post processing aspects of ceramic matrix composites.

Directed Metal Oxidation

This process is used to manufacture ceramic matrix composites. The directed metal oxidation
process involves a metal whose oxidation would take place in a particular direction to create a
reaction product. The schematic of directed metal oxidation process is shown in figure 1.
Processing Steps:
Step 1: Preparation of the preform
In the first step, a preform is prepared. The preform is the reinforcement that is being
combined with the matrix to make the composite product. The preform can be made of
continuous fibres or discontinuous fibers or whiskers.
In case of particulate composites, the preform can be a ceramic green body. A green body
means the ceramic particulates would be bonded together by other additives. But for the
fibrous composite, the preform is prepared by filament winding or fabric lay-up process.

Step 2: Growth barrier

A growth barrier is placed on the top of the preform surfaces to stop the growth of the
matrix material.

Step 3: Matrix infiltration

The molten alloy is subjected to directed oxidation which results in formation of desired
reaction product on the surface of the molten metal and it grows outward. The oxidised
metal enters into the preform and forms the matrix inside the preform.
 Figure 1 Directed metal oxidation process at a glance

Advantages
The process is relatively a low-cost process because near-net shapes of end
product is possible.
Good mechanical properties such as strength and toughness can be obtained.

Disadvantages
Control of reaction is very difficult.
All types of ceramic matrices cannot be processed by this process.
This technique is very challenging for manufacturing of large, complex parts.

Applications
Heat exchangers
Radiant burner tubes
Flame tubes
High-temperature furnace parts
High-temperature gas turbine engine components
Sol-gel Processing
This process of manufacturing ceramic matrix composites is similar to the liquid infiltration
process. The basic principle of both the processes is same. In this process, very fine particles are
used as a matrix material. The processing steps are shown in figure 2.

Processing Steps:
Step 1: Pouring of the sol
This matrix material i.e. the sol, infiltrates the fibrous or whisker preform to form gel containing
both liquid and solid phase.
Step 2: Drying
The liquid is removed from the gel by the drying process. The removal of the liquid phase results
in the densification of the product. If the desired density is not achieved, steps one and two are
repeated again.
Step 3: Firing
After the desired density is achieved, it is subjected to firing operation which results in the
densification and grain growth of the ceramic matrix composite.

Figure 2 Typical Steps involved in sol-gel processing

Advantages
Low processing temperature.
Low damage to the perform due to low processing temperature
 Ease of fabrication of complex shapes

Disadvantages
High shrinkage results in matrix cracking
Low yield which requires repeated infiltration to increase the density of the matrix

Post processing of ceramic matrix composites

Post processing of the ceramic matrix composites is done to give a required shape and properties
to the composite product. The products which do not have near net shape have to undergo post
processing. Post processing is also done to meet some specific applications.
Four major classes of post processing techniques are listed below:
a) Mechanical
Mechanical processes are also known as finishing processes. These include rolling,
squeezing, grinding and polishing.
b) Impregnation/ Sealing
As the ceramic matrix composites have a tendency of a certain degree of porosity, this
process helps to improve their performance by impregnating lubricant or sealants into the
pores of the composite product.
c) Thermal
In order to achieve specific properties for specific applications, thermal processing may
be used. These are basically heat treatment processes and include laser melting, hot
isostatic pressing (HIP), high intensity pulsed ion beam (HIPIB) heating, conventional
furnace heating etc.
d) Irradiation
This process is used to improve certain characteristics of ceramic matrix composites. This
technique is especially employed for ceramic matrix composites. This involves
refinement of microstructure through controlled microwave irradiation.
 Lecture 7.1: Drilling of Polymer Matrix Composites

Introduction

Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) composites are being used widely in the present day world. The
application areas vary from the highly sophisticated aerospace industry to the more common
sporting goods. High specific strength and stiffness combined with additional benefits in terms of
corrosion resistance, lower maintenance costs, ease of transportation and installation make them
a very useful material. Though, the FRP composites offer numerous advantages, but there are
challenges in the form of high initial cost, fire protection, waste disposal and standardization.
The tailorability of composites for specific applications has been one of its greatest attractions
and simultaneously one of its most perplexing challenges. Good quality and cost-effective
standardized manufacturing of FRP composites is also a challenging job. Manufacturing of FRP
composite materials can be broadly ramified into primary and secondary manufacturing.

Need for secondary processing of composites

Efforts have been made to develop near net shape manufacturing for polymer matrix composites
products, but in many applications machining becomes imperative to complete the assembly
process. Therefore, for joining and assembling, secondary processes such as machining, drilling
and non conventional processing of composites are often unavoidable. The important issues to be
considered while selecting any manufacturing process are:
Economic viability of the process
Quality of the product to be manufactured
Technical versatility
High quality cost effective manufacturing

Classification of Secondary Processing of Composite Materials

The secondary processing of polymer matrix composites can be classified into two categories;
conventional machining and non conventional machining as sown in figure 1.
Conventional Machining Process includes:
Drilling
Shaping
Turning

Non- Conventional Machining Process includes:

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
Electro Chemical Discharge Machining (ECDM)
Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJT)
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Figure 1Classification of Secondary Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

The standard tooling for conventional materials is not recommended during conventional
secondary processing of polymer matrix composites. The reinforcement present in the polymer
matrix (Glass fibers, Carbon Fibers, Silicon carbide etc) composites causes severe damage on the
cutting tool edge and profile. The optimum selection of the cutting tool material, tool geometry,
tool profile, cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut is the big challenge among the researchers
to ascertain best quality characteristics during secondary processing of polymer matrix
composites.
The non conventional processes used for secondary processing of polymer matrix composites are
listed above and also presented in Figure 1. The non conductive nature of polymer matrix
composites creates the main hindrance while processing with these processes like EDM or
ECDM. To make them conductive, a primary coating of conductive material is applied on these,
as there is no physical contact between the cutting tool and the materials so tool wear is not a
major concern while processing with non conventional techniques. The process parameters to be
controlled during secondary processing depend upon the selection of processing method which
will be discuss later in subsequent section.

Brief Issues and Challenges in Secondary Processing of Composite Materials

The conventional secondary processing laws and rules for isotropic materials and alloys are not
applicable in secondary processing of fiber reinforced plastics (FRPs). The drilling operation the
most common secondary operation on FRPs to facilitate the joining of individual composite parts
into a assembled product. The machinability of the FRPs is difficult due to the presence of
abrasive reinforcement (Glass fibers, carbon fibers etc) which causes a higher tool wear and
deteriorates the quality characteristics of the drilled hole. The variation in thrust force and torque,
poor surface finish, delamination ( Peel off, Push down and fiber pull out) hole damage, hole
oversize, out of roundness, tool wear etc are some issues among the researchers which give a
tough challenge during secondary processing of FRPs. Specially designed cutting tool material
(other than HSS, Coated HSS, TiC), tool geometry and profiles are under investigation to
minimize the machining challenges for FRPs.
 Lecture 7.2: Hole Making Techniques for Polymer Matrix Composites

Drilling of holes in polymer matrix compositess (PMCs) presents numerous challenges and
oppurtunities for engineers and scientists. The tailorability of PMCs which is considered as one
of its most distinct advantages poses problems in establishing optimal parameters for drilling as
wide variety of PMCs are substantially different from one another. There are controllable and
uncontrollable factors which affects the drilling behaviour of polymer composites. The details of
these factors are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Factors affecting drilling behaviour of polymer composites

The drilling induced damage is a research area of paramount importance and efforts have been
noted worldwide for minimizing the damage. Apart from change in machine tool parameters
(cutting speeds and feed rate) and cutting tool parameters (tool materials and tool geometry), the
scientist attempt some process modification in the cutting process to decrease the drilling
induced damage. The various process modification suggested by the scientiest are:

Wood-pecker cycle
Use of back-up plate
Helical feed method
Ultrasonic assisted drilling
Wood Pecker Cycle

The peck drilling simulates the action of a woodpecker bird making a hole in a tree. This process
was developed to overcome the problems of chip removal and consequent drill breakage. There
are two ways to perform a peck drilling cycle during drilling in FRP composites as shown in
figure 2. First one is for better productivity and second one is for better chip evacuation. It was a
good industrial study that came up with new tool design directions.

Technique 1:
Do not retract the drill more than approx. 0.3 mm from the hole bottom. Alternately, make a
periodical stop, while the drill is still rotating, before continuing to drill.

Technique 2:
After each drilling cycle, retract the drill out from the hole to ensure that no chips are stuck onto
the drill

Technique 1 Technique 2

Figure 2 Two ways of wood pecker cycle

Use of a backup plate

Delamination can be reduced by a support on the back to prevent deformations leading to exit
delamination. It is a commonly followed practice in the industry. It is shown through
experimentally and modeling that a major surface delamination is unlikely to happen when a
back support is used (figure 3). The well known advantage of industrial practice of backup can
be explained fundamentally by the fact that the threshold thrust force at the onset of delamination
is increased making the delamination less likely to occur.
Peel-up delamination is influenced by the feed rate and can be reduced by decreasing the helix
angle of the twist drill. On the other hand, push-down delamination can be minimised by using
backup support, controlling drill temperature and feed rate. The feed rate was identified as the
most critical parameter that influences the damage and a caution was issued for the proper
selection of feed rate to avoid any kind of damage. The pre-heating of the drill point to reduce
the push-down delamination is a kind of trade-off between the reduction in the extent of push-
down delamination and the increase in the thermal damage. The use of the back-up support could
significantly reduce the push-down delamination.

Figure 3 Use of backing plate

Helical feed method

A helical feed drilling method has also been proposed (figure 4) to improve the drilling
performance over conventional drilling. The difference between the two methods is that the drill
in the new method moves down helically with respect to the drilling axis while the drill in the
conventional drilling moves straight down along the axis. In the new approach, it has been
anticipated that the removal of chips and the supply of the cutting fluid would be better as there
was enough gap between the work and the tool. The helical feed drilling method out-performed
the conventional drilling and high quality holes have been drilled using ball-nose type core drills.
 Figure 4 Helical feed method

Ultrasonic assisted drilling

The objective of the ultrasonic assisted drilling was to minimize the drilling induced damage
resulting because of the drilling action. Ultrasonic vibration can be applied to a drill in several
ways (figure 5). Purely longitudinal vibration can be applied i.e. along the axis of the drill, purely
torsional vibration or a combined longitudinal/torsional motion can be applied. Another method
is to apply ultrasonic vibration to the workpiece during drilling operation.

Figure 5 Vibration assisted drilling

Advantages of Ultrasonic assisted drilling

Reduced drilling reaction force and torque
Eliminated burr formation
Significantly improved chip expulsion
 Improvement in both hole roundness and size
Extended drill bit life
Increased material removal rate
improved hole surface finish
 Lecture 7.3: Joining of Polymer Matrix Composites

Introduction
Joining of fiber reinforced composites (FRPs) leads to a new dimension of concern among the
researcher. The joining becomes an imperative and necessary domain to join individually
processed composite parts into a usable assembly. Joining of FRP composites seems to be simple
but it is much more than that. The design of joint in FRP composites is a very critical issue. The
joint is a source of stress concentration and improper design may lead to increase in stress
concentration and may become a cause of failure during in service of the product. Joint add
manufacturing time and labor cost to the product. Different joining methods can be used
depending upon the complexity of the structure or product and its application area.
Types of joining methods
There are two types of joints in FRP composites: - Adhesive joints (Permanent Joint) and
Mechanical joints (Temporary Joint). These two types of joining are generally independent from
each other but some time combined in a product to get additional benefit. Adhesive bonding is
the most common type of joint used in composites joining. In adhesive bonding, two substrate
materials are joined by an adhesive. In mechanical joints, rivets bolts, and/or screws are used to
form the joint.

Adhesive Joints
The adhesive joint is made between two substrate (Adherends) material with the help of an
adhesive (e.g., epoxy, methyl acrylate cyanoacrylates, anaerobics, silicones, or phenolics). From
the large variety of adhesives, the optimum selection of the adhesive material is very important.
The selection of the adhesive material depends upon type of composites, applications, the service
environment and the most importantly the cost. The adhesive materials are classified as:
structural, pressure sensitive, hot melt, water based and radiation cured. Structural adhesives are
the most commonly used when joining of fiber reinforced composites is required. Various types
of adhesive joints (figure 1) are made with the help of adhesive bonding, for example, single lap,
tapered lap, scarf, butt, strap, double strap, tapered double strap, double lap and stepped lap.
There are generally two type of failure in adhesive joints: Adhesive failure and cohesive failure.
Adhesive failure is a failure at the interface between the adherend and the adhesive. Cohesive
failure occurs in the adhesive or in the substrate material. Cohesive failure of the adhesive or
substrate material occurs when the joint between the adhesive and the substrate material is
stronger than the inherent strength of the adhesive or substrate material.

Figure 1 Types of adhesive joints

Single Lap Joint Double Lap Joint

Butt Joint

Mechanical Joints
Mechanical joints are made in fiber reinforced plastics composites by drilling a hole and placing
a mechanical fastener between two joining members. Examples for mechanical joints are bolting,
riveting, screw and pin joints. For most of the mechanical joints, an overlap is required in two
mating members. The mechanical joints (figure 2) can be a single lap joint, double lap joint or
butt joint. The failure under various types of loading in mechanical joint may be caused by
shearing of the substrate, tensile failure of the substrate, crushing failure of the substrate or
shearing of the fastener (bolt or rivet).
 Figure 2 Various types of mechanical joints

Difference between Adhesive and Mechanical Joint

In adhesively bonded joint, the load is distributed over an area rather than
concentrated at a point. This results in more uniform distribution of stresses.
Adhesively bonded joint are more resistant to flexural, fatigue and vibrational
stresses than mechanical joints because of uniform stress distribution.
The weight penalty is negligible with adhesive bonding compared to mechanical
joints.
Adhesive not only bonds the two surfaces but also seals the joint. The seal
prevents galvanic corrosion between dissimilar adherend materials.
Adhesive bonding provides smooth contours and creates virtually no change in
part dimension. This is very important in designing aerodynamic shapes and in creating
good part aesthetics.
Adhesive bonding is often less expensive and faster than mechanical joining.
Mechanical joining allows repeated assembly and disassembly for repair and
maintenance without destroying the parent materials.
Mechanical joints offer easy inspection and quality control.
Mechanical joint require little or no surface preparation than adhesively bonded
joint.

Factors influencing the failure of adhesively bonded joints

 Type of adhesive
Mechanical properties of adhesive
Mechanical properties of adherend
Bonding between adhesive and adherend
Wettability of adhesive
Surface properties of joint surface
Types of loading

Factors influencing the failure of Mechanical joints

Type of loading

Stress concentration
Method of hole making
Drilling induced damage (Delamination, fiber pull Out, matrix burning)
Mechanical properties of fasteners

Issues and challenges in adhesive bonding and bolting/fastening

With the increase in the use of composites materials, there is variation in the properties of
composites materials and its production processes. These variations cause multiple adhesive
challenges during adhesive joining of composites. The brief issues and challenges during
adhesive joining of composites materials are as follows:

A thin coating may be applied prior to joining that completely changes the
chemistry of the part surface. The physical and chemical characteristics of the
bond surface have a significant effect on the bond strength.
An adhesive must be able to fully wet the substrate surface. This occurs when
the adhesive is lower in surface energy than the substrate.
Heat and pressure may be required during the bonding operation. This may limit
the part size if curing in an oven or autoclave is required
With some adhesives, a long curing time may be required.
 Adhesive bonding requires more training and rigid process control than
mechanical joints.

Disadvantages of Adhesive joints

Adhesive bonding usually requires extensive surface preparation before bonding.
Pressure may be required during the bonding operation.
With some adhesives, a long cure time may be needed.
Health and safety could be an issue.
Inspection of a bonded joint is difficult.
Surface treatments used for adhesive bonding are generally hard to control in an
industrial environment and affect directly the strength and durability of bonded joints

Disadvantages of Mechanical joints

Stress concentrations created by the presence of holes and cut-outs which is worsened by
the lack of plasticity limiting stress redistribution.
Delamination originating during drilling of composites laminates.
Differential thermal expansion of fasteners relative to composites.
Mechanical joints add weight to the structure and thus minimize the weight-saving
potential of composite structures.
The fasteners create potential of galvanic corrosion problems because of the presence of
dissimilar materials.
They create fiber discontinuity at the location where a hole is drilled and expose fibers to
chemicals and other damaging environments.

 Lecture 4: Microwave Joining of Polymer Matrix Composites

Introduction
The joining of polymeric matrix composites with microwave processing is new technological
advancement in the field of joining. Earlier to this mechanical and adhesively bonded joints
were used for joining. But they have their own advantages and limitations with respect to the
specific service requirements (Table 1). The disadvantages associated with the mechanical and
adhesively bonded joints can be minimized using microwave joining.

Table 1 Disadvantages of mechanical and adhesive joints

Disadvantages
Mechanical Joints Adhesive Bonding
Stress concentrations created by the presence Adhesive bonding usually requires extensive
of holes and cut-outs which is worsened by the surface preparation before bonding.
lack of plasticity limiting stress redistribution.
Delamination originating during drilling of Pressure may be required during the bonding
composites laminates. operation.
Differential thermal expansion of fasteners With some adhesives, a long cure time may be
relative to composites. needed.
Mechanical joints add weight to the structure Health and safety could be an issue.
and thus minimize the weight-saving potential
of composite structures.
The fasteners create potential of galvanic Inspection of a bonded joint is difficult.
corrosion problems because of the presence of
dissimilar materials.
They create fiber discontinuity at the location Surface treatments used for adhesive bonding
where a hole is drilled and expose fibers to are generally hard to control in an industrial
chemicals and other damaging environments. environment and affect directly the strength
and durability of bonded joints
For microwave heating, two frequencies; reserved by the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) for industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) purposes are 0915 GHz and 245 GHz.The
mechanisms that govern the energy distribution process during microwave processing of
materials include dipole friction, current loss and ion jump relaxation.
Microwave heating is fundamentally different from the conventional one, in which thermal
energy is delivered to the surface of the material by radiant and/or convective heating i.e.
transferred to the bulk of the material via conduction. In contrast, microwave energy is delivered
directly to the material through molecular interaction with the electromagnetic field. Microwave
heating is the transfer of electromagnetic energy to thermal energy and is energy conversion
rather than heat transfer. Microwaves penetrate the material and supply energy, heat is generated
throughout the volume of the material resulting in volumetric heating.
Hence, it is possible to achieve rapid and uniform heating of thick materials. In conventional
heating, slow heating rates are selected to reduce steep thermal gradient leading to process-
induced stresses. Thus, in microwave heating there is a balance between processing time and
product quality as it is a volumetric heating process. When microwave energy comes in contact
with materials having different dielectric properties, it selectively couples with the higher tangent
loss material. Therefore, in microwave heating, the joint interface can be selectively heated by
incorporating a higher loss material at the joint interface.

Advantages of Microwave joining

The application of microwave energy in the processing of various materials such as ceramics,
metals and composites offers several advantages over conventional heating methods.
Unique microstructure and properties
Controllable electric field distribution
Rapid heating
Energy saving
Reduction in manufacturing cost
Synthesis of new materials
Synthesis of new processes for coatings
Microwave Generation
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from 1 mm to 1 m and corresponding
frequencies from 300 GHz to 300 MHz respectively. Domestic and industrial microwave oven
operates at a frequency of 2.45 GHz corresponding to a wavelength of 12.2 cm and energy of
1.02 10-5 eV. Microwaves are produced by microwave furnace that consists of three major
components as given below-:
Source
Transmission lines
Applicator
The microwave source generates the electromagnetic radiations and the transmission lines
deliver the electromagnetic energy from the source to the applicator. In the applicator, the energy
is either absorbed or reflected by the material. The design of microwave sources, transmission
lines, applicators, and the ability to combine these elements into an efficient system to process
materials require knowledge and an understanding of electromagnetic theory. The theoretical
analysis of each of these microwave components is governed by the appropriate boundary
conditions and Maxwell's equations.

Material Selection for Microwave Heating

Not all materials are suitable for microwave processing and one has to match the special
characteristics of the process. Blind applications of microwave energy in material processing
usually lead to disappointment. The material properties of greatest importance in microwave
processing of a dielectric material are the complex relative permittivity, and loss
tangent, tan . The real part of the permittivity, sometimes called the dielectric
constant, mostly determines how much of the incident energy is rejected at the air-sample
interface, and how much enters the sample. The most important property in microwave
processing is the loss tangent, tan or dielectric loss, which predicts the ability of the material to
convert the incoming energy into heat.
The dielectric behavior of thermoplastics, however, is similar to the dielectric behavior of many
ceramics. Thermoplastics are difficult to heat until they reach a critical temperature. In addition,
the crystallinity affects the dielectric properties. Polymers with a degree of crystallinity above
45% are essentially transparent to microwaves due to the restriction of dipoles. As the degree of
crystallinity increases, the loss factor decreases. Although thermoplastic polymers generally have
low loss factors at room temperature, the addition of conductive fillers or fibers can strongly
influence the overall dielectric loss.

Hands on microwave joining of polymer matrix composites

The advantages associated with the microwave processing of composites are:
Reduction in the environmental impact of material processing.
Economic advantage through energy saving and less processing time.
Opportunities to produce new materials and joining techniques that cant be
achieved by other methods.
A feasibility study has been conducted using fixed frequency microwave (FFM, 2.45 GHz,
LG) facility (Figure 1) with a maximum output power of 900 W. Controlling parameters of
of microwave joining process are power and time. Dimensions of the microwave oven are
527mm 392mm 480mm.

Figure 1 Fixed frequency microwave facility

Fixture used for Joining

A teflon fixture (Figure 2) was fabricated for holding the two adherends of reinforced composites
during the feasibility study. Teflon fixture was used to hold specimens because it permits the
microwave to pass without any loss of energy as it is transparent to the microwaves. As melting
point of teflon (243 ) is higher than that of specimen (180 ), the fixture is safe from any
damage from heating even if it receives heat from conduction or radiation from the heated
specimen.

Figure 2 Teflon fixture holding composite sample

Feasibility Results
First, feasibility test was carried out at constant power of 360 W and it was found that specimen
was unaffected when time was varied from 30 seconds to 480 seconds in steps of 30 seconds. In
second set of experiments, power was set at 600 W and still there was no effect on the samples.
Finally, power was increased to 900 W. From 60 seconds to 90 seconds, there was no effect of
microwave energy on the samples. When time was set at 120 seconds at the same wattage, there
was rise in temperature of the specimen. At different time settings (up to 480 seconds), there was
continuous rise in temperature of the samples but bonding did not take place. It was observed
that when time was set to more than 480 seconds, whole sample got heated and started
deforming because microwaves were exposed over the whole specimen.
But in the presence of susceptor material (such as Charcoal powder) at the joint interface, it has
been seen that joining has taken place. Microwave energy was concentrated at the area, where
charcoal was applied which accelerated the joining. Bond has been formed at the joint interface
when time of exposure was 210, 180 and 150 seconds at power input of 360, 600 and 900 W
respectively for this study.
Feasibility study shows that microwave joining of thermoplastic composites is possible through
proper optimization of power, time and suitable selection of sucseptor material for selective
heating and to accelerate the joining process.
 Lecture 5: Research Tools for Secondary Processing

INTRODUCTION
Machining of polymer matrix composites is entirely different than the monolithic
materials and alloys. The conventional rules, laws and models which are applicable for
monolithic materials are not directly applied on the FRP composites. The mechanism of
material removal in FRP composites is quite complex because of difference in the
physical and chemical properties of the reinforcing material and matrix material.
Although a number of material removal processes have been applied to FRPs, drilling till
date has generated maximum interest among researchers and engineers.
Conventional drilling is one of the most widely practiced processes for making holes in
FRPs. The research primarily in machining of FRPs has focused on developing the
understanding of the basic mechanism of material removal whereas the efforts in drilling
have been towards developing cost-effective and high quality hole making technique.
The material damage that occurs as a result of the machining action has been a research
area of paramount importance. The material damage not only affects the surface finish of
the machined surface but also results in long-term performance deterioration of the
composite product. The research initiatives in the field have focused on estimation and
characterization of the machining induced damage. Delamination, fibre pull-out, matrix
burning, chipping and spalling are some of the common damage forms observed during
drilling of FRPs. The optimization of the operating variables, tool material selection and
tool design, development of unconventional techniques for hole making are some of the
important methodologies adopted to minimize the drilling induced damage in composite
materials. Various research tools and techniques (such as finite element methods, soft
computing techniques, predictive and optimization tools) have been applied to analyze
the secondary processing of polymer matrix composites. This lecture discusses these
research tools briefly in light of drilling of FRPs.

Finite Element Method

The whole drilling process of polymer composites can be simulated and analyzed using
FEM based simulation softwares. First of all, composite laminate and drill geometry are
modeled in software. An example of modeled twist drill is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Modeled and actual twist drill

After that, drilling process is performed theoretically using suitable FEM based software
by giving required input to the software (such as physical and mechanical properties of
composite, operating conditions; cutting speed and feed rate). Simulation results show
thrust force and torque generated during drilling action. The modeled composite laminate
after drilling simulation shows the drilled hole with drilling induced damage clearly
(figure 2).

Figure 2 Simulated and actual drilling induced damage in polymer composite laminate
The theoretical results have shown close agreement with experimental findings. The
basic steps in finite element method are as follows:
Geometry Modeling Finite Element
Generation Boundary Conditions
Data for Analysis (material specification, fiber orientation, lamination
sequence)
Execution of the Program
Analysis of the Output

Similarly, with the help of powerful FE-based simulation softwares, the whole microwave
heating process can be modelled. Modelling results predicts how the material will behave
during microwave heating without conducting actual experimentation. The microwave heating
process can be simulated for thermoplastic polymer composites to analyze the electrical field and
temperature variations at different points on joint interface of the specimen. A 3D finite element
model using COMSOL multiphysics version 4.1 software package has been developed to
simulate the joining process which is shown in figure 3. The basic steps of FEM modeling are
same as for drilling process.
 Figure 3 D model used for microwave oven cavity with symmetry cut

OPTIMIZATION OF THE DRILLING PARAMETERS

The primary focus has been towards conducting statistically designed experiments (using
factorial design, fractional factorial design, Taguchis methodology and response surface
methodology) and investigating the effect of the drilling parameters on the drilling forces as well
as the drilling induced damage. The two parameters which have been widely studied are the
cutting speed and the feed rate. A very high feed rate may increase the productivity of the
process but lead to damage forms typically observed during impact of composite laminates. The
thrust force is directly proportional to the feed rate and at higher feed rates, the thrust force may
lead to push-down type of delamination. A lower value of the feed rate will increase the contact
time between drilling tool and the composite laminate causing generation of heat leading to
damage in the form of matrix burning.
Similarly, too high cutting speed will result in high tool wear leading to increase in the drilling
forces which subsequently lead to the drilling induced damage. Therefore, there is a need to
establish optimal values of these parameters for ascertaining good quality holes.The tailorability
of the FRPs which has been considered as their most important characterisitcs in terms of
applications proves to be a big challenge in processing. The optimal conditions of the cutting
speed and the feed rate established for the one fiber-matrix sytem may not necessarily be same
for the other fiber-matrix system. The experimentation has to be conducted for individual fiber-
matrix systems for finding out the optimal combination of drilling parameters for producing
damage free holes.

Soft Computing Techniques to investigate the drilling behavior of PMC

The drilling of polymer matrix composites is a complex phenomenon. The effect of various input
parameters and the effect of combination of input parameters on the output response
characteristics are not easy to understand clearly and it becomes a difficult task to understand the
drilling behavior of polymer composites. Implementation of the stateofart concepts of soft
computing techniques helps to analyze the drilling mechanism of polymer composite and to
predict the results with increased accuracy. The mainly used soft computing techniques are as
follows:
 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Genetic Algorithm (GA)
Hybrid neural genetic algorithm (GA-ANN)
Fuzzy Logic
Hybrid neural fuzzy (ANFIS)