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The Lecture Contains:
Definition of a Composite Material
History of Composites
The Constituents in a Typical Composite
References
1. The combination of materials should result in significant property changes. One can see
significant changes when one of the constituent material is in platelet or fibrous from.
2. The content of the constituents is generally more than 10% (by volume).
3. In general, property of one constituent is much greater than the corresponding
property of the other constituent.
The composite materials can be natural or artificially made materials. In the following section we will
see the examples of these materials.
There is unabated thirst for new materials with improved desired properties. All the desired
properties are difficult to find in a single material. For example, a material which needs high fatigue
life may not be cost effective. The list of the desired properties, depending upon the requirement of
the application, is given below.
1. Strength
2. Stiffness
3. Toughness
4. High corrosion resistance
5. High wear resistance
The list of desired properties is in-exhaustive. It should be noted that the most important
characteristics of composite materials is that their properties are tailorable, that is, one can design
the required properties.
One more important application of composites can be seen around 1200 BC from Mongols. Mongols
invented the so called modern composite bow. The history shows that the earliest proof of
existence of composite bows dates back to 3000 BC - as predicted by Angara Dating. The bow used
various materials like wood, horn, sinew (tendon), leather, bamboo and antler. The horn and antler
were used to make the main body of the bow as it is very flexible and resilient. Sinews were used to
join and cover the horn and antler together. Glue was prepared from the bladder of fish which is
used to glue all the things in place. The string of the bow was made from sinew, horse hair and silk.
The composite bow so prepared used to take almost a year for fabrication. The bows were so
powerful that one could shoot the arrows almost 1.5 km away. Until the discovery of gun-powder the
composite bow used to be a very lethal weapon as it was a short and handy weapon.
As said, Need is the mother of all inventions, the modern composites, that is, polymer composites
came into existence during the Second World War. During the Second World War due to constraint
impositions on various nations for crossing boundaries as well as importing and exporting the
materials, there was scarcity of materials, especially in the military applications. During this period
the fighter planes were the most advanced instruments of war. The light weight yet strong materials
were in high demand. Further, applications like housing of electronic radar equipments require non-
metallic materials. Hence, the Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) were first used in these
applications. Phenolic resins were used as the matrix material. The first use of composite laminates
can be seen in the Havilland Mosquito Bomber of the British Royal Air Force.
The composites exist in day to day life applications as well. The most common existence is in the
form of concrete. Concrete is a composite made from gravel, sand and cement. Further, when it is
used along with steel to form structural components in construction, it forms one further form of
composite. The other material is wood which is a composite made from cellulose and lignin. The
advanced forms of wood composites can be ply-woods. These can be particle bonded composites or
mixture of wooden planks/blocks with some binding agent. Now days, these are widely used to make
furniture and as construction materials.
An excellent example of natural composite is muscles of human body. The muscles are present in a
layered system consisting of fibers at different orientations and in different concentrations. These
result in a very strong, efficient, versatile and adaptable structure. The muscles impart strength to
bones and vice a versa. These two together form a structure that is unique. The bone itself is a
composite structure. The bone contains mineral matrix material which binds the collagen fibres
together.
The other examples include: wings of a bird, fins of a fish, trees and grass. A leaf of a tree is also an
excellent example of composite structure. The veins in the leaf not only transport food and water,
but also impart the strength to the leaf so that the leaf remains stretched with maximum surface
area. This helps the plant to extract more energy from sun during photo-synthesis.
What are the constituents in a typical composite?
In a composite, typically, there are two constituents. One of the constituent acts as a reinforcement
and other acts as a matrix. Sometimes, the constituents are also referred as phases.
The reinforcements in a composite material come in various forms. These are depicted through
Figure 1.1.
1. Fibre: Fibre is an individual filament of the material. A filament with length to diameter ratio
above 1000 is called a fibre. The fibrous form of the reinforcement is widely used. The fibres
can be in the following two forms:
a. Continuous fibres: If the fibres used in a composite are very long and
unbroken or cut then it forms a continuous fibre composite. A composite, thus
formed using continuous fibres is called as fibrous composite. The fibrous
composite is the most widely used form of composite.
b. Short/chopped fibres: The fibres are chopped into small pieces when used in
fabricating a composite. A composite with short fibres as reinforcements is called
as short fibre composite.
In the fibre reinforced composites, the fibre is the major load carrying constituent.
2. Particulate: The reinforcement is in the form of particles which are of the order of a few
microns in diameter. The particles are generally added to increase the modulus and decrease
the ductility of the matrix materials. In this case, the load is shared by both particles and
matrix materials. However, the load shared by the particles is much larger than the matrix
material. For example, in an automobile application carbon black (as a particulate
reinforcement) is added in rubber (as matrix material). The composite with reinforcement in
particle form is called a particulate composite.
3. Flake: Flake is a small, flat, thin piece or layer (or a chip) that is broken from a larger piece.
Since these are two dimensional in geometry, they impart almost equal strength in all
directions of their planes. Thus, these are very effective reinforcement components. The flakes
can be packed more densely when they are laid parallel, even denser than unidirectional
fibres and spheres. For example, aluminum flakes are used in paints. They align themselves
parallel to the surface of the coating which imparts the good properties.
4. Whiskers: These are nearly perfect single crystal fibres. These are short, discontinuous and
polygonal in cross-section.
The same fact has been explored in the composites with reinforcement in fibre form. As the fibres
are made of thin diameter, the inherent flaws in the material decrease. Hence, the strength of the
fibre increases as the fibre diameter decreases. This kind of experimental study has revealed the
similar results [2, 3]. This has been shown in Figure 1.5 qualitatively.
b) The quality of load transfer between fibre and matrix depends upon the surface area between
fibre and matrix. If the surface area between fibre and matrix is more, better is the load transfer. It
can be shown that for given volume of fibres in a composite, the surface area between fibre and
matrix increases if the fibre diameter decreases.
(1.3)
(1.4)
Thus, for a given volume of fibres in a composite, the area between fibre and matrix is inversely
proportional to the average diameter of the fibres.
c) The fibres should be flexible so that they can be bent easily without breaking. This property of the
fibres is very important for woven composites. In woven composites the flexibility of fibres plays an
important role. Ultra thin composites are used in deployable structures.
The flexibility is simply the inverse of the bending stiffness. From mechanics of solids study the
bending stiffness is EI, where is Youngs modulus of the material and is the second moment of
area of the cross section of the fibre. For a cylindrical fibre, the second moment of area is
(1.5)
Thus,
Flexibility (1.6)
Thus, from the above equation it is clear that if a fibre is thin, i.e. small in diameter, it is more
flexible.
The Lecture Contains:
Types of Fibres
Boron Fiber
Carbon Fiber
Glass Fibre
References
2. The reinforcing materials, in general, have significantly higher desired properties. Hence, they
contribute the desired properties to the composite.
The matrix performs various functions. These functions are listed below:
2. The matrix plays an important role to keep the fibres at desired positions. The desired
distribution of the fibres is very important from micromechanical point of view.
3. The matrix keeps the fibres separate from each other so that the mechanical abrasion
between them does not occur.
4. It transfers the load uniformly between fibers. Further, in case a fibre is broken or fibre is
discontinuous, then it helps to redistribute the load in the vicinity of the break site.
7. The matrix material enhances some of the properties of the resulting material and structural
component (that fibre alone is not able to impart). For example, such properties are:
transverse strength of a lamina, impact resistance
Animal fibers: silk, wool, spider silk, sinew, camel hair, etc.
Plant/vegetable fibers: cotton (seed), jute (stem), hemp (stem), sisal (leaf), ramie,
bamboo, maze, sugarcane, banana, kapok, coir, abaca, kenaf, flax, raffia palm, etc.
Mineral fibers: asbestos, basalt, mineral wool, glass wool.
An advanced fibre is defined as a fibre which has a high specific stiffness (that is, ratio of Youngs
modulus to the density of the material, ) and a high specific strength (that is the ratio of ultimate
strength to the density of the material, ).
What are the advanced fibres?
The fibres made from following materials are the advanced fibres.
Figure 1.6 shows the periodic table. The conventional metals are shown in yellow colour whereas
the materials of the advanced fibres are shown in blue colour. It can be seen that the materials of
the advanced fibres are lighter than the conventional metals. These materials occupy higher position
as compared to metals in the periodic table. Thus, one can easily deduce that, in general, these
materials have higher specific properties (property per unit weight) than that of metals.
In the process, the passage takes place for couple of minutes. During this process, the atoms
diffuse into tungsten core to produce the complete boridization and the production of and
. In the beginning the tungsten fibre of 12 diameter is used, which increases to 12 .
This step induces significant residual stresses in the fibre. The core is subjected to compression and
the neighbouring boron mantle is subjected to tension.
Figure 1.7: Schematic of reactors for silicon carbide fibres by Chemical Vapour
Deposition
The boron fibre structure and its composite is elucidated in Figure 1.8.
The Lecture Contains:
Alumina Fibre
Aramid Fibre
CVD on Tungsten or Carbon Core
NICALON TM by NIPPON Carbon Japan
References
The Alumina has a unique combination of low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity
and high compressive strength. The combination of these properties gives good thermal shock
resistance. These properties make Alumina suitable for applications in furnace use as
crucibles, tubes and thermocouple sheaths.
The good wear resistance and high hardness properties are harnessed in making the
components such as ball valves, piston pumps and deep drawing tools.
Silicon carbide fibres are ceramic fibers. These fibres are produced in similar fashion as boron fibres
are produced. The fibres are produced by two methods as follows:
The CVD with as the reactant, SiC is deposited on the core as follows:
The SiC fibres produced on a tungsten core with a diameter about 12 . It shows a thin
interfacial layer between the SiC mantle and the tungsten core. In case, when carbon fibre is
used the fibre diameter of the carbon fibres is about 33 .
Both type of SiC fibre have smoother surfaces than a boron fibre. This is because there is a
deposition of small columnar grains as compared to conical nodules in boron fibres.
The SiC fibres produced with carbon core are used in light reinforced alloys. These fibres are
produced with a surface coating. The composition of this coating varies from carbon rich from
inner surface to silicon carbide at the outer surface.
The fibres that are used to reinforce the titanium have a protective layer which varies from a
carbon rich to silicon rich and again to a composition which is rich in carbon at the surface.
The outer surface acts as a protective surface and when it comes in contact with molten and
highly reactive titanium. The fibres are made by Specialty Materials Inc. under the trade name
SCS-6. The coating increases the fibres diameter by 6 .
The fibre has low failure stresses due to surface flaws.
The higher strength of fibre is due to the controlled defects at the core-mantle interface.
The strength of SiC fibres produced using CVD is seen to be anisotropic. The radial strength
is significantly lower than longitudinal tensile strength.
When the fibres are heated to above 800 C in air for a long period, they lose their strength
due to oxidation of the carbon rich outer layers.
Figure 1.9: Schematic of reactors for silicon carbide fibres by Chemical Vapour Deposition
These are also used as a reinforcement in plastic, ceramic and metal matrix composites.
Fiber Properties
The following are the important points regarding the fibre properties.
Density, axial modulus, axial Poissons ratio, axial tensile strength and coefficient of thermal
expansion are some of the important properties.
Advanced fibers exhibit a broad range of properties.
Properties of carbon fiber can vary significantly depending upon fabrication process.
For the advanced fibres studied above one can attain either high modulus (> 700 GPa) or
high strength (> 5 GPa) but not both attainable simultaneously.
SCS-6, IM8, boron and sapphire fibers offer the best combination of stiffness and strength
but have large diameters and thus limited flexibility. However, IM8 fibers are exception for
flexibility.
The specific stiffness of some of these fibres is almost 13 times of structural metals.
Similarly, the specific strength of some of these fibres is almost 16 times of structural metals.
Weight saving, when the composites of these fibres are used, is tremendous due to high
specific stiffness and strength.
Actual properties of composite (fiber + matrix) are reduced.
Specific properties are reduced even further when the loading is in a direction other than the
length direction of fibers.
Tailorable properties.
One can get the desired heat transfer or electrical conductivity with proper designing.
The increased fatigue resistance is attainable with the use of these fibre composites.
Aging effect can be significantly lowered.
Note: The fibres are classified based on their values of modulus as follows:
1. Thermoplastic which soften upon heating and can be reshaped with heat and pressure.
2. Thermoset which become cross linked during fabrication and does not soften upon
reheating.
1. higher toughness
2. high volume
3. low cost processing
4. The use temperature range is upto 225 .
What are the thermoset matrix materials? What are their key features?
1. polyesters,
2. epoxies,
3. polyimides
The key features of these materials are given for individual material in the following.
Polyesters
Epoxy
1. Expensive
2. Better moisture resistance
3. Lower shrinkage on curing
4. Use temperature is about 175
Polyimide
What are the problems with the use of polymer matrix materials?
High strains are required for failure Low strains are required for failure
Dis-advantages:
1. Heavier
2. More susceptible to interface degradation at the fiber/matrix interface and
3. Corrosion is a major problem for the metals
The attractive feature of the metal matrix composites is the higher temperature use. The
aluminum matrix composite can be used in the temperature range upward of 300C while the
titanium matrix composites can be used above 800 .
What are the ceramic matrix materials? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
The carbon, silicon carbide and silicon nitride are ceramics and used as matrix materials.
Ceramic:
The advantages of the ceramic matrix materials are:
1. The ceramic composites have very high temperature range of above 2000 .
2. High elastic modulus
3. Low density
Carbon
It should be noted that a composite with carbon fibres as reinforcement as well as matrix material is
known as carbon-carbon composite. The application of carbon-carbon composite is seen in
leading edge of the space shuttle where the high temperature resistance is required. The carbon-
carbon composites can resist the temperatures upto 3000 .
Figure 1.12 depicts the range of use temperature for matrix material in composites. It should be
noted that for the structural applications the maximum use temperature is a critical parameter. This
maximum temperature depends upon the maximum use temperature of the matrix materials.
3. Laminate:
1. Stacking of unidirectional or woven fabric layers at different fiber orientations.
2. Effective properties vary with:
1. orientation
2. thickness
3. stacking sequence
4. Hybrid composites:
The hybrid composite are composites in which two or more types of fibres are used.
Collectively, these are called as hybrids. The use of two or more fibres allows the combination
of desired properties from the fibres. For example, combination of aramid and carbon fibres
gives excellent tensile properties of aramid and compressive properties of carbon fibers.
Further, the aramid fibres are less expensive as compared to carbon fibres.
Lecture 5: Terminologies
The Lecture Contains:
Terminologies Used in Fibrous Composites
The Advantages of Composite Materials
References
filament (or less than 0.11 tex per filament). Fabrics made of such microfibers have superior
silk-like handle and dense construction. They find applications in stretch fabrics, lingerie, rain
wear, etc.
25. Monofilament: A large diameter continuous fiber, generally, with a diameter greater than 100
m.
26. Nonwovens: Randomly arranged fibers without making fiber yarns. Nonwovens can be
formed by spunbonding, resinbonding, or needle punching. A planar sheet-like fabric is
produced from fibers without going through the yarns spinning step. Chemical bonding and/or
mechanical interlocking is achieved. Fibers (continuous or staple) are dispersed in a fluid (i.e.
a liquid or air) and laid in a sheet-like planar form on a support and then chemically bonded
or mechanically interlocked. Paper is perhaps the best example of a wet laid nonwoven fabric
where we generally use wood or cellulosic fibers. In spunbonded nonwovens, continuous
fibers are extruded and collected in random planar network and bonded.
27. Particle: Extreme case of a fibrous form: it has a more or less equiaxial form, i.e. the aspect
ratio is about 1.
28. Plaiting: see Braiding.
29. Rayon: Term use to designate any of the regenerated fibers made by the viscose,
cuprammonium, or acetate processes. They are considered to be natural fibers because they
are made from regenerated, natural cellulose.
30. Retting: A biological process of degrading pectin and lignin associated with vegetable fibers,
loosening the stem and fibers, followed by their separation.
31. Ribbon: Fiber of rectangular cross-section with width to thickness ratio greater than 4.
32. Rope: Linear flexible structure with a minimum diameter of 4mm. it generally has three
strands twisted together in a helix. The rope characteristics are defined by two parameters,
unit mass and break length. Unit mass is simply g/m or ktex, while breaking length is the
length of rope that will break under the force of its own weight when freely suspended. Thus,
break length equals mass at break/unit mass.
33. Roving: A bundle of yarns or tows of continuous filaments (twisted or untwisted).
34. Spinneret: A vessel with numerous shaped holes at the bottom through which a material in
molten state is forced out in the form of fine filaments or threads.
35. Spunbonding: Process of producing a bond between nonwoven fibers by heating the fibers
to near their melting point.
36. Staple fiber: Fibers having short, discrete lengths (10-400 mm long) that can be spun into a
yarn are called staple fibers. This spinning quality can be improved if the fiber is imparted a
waviness or crimp. Staple fibers are excellent for providing bulkiness for filling, filtration, etc.
Frequently, staple natural fibers, e.g. cotton or wool, are blended with staple synthetic fibers,
e.g. nylon or polyester, to obtain the best of both types.
37. Tenacity: A measure of fiber strength that is commonly used in the textile industry.
Commonly, the units are gram-force per denier, gram-force per tex, or Newton per tex. It is a
specific strength unit, i.e. there is a factor of density involved. Thus, although the tensile
strength of glass fiber is more than double that of nylon fiber, both glass and nylon fiber have
a tenacity of about 6g/den. This is because the density of glass is about twice that of nylon.
38. Tex: A unit of linear density. It is the weight in grams of 1000m of yarn. Tex is commonly
used in Europe.
39. Tow: Bundle of twisted or untwisted continuous fibers. A tow may contain tens or hundreds of
thousands of individual filaments.
40. Twist: the angle of twist that individual filaments may have about the yarn axis. Most yarns
have filaments twisted because it is easier to handle a twisted yarn then an untwisted one.
41. Wire: Metallic filament.
42. Warp: Lengthwise yarn in a woven fabric.
43. Weft: Transverse yarn in a woven fabric. Also called fill.
44. Whisker: Tiny, whisker-like fiber (a few mm long, a few m in diameter) that is a single
crystal and almost free of dislocations. Note that this term involves a material requirement.
The small size and crystalline perfection make whiskers extremely strong, approaching the
theoretical strength.
45. Woven fabric: Flat, drapeable sheet made by interlacing yarns or tows.
46. Woven roving: Heavy, drapeable fabric woven from continuous rovings.
47. Yarn: A generic term for a bundle of untwisted or twisted fibers (short or continuous). A yarn
can be produced from staple fibers by yarn spinning. The yarn spinning process consists of
some fiber alignment, followed by locking together by twisting. Continuous synthetic fibers are
also used to make yarns. Continuous fibers are easy to align parallel to the yarn axis.
Generally, the degree of twist is low, just enough to give some interfilament cohesion.
3. Fatigue Life:
The composites can with stand more number of fatigue cycles than that of aluminum. The
critical structural components in aircraft require high fatigue life. The use of composites in
fabrication of such structural components is thus justified.
4. Dimensional Stability:
Strain due to temperature can change shape, size, increase friction, wear and thermal
stresses. The dimensional stability is very important in application like space antenna. For
composites, with proper design it is possible to achieve almost zero coefficient of thermal
expansion.
5. Corrosion Resistance:
Polymer and ceramic matrix material used to make composites have high resistance to
corrosion from moisture, chemicals.
The components fabricated from composite are cost effective with automated methods like
filament winding, pultrusion and tape laying. There is a lesser wastage of the raw materials as
the product is fabricated to the final product size unlike in metals.
7. Conductivity:
The list of advantages of composite is quite long. One can find more on advantages of composite in
reference books and open literature.
Lecture 6: Applications
The Lecture Contains:
Applications of Composite Materials
References
Missile:
Launch Vehicle:
Sports Equipments
Tennis rockets, golf clubs, base-ball bats, helmets, skis, hockey sticks, fishing rods, boat
hulls, wind surfing boards, water skis, sails, canoes and racing shells, paddles, yachting rope,
speed boat, scuba diving tanks, race cars reduced weight, maintenance, corrosion resistance.
Automotive
Lower weight and greater durability, corrosion resistance, fatigue life, wear and impact
resistance.
Drive shafts, fan blades and shrouds, springs, bumpers, interior panels, tires, brake shoes,
clutch plates, gaskets, hoses, belts and engine parts.
Carbon and glass fiber composites pultruted over on aluminum cylinder to create drive shaft.
Fuel saving braking energy can be stored in to a carbon fiber super flywheels.
Other applications include: mirror housings, radiator end caps, air filter housing, accelerating
pedals, rear view mirrors, head-lamp housings, and intake manifolds, fuel tanks.
Industrial:
Drive,
conveyer belts,
hoses,
tear and puncture resistant fabrics,
rotor vanes,
mandrels,
ropes,
cables.
Medical:
Wheelchairs,
Crutches,
Hip joints,
Heat valves,
Dentistry,
Surgical equipments
Electronic:
Chips in electronic computing devices are laminated hybrid systems composed of a number of
layers (materials) which serve different functions.
Chip must have good heat transfer properties and must be able to withstand induced thermal
stresses without delaminating.
The composite finds a vast usage in electronic packaging materials. The Styrofoam, particle
bonded materials formed from paper pulp, air-bubble cushioned plastic sheets, etc. are some
of the popular materials used in the packing.
Military:
Helmets,
bullet proof vests,
impact resistant vehicles,
Marine:
Rotor blades including blade shell, integral webs, spars or box structure.
Mast
Generator housing
The fibres are first put in place in the mould. The fibres can be in the form of woven, knitted,
stitched or bonded fabrics. Then the resin is impregnated. The impregnation of resin is done
by using rollers, brushes or a nip-roller type impregnator. The impregnation helps in forcing
the resin inside the fabric. The laminates fabricated by this process are then cured under
standard atmospheric conditions. The wet/hand lay-up process is depicted in Figure 1.15.
The materials that can be used have, in general, no restrictions. One can use combination of
resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic and any fibre material.
Advantages:
The process results in low cost tooling with the use of room-temperature cure resins.
The process is simple to use.
Any combination of fibres and matrix materials are used.
Higher fibre contents and longer fibres as compared to other processes.
Disadvantages:
Since the process is worked by hands, there are safety and hazard considerations.
The resin needs to be less viscous so that it can be easily worked by hands.
The quality of the final product is highly skill dependent of the labours.
Uniform distribution of resin inside the fabric is not possible. It leads to voids in the
laminates.
Possibility of diluting the contents.
Applications:
The process is suitable for the fabrication of wind-turbine blades, boats and architectural
mouldings.
Advantages:
Limitations:
The following are some of the limitations of the spray-up process:
It is not suitable for making parts that have high structural requirements.
It is difficult to control the fiber volume fraction as well as the thickness. These
parameters highly depend on operator skill.
Because of its open mold nature, styrene emission is a concern.
The process offers a good surface finish on one side and a rough surface finish on the
other side.
The process is not suitable for parts where dimensional accuracy and process
repeatability are prime concerns. The spray-up process does not provide a good
surface finish or dimensional control on both or all the sides of the product.
Cores, when needed, have to be inserted manually.
Only short fibres can be used in this process.
Applications:
Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings,
bathtubs, shower trays, some small dinghies.
Advantages:
Applications:
The process is suitable for aerospace, automobile parts like wing box, chassis, bumpers, etc.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Applications:
Pressure bottles, rocket motor casing, chemical storage tanks, pipelines, gas cylinders, fire-
fighters, breathing tanks etc.
The resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used with any fibre.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Applications:
Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks
The Lecture Contains:
Braiding
Vacuum Bagging
Resin Transfer Molding - RTM
Centrifugal Casting
References
Cost effective automated technique for interlacing fibers into complex shapes.
Final product is obtained.
Structural properties obtained are good.
Disadvantages:
The initial tooling cost is high.
Applications:
Rope, tubes, narrow flat strips, contoured shapes, solid 3-D shape including I-beams and T-
beams.
Advantages:
Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with
excess into bagging materials.
Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during
cure.
Disadvantages:
The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill.
Applications:
Large one-off cruising boats, race car components, core-bonding in production boats.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Applications:
The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers,
etc.
Applications:
The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers, etc.
Homework
References
Tensors are physical entities whose components are the coefficients of a linear relationship between
vectors.
The list of some of the tensors used in this course is given in Table 2.1.
It is often needed to transform a tensorial quantity from one coordinate system to another coordinate
system. This transformation of a tensor is done using direction cosines of the angle measured from
initial coordinate system to final coordinate system. Let us use axes as the initial coordinate axes
and as the final coordinate axes (denoted here by symbol prime ). Now, we need to find the
direction cosines (denoted here by a ij) for this transformation relation. Let us use the convention for
direction cosines that the first subscript (that is, i) of a ij corresponds to the initial axes and the
second subscript (that is, j) corresponds to final axes. The direction cosine correspondence with this
convention in 3D Cartesian coordinate system is given in Table 2.2. The corresponding Cartesian
coordinate systems are shown in Figure 2.1.
Table 2.2 Direction cosines for 3D Cartesian coordinate system
From/To
Now, we will find all the direction cosines. The list is given below.
(2.1)
The matrix of direction cosines given above in Eq. (2.1) is also written using short forms for
. Then Equation (2.1) becomes
(2.2)
Note: The above direction cosine matrix can be obtained from the relation between unrotated and
rotated coordinates. For the transformation shown in Figure 2.2 (a) one can write this relation using
Now we will use the direction cosines to transform a vector, a second order tensor and a fourth order
tensor from initial coordinate (unprimed) system to a vector, a second order tensor and a fourth order
tensor in final coordinate (primed) system.
First, let us do it for a vector. Let denote the components of a vector P in unprimed and
primed coordinate axes. Then the components of this vector in rotated coordinate system are given in
terms of components in unrotated coordinate system and corresponding direction cosines as
(2.3)
Now, putting the direction cosines in terms of angles and summing over the repeated index j (=1, 2, 3)
in Equation (2.3) we get
(2.4)
(2.5)
(2.6)
Now, we will extend the concept to transform a second order tensor. Let us transform the stress
tensor as follows
(2.7)
(2.8)
The readers are suggested to write the final form of Equation (2.8) using similar procedure used to
get the last of Equation (2.7).
(2.9)
Thus, deformation map is a vector valued function. Similarly, for deformation of a point Q to , we
can write
(2.10)
(2.11)
(2.12)
Now, let us give the deformation map for the displacement of a point. Let us consider the point P in
reference configuration again. It undergoes a deformation and occupies a new position .
Thus, we can write this deformation as follows
(2.13)
(2.14)
or in component form
(2.15)
(2.17)
(2.18)
(2.19)
Similarly,
(2.20)
The readers should observe that from the definition of strain tensor in Equation (2.18), the strain tensor is
symmetric (that is, ). If the gradients of the displacements are very small the product terms in
Equation (2.18) can be neglected. Then, the resulting strain tensor (called Infinitesimal Strain Tensor) is
given as
(2.21)
(2.22)
The readers are very well versed with these definitions. This strain tensor can be written in matrix form as
(2.23)
Note: The shear strain components mentioned above are tensorial components. In actual practice,
engineering shear strains (which are measured from laboratory tests) are used. These are denoted by .
The relation between tensorial and engineering shear strain components is
(2.24)
Stress
Now, we will introduce the concept of stress. The components of stress at a point (also called State
of Stress) are (in the limit) the forces per unit area which are acting on three mutually perpendicular
planes passing through this point. This is represented in Figure 2.4. Stress tensor is a second order
tensor and denoted as . In this notation, the first subscript corresponds to the direction of the
normal to the plane and the second subscript corresponds to the direction of the stress. For
example, denotes the stress component acting on a plane which is perpendicular to direction 2
and stress is acting in direction 3. The tensile normal stress components are
positive. The shear stress components are defined to be positive when the normal to the
plane and the direction of the stress component are either both positive or both negative.
The readers should note that the state of stress shown in Figure 2.4 represents all stress
components in positive sense. In this figure, the stress components are shown on positive faces
only.
(2.27)
In general, instead of using global 1-2-3 coordinate system, x-y-z global coordinate system is used.
Further, the shear stress components are shown using notation . Thus, the stress tensor in this
case can be written as
(2.28)
Note: The stress tensor will be symmetric, that is only when there are no distributed
moments in the body. The readers are suggested to read more on this from any standard solid
mechanics book. In this entire course, we will deal with symmetric stress-tensor.
The equilibrium equations, without body forces are written using xyz coordinates as follows:
(2.31)
Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are very essential to solve any problem in solid mechanics. The boundary
conditions are specified on the surface of the body in terms of components of displacement or
traction. However, the combination of displacement and traction components is also specified.
Figure 2.5 shows a body, where the displacement as well as traction components are used to specify
the boundary conditions.
We define traction vector for any arbitrary point (for example, point P in Figure 2.5) on surface as
a vector consisting of three stress components acting on the surface at same point. Here, the three
stress components are normal stress and shear stress and . The traction vector at this
point is written as
(2.32)
where is the ith component of the unit normal to the surface at point P. For example, if this
surface is perpendicular to axis 2, then and the components of traction acting at a
point on this surface are given as follows
(2.33)
(2.35)
Plane stress problem corresponds to a situation where out of plane stress components are negligibly
small. Thus, we can say that the state of stress is planar. The planar state of stress in x-y plane is
shown in Figure 2.6. For the case shown in this figure, the normal and shear stress components in z
directions, that is are zero. Please note that the state of stress shown in this figure
assumes the stress symmetry.
For plane stress problem the equilibrium equations take the following form
(2.36)
Plane strain problem corresponds to a condition where all the out of plane strain components are
negligibly small. Here, we denote as out of plane strain components. The readers
are again cautioned to note that the out of plane stress components need not be zero. These
depend upon the constitutive equation. Further, the equilibrium equation is same as Equation (2.36)
and .
(2.38)
The readers should note that strain energy density is a scalar quantity. Further, it is a positive
definite quantity.
The principle of minimum of total potential energy states that of all possible kinematically admissible
displacement fields, the actual solution to the problem is one which minimizes the total potential
energy .
The total potential energy (for linearly elastic material) is defined as
(2.39)
Note: The kinematically admissible displacement field is a single valued and continuous
displacement field that satisfies the displacement boundary condition.
The principle of minimum of total complementary potential energy states that of all possible statically
admissible stress fields, the actual solution to the problem is one which minimizes the total
complementary potential energy .
The total complementary potential energy (for linearly elastic material) is defined as
(2.40)
Note: The statically admissible stress field is one that satisfies both equilibrium equations and
traction boundary condition.
4. Derive the principles of minimum of total potential and total complementary potential energy.
Homework
References
Stress Symmetry:
The stress components are symmetric under this symmetry condition, that is, . Thus, there
are six independent stress components. Hence, from Equation. (3.1) we write
(3.2)
Subtracting Equation (3.2) from Equation (3.1) leads to the following equation
(3.3)
There are six independent ways to express i and j taken together and still nine independent ways to
express k and l taken together. Thus, with stress symmetry the number of independent elastic
constants reduce to ( ) 54 from 81.
Strain Symmetry:
The strain components are symmetric under this symmetry condition, that is, . Hence, from
Equation (3.1) we write
Subtracting Equation (3.3) from Equation (3.2) we get the following equation
(3.4)
It can be seen from Equation (3.4) that there are six independent ways of expressing i and j taken
together when k and l are fixed. Similarly, there are six independent ways of expressing k and l taken
together when i and j are fixed in Equation (3.4). Thus, there are independent constants
for this linear elastic material with stress and strain symmetry.
With this reduced stress and strain components and reduced number of stiffness coefficients, we can
write Hookes law in a contracted form as
(3.5)
where
(3.6)
For Equation (3.5) to be solvable for strains in terms of stresses, the determinant of the stiffness
matrix must be nonzero, that is .
The number of independent elastic constants can be reduced further, if there exists strain energy
density function W, given as below.
It is seen that W is a quadratic function of strain. A material with the existence of W with property in
Equation (3.8) is called as Hyperelastic Material.
(3.9)
(3.10)
which leads to the identity . Thus, the stiffness matrix is symmetric. This symmetric matrix
has 21 independent elastic constants. The stiffness matrix is given as follows:
(3.11)
The existence of the function W is based upon the first and second law of thermodynamics. Further,
it should be noted that this function is positive definite. Also, the function W is an invariant (An
invariant is a quantity which is independent of change of reference).
The material with 21 independent elastic constants is called Anisotropic or Aelotropic Material.
Further reduction in the number of independent elastic constants can be obtained with the use of
planes of material symmetry as follows.
Material Symmetry:
It should be recalled that both the stress and strain tensor follow the transformation rule and so does
the stiffness tensor. The transformation rule for these quantities (as given in Equation (3.1)) is known
as follows
(3.12)
where are the direction cosines from i to j coordinate system. The prime indicates the quantity in
new coordinate system.
When the function W given in Equation (3.9) is expanded using the contracted notations for strains
and elastic constants given in Equation (3.11) W has the following form:
(3.13)
Thus, from Equation (3.13) it can be said that the function W has the following form in terms of strain
components:
(3.14)
With these concepts we proceed to consider the planes of material symmetry. The planes of the
material, also called elastic symmetry are due to the symmetry of the structure of anisotropic body.
In the following, we consider some special cases of material symmetry.
(3.16)
This gives us along with the use of the second of Equation (3.12)
(3.17)
Now, the function W can be expressed in terms of the strain components . If W is to be invariant,
then it must be of the form
(3.18)
(3.19)
Thus, for the monoclinic materials the number of independent constants are 13. With this reduction
of number of independent elastic constants the stiffness matrix is given as
(3.20)
Now using the stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.11), strain term relations as given in Equation
(3.17) and comparing the stress terms in Equation (3.21) as follows:
Using the relations from Equation (3.17), the above equations reduce to
Similarly,
(3.23)
(3.24)
(3.26)
When a material has (any) two orthogonal planes as planes of material symmetry then that material
is known as Orthotropic Material. It is easy to see that when two orthogonal planes are planes of
material symmetry, the third mutually orthogonal plane is also plane of material symmetry and
Equation (3.26) holds true for this case also.
Note: Unidirectional fibrous composites are an example of orthotropic materials.
The same reduction of number of elastic constants can be derived from the stress strain equivalence
approach. From the first of Equation (3.12) and Equation (3.23) we have
(3.27)
The same can be seen from the stresses on a cube inside such a body with the coordinate systems
shown in Figure 3.3. Figure 3.4 (a) shows the stresses on a cube with the coordinate system x 1 , x 2 ,
x 3 and Figure 3.4 (b) shows stresses on the same cube with the coordinate system .
Comparing the stresses we get the relation as in Equation (3.27).
Now using the stiffness matrix given in Equation (3.20) and comparing the stress equivalence of
Equation (3.27) we get the following:
(3.28)
And
(3.29)
Substituting these in Equation (3.18) the function W reduces again to the form given in Equation
(3.25) for W to be invariant. Finally, we get the reduced stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.26).
Homework:
1. Starting with hyperelastic material, first take x 2 -x 3 plane as plane of material symmetry and
obtain the stiffness matrix. Is this matrix the same as in Equation (3.20) ? Justify your answer.
2. Starting with the stiffness matrix obtained in the above problem, take x 1 -x 3 as an additional
plane of symmetry and obtain the stiffness matrix. Is this matrix the same as in Equation
(3.26)? Justify your answer.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
The Lecture Contains:
Transverse Isotropy
Isotropic Bodies
Homework
References
(3.30)
Now, we have
From this, the strains in transformed coordinate system are given as:
(3.31)
Here, it is to be noted that the shear strains are the tensorial shear strain terms.
(3.32)
(3.33)
Now, let us write the left hand side of the above equation using the matrix as given in Equation
(3.26) and engineering shear strains. In the following we do some rearrangement as
Similarly, we can write the right hand side of previous equation using rotated strain components.
Now, for W to be invariant it must be of the form as in Equation (3.33).
1. If we observe the terms containing and in the first bracket, then we conclude
that is unchanged.
2. Now compare the terms in the second bracket. If we have then the first of
Equation (3.32) is satisfied.
3. Now compare the third bracket. If we have , then the third of Equation (3.32) is
satisfied.
4. Now for the fourth bracket we do the following manipulations. Let us assume that
and is unchanged. Then we write the terms in fourth bracket as
satisfied.
Thus, for transversely isotropic material (in plane x 2 -x 3 ) the stiffness matrix becomes
(3.34)
Thus, there are only 5 independent elastic constants for a transversely isotropic material.
Isotropic Bodies
If the function W remains unaltered in form under all possible changes to other rectangular Cartesian
systems of axes, the body is said to be Isotropic. In this case, W is a function of the strain
invariants. Alternatively, from the previous section, W must be unaltered in form under the
transformations
(3.35)
and
(3.36)
In other words, W when expressed in terms of must be obtained from Equation (3.33) simply by
replacing by . By analogy with the previous section it is seen that for this to be true under the
transformation Equation (3.35). We can write
(3.37)
(3.38)
(3.39)
Now, let us write the left hand side of above equation using the matrix as given in Equation
(3.34) and engineering shear strains. In the following we do some rearrangement as
(3.40)
Similarly, we can write the right hand side of the previous equation using rotated strain components.
Now, for W to be invariant it must be of the form as in Equation (3.39)
1. From the second bracket, if we propose , then we can satisfy the first of Equation
(3.38).
2. From the third bracket, third of Equation (3.38) holds true when
Thus, to satisfy the second of Equation (3.38) we must have . Further, we should
It follows automatically that W is unaltered in form under the transformation in Equation (3.36).
(3.41)
Thus, for an isotropic material there are only two independent elastic constants. It can be verified
that W is unaltered in form under all possible changes to other rectangular coordinate systems, that
is, it is the same function of as it is of when is changed to .
Homework:
1. Starting with the stiffness matrix for transverse isotropic material, take the transformations
about x 1 and x 2 and show that you get the stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.41).
5. CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York, 1998.
References
5. Further reduction with one plane of material symmetry gives 13 independent elastic constants.
These materials are known as monoclinic materials.
6. Additional orthogonal plane of symmetry reduces the number of independent elastic constants
to 9. These materials are known as orthotropic materials. Further, if a material has two
orthogonal planes of symmetry then it is also symmetric about third mutually perpendicular
plane. A unidirectional lamina is orthotropic in nature.
7. For a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent elastic constants. Plane 2-3 is
transversely isotropic for the lamina shown in Figure 3.7.
The interest of this course is unidirectional lamina or laminae and laminate made from stacking of
these unidirectional laminae. Hence, we will introduce the principal material directions for a
unidirectional fibrous lamina. These are denoted by 1-2-3 directions. The direction 1 is along the
fibre. The directions 2 and 3 are perpendicular to the direction 1 and mutually perpendicular to each
other. The direction 3 is along the thickness of lamina. The principal directions for a unidirectional
lamina are shown in Figure 3.7.
Engineering Constants:
The elastic constants which form the stiffness matrix are not directly measured from laboratory tests
on a material. One can measure engineering constants like Youngs modulus, shear modulus and
Poissons ratio from laboratory tests. The relationship between engineering constants and elastic
constants of stiffness matrix is also not straight forward. This relationship can be developed with the
help of relationship between engineering constants and compliance matrix coefficients.
In order to establish the relationship between engineering constants and the compliance coefficients,
we consider an orthotropic material in the principal material directions. If this orthotropic material is
subjected to a 3D state of stress, the resulting strains can be expressed in terms of these stress
components and engineering constants as follows:
(3.43)
represents the shear moduli. G 12 ,G 13 are the axial shear moduli in two orthogonal planes that
contain the fibers.G 23 represents out-of-plane transverse shear modulus. Further, it should be noted
that .
(3.44)
where represents the strain in the direction of applied stress and represents the strain the
associated lateral direction. It should be noted that, in general .
We will mimic some (thought) experiments that we actually do in laboratory to extract these
engineering constants. For example, we find engineering constants of a transversely isotropic lamina .
Experiment 1: The lamina is loaded in traction along the axial direction as shown in Figure 3.8 (a)
and the strains in along three principal directions are recorded as the load is varied. The slope of the
axial stress versus axial strain curve yields the axial Youngs modulus . The ratios
Experiment 2: The lamina is loaded in traction along direction 2. The two views of this loading
case are shown in Figure 3.8 (b). The slope of stress-strain curve in direction 2 gives the in-plane
transverse Youngs modulus . Since, the material is isotropic in 2-3 plane, is also equal .
The strains in all three directions are measured. The ratios give the Poissons
ratios , respectively.
Experiment 3: The lamina is loaded in shear in plane 1-2 as shown in Figure 3.8 (c). The slope of
the in-plane shear stress and engineering shear strain curve gives the shear modulus . Please
note that if we load the lamina in 1-3 plane by shear then also we will get this modulus because the
behaviour of material in shear in these two planes is identical. Thus, by shear loading in plane 1-2
gives .
Experiment 4: The lamina is loaded in shear in 2-3 plane as shown in Figure 3.8(d). The
corresponding shear stress and engineering shear strain curve yields the shear modulus .
Note: We will see the experimental details to measure some of these engineering constants in a
chapter on experimental characterization of lamina, laminates, fibres and matrix materials.
(3.45)
Now compare Equation (3.42) and Equation (3.43) with Equation (3.45). This gives us the
compliance coefficients in terms of engineering constants. The coefficients are given in Equation
(3.46).
(3.46)
It should be noted that like stiffness matrix, the compliance matrix is also symmetric. The compliance
matrix given in Equation (3.45) is shown symmetric.
Note: It is known from our elementary knowledge of linear algebra that inverse of a symmetric matrix
is also a symmetric matrix. Since, the stiffness matrix, which is the inverse of compliance matrix, is
symmetric; the compliance matrix has to be symmetric .
Now, let us derive some more useful relations using the symmetry of compliance matrix. If we
and give two more similar relations. All these relations are given in Equation (3.47).
(3.47)
(3.48)
It is known that for transversely isotropic material (in 2-3 plane) is much greater than and
Thus, from the first of Equation (3.47) one can easily see that is much smaller than
. Further, it is clear from the relation that .
Note: Since value of (and may be of other Poissons ratios) will be small, the readers are
suggested to use appropriate precision level while calculating (in examinations and writing computer
codes) any data involving these coefficients.
We will get the stiffness matrix by inversion of compliance matrix. Equation (3.46) is substituted in
Equation. (3.45) and the resulting equation is inverted to give the stiffness matrix of an orthotropic
material as
(3.51)
where
(3.52)
is the determinant of stiffness matrix in Equation (3.51). We can write the stiffness matrix for
transversely isotropic material with the following substitutions in the stiffness matrix.
Further, from the resulting, one can reduce the constitutive equation for isotropic material with
following substitutions:
Let us look at this condition with physical arguments. For example, consider that only one normal
stress component is applied. Then we can find the corresponding strain component from the
corresponding diagonal entry of the compliance matrix. Thus, we can say that for the strain energy to
be positive definite the diagonal entries of the compliance matrix must be positive. Thus,
(3.53)
In a similar way, it is possible under certain conditions to have a deformation which will give rise to
only one normal strain component. We can find the corresponding stress using the corresponding
diagonal entry in stiffness matrix. For the strain energy produced by this stress component to be
positive the diagonal entry of the stiffness matrix must be positive. Thus, this condition reduces to
(3.54)
and the determinant of the compliance matrix must also be positive. That is,
(3.55)
Now, using the reciprocal relations given in Equation (3.49), the condition in Equation (3.54) can be
expressed as
(3.56)
This condition also justifies that the Poissons ratio greater than unity is feasible for orthotropic
lamina. Poissons ratio greater than unity is sometimes observed in experiments.
The terms inside the brackets are positive. Thus, we can write
(3.57)
This condition shows that all three Poissons ratios cannot have large positive values and that their
product must be less than half. However, if one of them is negative no restriction is applied to
remaining two ratios.
Let us consider the transverse isotropy as a special case. Let us consider transverse isotropy in 2-3
plane. Let
(3.58)
(3.59)
(3.60)
The condition posed by above equation is more stringent than that posed in Equation (3.59). Note
that the quantities and are both positive. Thus, the limits on Poissons ratio in
(3.61)
Further, consider a special case of isotropic material where and . This simplifies
Equation (3.61) to a well known condition
(3.62)
Let us transform the stress and strain components for the case shown in Figure 3.9. Here, xy plane
is rotated about direction z to 1-2 plane. Here, direction z and direction 3 are in same directions, that
is, along the thickness direction of lamina. The direction cosines for this axes transformation are as
given in Equation (2.2). However, these are again given below.
Stress Transformation:
Let us do the stress transformation as given in Equation (2.7). In this equation the primed stress
components denote the component in 123 coordinate system. Using the expanded form of Equation
(2.7) and stress symmetry, let us obtain component of stress
The remaining five stress terms (using stress symmetry) on the left hand side are also obtained in a
similar way. Let us write the final form of the relation as
(3.63)
(3.64)
(3.66)
We know from Equation (2.24) that the tensorial shear strains are half the engineering shear strains.
Thus, in Equation (3.53) we substitute
(3.67)
The other five strain terms (using strain symmetry) on the left hand side are also obtained in a
similar way. Let us write the final form of the relation as
(3.68)
Here, and and is the strain
transformation matrix. Thus, comparing all the terms as in Equation (3.68), we can write as
(3.69)
Note : The order of stress and strain components in Equatjion (3.63) and Equation (3.68) is
important. Some books and research articles follow different orders. The readers are cautioned to
take a note of it.
The corresponding stiffness coefficients are calculated by inversion of the compliance matrix.
Homework
References
(3.70)
Now, we express using Equation (3.63) to transform stresses and Equation (3.68)
to transform strains. Substituting these equations, we get
(3.71)
(3.72)
(3.73)
(3.74)
The final form of the transformed stiffness matrix is given in Equation (3.75).
(3.75)
The individual terms of this matrix are determined using and relation for . The
individual terms are given in Equation (3.76).
The same can be seen from the plane of elastic symmetry considerations in xyz coordinate system.
The given lamina is symmetric only about xy plane. Thus, the transformed stiffness matrix in
Equation (3.75) is consistent with monoclinic material.
Note : Transformed stiffness coefficient terms are fourth order in the sine and cosine functions. It is
very important to use appropriate precision level while calculating (in examinations and writing
computer codes) these coefficients.
(3.76)
(3.79)
(3.80)
Alternately, we can find by inverting the transformed stiffness matrix . Thus, inverting
from Equation (3.73), we get
After carrying out the calculation for , it is easy to give its form as follows
(3.81)
Note that has the same symmetric form as the transformed stiffness matrix.
The individual terms of the compliance matrix are obtained by carrying out multiplication of matrices
(3.82)
2. Most of the fabrication processes of polymer matrix composites have thermal cycles for matrix
curing. A typical cycle involves raising the temperature to a certain level and holding it there
for specified time and bringing it back to room temperature. It is well known that the fibre and
matrix materials have different coefficients of thermal expansion (defined below). This
mismatch produces residual thermal stresses because the fibres and matrix material are
constrained in a composite.
The second reason for the study of thermal effects is the effective properties of the composite
materials.
1. Finding effective thermal properties of the composite theoretically to get an estimate requires
sophisticated mathematical modeling when one considers:
a. Difference in coefficients of thermal expansion of fibre and matrix materials
c. Curing cycle temperature variations. This point is important because for some of the
materials the coefficient of thermal expansion changes with temperature.
2. Finding the effective thermal properties for lamina in global direction with oriented fibres as
shown in Figure 3.9 requires a special attention.
Further, finding these effective properties by laboratory test is also a challenge. Thus, for the various
reasons mentioned above the study of thermal effect is very important. In the following, we develop
a systematic way to handle effective thermal properties of a lamina along global directions.
It is well known that when a material is subjected to thermal gradient, it undergoes a deformation.
The strain due to thermal changes is called thermal strain (denoted by superscript (T)). In general,
the thermal strain is proportional to the temperature change . The constant of proportionality is
called coefficient of thermal expansion. Thus, we can write the thermal strains in principal material
directions for an orthotropic material as
(3.83)
These thermal strains will not produce stresses unless these are constrained. The thermal strains
which do not produce stresses are known as free thermal strains. However, in case of composites
the fibres and matrix are constrained in a lamina and layers are constrained in a laminate. Thus, in
composite the thermal strains produce the thermal stresses.
The thermal strains are given in principal material directions as given in Equation (3.83). Let us
consider that we need to find these strains in a global coordinate system (refer Figure 3.9). We need
to transform them from 123 coordinate system to xyz coordinate system by a rotation about 3-
axis. Thus, similar to Equation (3.68), we can write
(3.84)
(3.85)
where
(3.86)
orthotropic material
On substitution of in the above equation, we get the following individual terms of coefficients
thermal expansion in xyz directions.
(3.87)
Using Equation (3.87) in Equation (3.85), the engineering thermal strains in global coordinates are
given as
(3.88)
Thus, from this equation it should be noted that the transformation of thermal strains in global
coordinates gives normal strain components and a shear strain component in xy plane for an
orthotropic material with and fiber orientations other than .
(3.89)
(3.90)
Equation (3.90) is the basic constitutive equation for thermo-elastic stress analysis.
Using Equation (3.90) and similar to Equation (3.72) we can find the stresses due to thermo-elastic
effects in global directions as,
(3.91)
where
Equation (3.91) is inverted to give the total strains in terms of the mechanical and free thermal
strains as
(3.92)
Effect of Moisture :
The polymer matrix composite materials, during their service can absorb moisture from the
environment. The effect of absorption of moisture is to degrade the various material properties of the
composite. Further, this results in an expansion. It is called hygroscopic expansion. However, this
expansion is again constrained as in thermal expansion. Hence, when dealing with the hygroscopic
expansions, a treatment similar to thermal expansion is used.
The hygroscopic strains are assumed to be proportional to the percentage moisture absorbed,
This percentage is measured in terms of weight of the moisture. The constant of
proportionality, is the coefficient of hygroscopic expansion.
(3.93)
where
(3.94)
denotes the coefficients of hygroscopic expansion in principal material directions. Following a similar
procedure for thermal strains, we can write strains due to hygroscopic expansion in xyz coordinates
as
(3.95)
Thus, comparing Equation (3.85) and Equation (3.95), it is easy to conclude that the coefficients of
hygroscopic expansion will vary similar to the coefficients of thermal expansion as a function of
orientation of fibres.
(3.98)
(3.99)
where
(3.100)
Thus
Approach 2: You can write the expanded form for transformed stiffness and compliance
coefficients in Equation (3.76) and Equation (3.82). However, the readers are suggested to use this
approach only when they are confident of remembering these terms.
Example 3: The coefficients of moisture absorption for T300/5208 composite material are
Solution:
4. Obtain the strain transformation matrix using tensorial shear strains. Further, using this
transformation matrix obtain the transformed stiffness and compliance matrix in the form
similar to Equation (3.75) and Equation (3.81). Compare the new matrices and comment on
the observations with justifications.
5. Calculate the stiffness and compliance coefficients for following transversely isotropic
materials given in Table 3.1.
Find:
7. Why are the thermal effects important in composite materials? Explain in detail.
10. Search literature to get the coefficients of moisture absorption for at least two composite
materials and plot its variation between
11. Write a computer code to read the properties of a transversely isotropic material and calculate
all the terms of stiffness and compliance matrix. Verify your results with the results given in
Example 1. Then use this code to get the stiffness and compliance matrices of T300/BSL914C
Epoxy and S-glass/MY750/ HY917/DY063 Epoxy.
12. Add another module to the code written for above problem to calculate the transformed
stiffness and compliance matrices. Plot all the coefficients between .
Compare the corresponding terms of these materials and comment.
Thermal Effects
Moisture Effect
Examples
Homework
References
(4.1)
(4.2)
Thus, it is easy to see that the two out of plane shear strains are zero. We can write
these strains using Equation (4.1) as
(4.3)
The out of plane normal strain is expressed using Equation (4.1) and Equation (4.2) as
(4.4)
In plane components of strain for a plane stress state can be written using Equation (4.1) as
(4.5)
From 3D constitutive equation (Equation (3.72)) for the transformed stiffness, we can write as
(4.6)
From this equation, we can get the out of plane transverse normal strain as
(4.7)
Thus, the out of plane normal strain is expressed in terms of in-plane strain components and known
stiffness coefficients.
(4.9)
(4.10)
(4.11)
Note: It is very important to note that the transformed reduced stiffness terms for plane stress, ,
are not simply the corresponding terms, taken from the 3D stiffness matrix. This should be clear
from the fact that the inverse of a matrix is different from that of a . This can easily be
seen from Equation (4.11). The readers should easily understand that when terms are used to
define a constitutive equation, then it is a reduced transformed constitutive equation.
Let us recall the constitutive equation for orthotropic material in principal directions.We can write the
constitutive equation using compliance matrix as (Equation (3.45))
(4.12)
We have planar state of stress for orthotropic lamina. Then we have out of plane transverse stress
components zero, that is,
(4.13)
Let us write the out of plane transverse shear strains using this information and Equation (4.12) as
(4.14)
(4.17)
We have the 3D constitutive equation using stiffness matrix in principal material directions as
(Equation . (3.26))
(4.18
We have from the condition of plane stress problem that . Thus, using Equation. (4.18), we
can write
(4.19)
(4.20)
(4.21)
Putting the expression for from Equation. (4.20) in above equation, we get
(4.22)
(4.23)
(4.24)
Note: The readers should again understand the difference between and terms. They are not
the same.
The inversion of Equation (4.23) should give us Equation (4.17), that is,
(4.26)
Let us write the compliance and stiffness matrices using engineering constants. It is easy to see that
the individual entries of the compliance matrix in plane stress problem are same as the 3D
compliance. Thus, we write for the plane stress problem the compliance entries as
(4.27)
Here, we have used the property that compliance matrix is symmetric, that is, . Using
, we can develop the reciprocal relationship for 2D case as
(4.28)
Note: It is easy to see for a plane stress problem of an orthotropic material that only four of the five
material constants are independent.
We can write the individual terms of reduced stiffness matrix in principal material directions by using
Equation (4.26) and Equation (4.27) as
(4.29)
Note: For a transversely isotropic material there is no reduction of the number of independent
constants for plane stress problem.
One can write the constitutive equation in material coordinates, using Equation (3.42), Equation
(3.43) and introducing the corresponding reduction in out of plane direction as
(4.30)
It is easy to write the compliance coefficients in Equation (4.27) from these relations. Further, we can
write the above relations in inverted form as
(4.31)
These relations lead to individual reduced stiffness coefficients given in Equation (4.29).
(4.33)
Similarly, we can write the strain transformation equation in the following form.
(4.34)
where is the transformation matrix for strain tensor. We can find this matrix using Equation
(3.69) and the above relations as
(4.35)
Note: The transformation matrices and are not symmetric. There is a difference of factor 2
in two entries of these matrices.
Note: The transformation matrices and can be inverted using following relation
(4.36)
Note: We have used the same matrix notation for stress and strain transformation matrices (
and ) in 3D case and plane stress case. However, the readers should note the corresponding
differences.
(4.39)
(4.40)
(4.41)
Note: is a symmetric matrix. Further, it is a fully populated matrix with non zero
coefficients.
Thus, using Equation (4.33), Equation (4.35 in Equation (4.39), we can write the individual terms in
expanded form as
(4.42)
Note: Reduced stiffness coefficients are fourth order in the sine and cosine functions.
Note: are very important. They define the coupling between in-plane normal and shear
responses. Figure 4.1 shows response of an isotropic and orthotropic material under traction. The
behaviour of an orthotropic lamina loaded along fibre direction and perpendicular to fibre direction is
essentially similar to an isotropic material. However, for an off axis lamina, the behaviour clearly
shows the coupling between normal and shear terms.
The transformed plane stress constitutive equation can also be given in inverted form of Equation
(4.40) as
(4.43)
where
(4.44)
Using from Equation (4.33) and from Equation (4.35) in the above equation, we get the
individual coefficients of transformed reduced compliance matrix as
(4.45)
Note: The same notation has been used for compliance matrices in principal directions and
transformed directions in 2D and 3D. This is because the corresponding terms are identical.
However, for the stiffness coefficients these are different in 2D and 3D.
Note: One can see the difference between the stiffness values by algebra involved. The inverse of
the compliance matrix for plane stress case is different from the inverse of the matrix for
3D case.
Transformation of the thermal strains to the strains in global coordinates gives
(4.47)
(4.48)
or
(4.49)
Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equation:
The total strain due to mechanical and thermal loading in principal material directions is given as
(4.50)
(4.51)
(4.52)
(4.53)
Here, denotes the coefficient of hygroscopic expansion in principal material directions for
planar problem and denotes the amount by percentage weight of moisture absorbed.
Now let us transform the hygroscopic strains in global coordinate system as
(4.55)
(4.56)
where
(4.57)
It is clearly seen from Equation (4.48) and Equation (4.57) that and behave in a
similar way.
Hygro-Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equations:
When hygral and thermal effects are present along with mechanical strains, then the total strain in
principal material direction is given as
(4.58)
Using Hookes low for mechanical strain and solving for stress the hygro-thermal constitutive
equation, we get
(4.59)
(4.60)
where and are as given in Equation (4.48) and Equation (4.57), respectively.
Now, calculate and as from Equation (4.33), Equation (4.35) and Equation (4.36) with
and .
and
Example 4.2: In the above example, if the state of strain at a point in principal material directions is
, then find the corresponding state of stress in global directions for fibre
orientation of .
Solution:
We calculate the strains in global directions as
And
Thus,
And
Example 4.3: In Example 1, the coefficients of thermal expansion in principal material directions are
. Calculate the stresses developed due to temperature rise of
in principal material directions as well as in global material directions.
Solution:
Stresses in principal material directions due to thermal strains alone are given as
Here, . Thus,
6. For fibre orientation and obtain matrix for materials given in Table 3.1.
7. The matrix for a composite with fibre orientation of is given as
orientation of fibres between . Plot the variation for materials given in Table
3.1.
10. Write a computer code to plot the variation of thermal and hygroscopic expansion coefficients
with fibre orientation between for T300/5208 composite.
Homework
References
Here we are going to obtain engineering constants for any off axis lamina as a function of
engineering constants of that lamina in principal material directions and fibre orientation. This can be
done with the help of lamina constitutive equation with appropriate one dimensional state of stress.
Thus, for a given state of stress in global directions we can find the strains in global directions from
this equation.
(4.63)
In the above equation, is written using compliance terms in principal material directions as
(4.64)
Further, it can be writing compliance terms in principal directions using engineering constants doing
some rearrangements as
(4.65)
From this expression it is easy to see that the modulus when and when
. The variation of the modulus with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is
shown in Figure 4.3. The variation of the modulus for both positive and negative fibre
orientations is identical in nature.
Figure 4.3: Variation of axial modulus with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy
The axial Poissons ratio can also be obtained for above loading condition. This Poissons ratio
is defined as
(4.66)
(4.67)
Further, expressing the compliance terms in above equation in terms of engineering constants we
can write
(4.68)
(4.69)
Thus, from Equation (4.5) for the above loading, we can write
(4.70)
(4.71)
From this expression, we can see that the modulus when and when
. The variation of the modulus with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is
shown in Figure 4.5. The variation of the modulus , similar to the variation of , for both positive
and negative fibre orientations is identical in nature. Further, it can be observed that the curve for
is shifted by to that of .
The other Poissons ratio can be obtained from the loading condition given in Figure 4.4. Let us
define this Poissons ratio as
(4.72)
(4.73)
(4.74)
The fibre orientation dependence of axial Poissons ratio and the other Poissons ratio for AS4/3501-
6 Epoxy is shown in Figure 4.6.
(4.76)
(4.77)
The variation of with fibre orientation between to for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is
shown in Figure 4.8. From this figure it can be seen that shear modulus is maximum when
. At the value of shear modulus is
(4.78)
Note : When the material is isotropic, that is and , then the above expression
reduces to the familiar relation
(4.79)
The minimum value of shear modulus is seen when the lamina is loaded in shear in principal
material directions and its value becomes
(4.80)
Note: It is very important to note that the shear modulus of the lamina is a minimum when lamina is
in principal directions and a maximum when fibre orientation is or . Further, the behavior
of a lamina under same pure shear for fibre orientation is significantly different from that of
lamina with fibre orientation of . The physical significance of this phenomenon is explained in
greater details in the later section.
(4.81)
where denotes the axial normal strains, that is or , and denotes the in-plane
engineering shear strain. For this case, the state of stress would be and .
Similarly, the coefficients of mutual influence of the second kind are defined as
(4.82)
The state of stress for this case could be either and or and
.
Now, let us obtain expressions for the coefficients of mutual influence of the first kind. We have
(4.83)
(4.84
Now, we will obtain expressions for the coefficients of mutual influence of the second kind. For the
loading shown in Figure 4.2, we will get
(4.85)
which will be simplified and expressed in terms of engineering constants in principle material
directions and fibre orientation as
(4.86)
Similarly, for the loading shown in Figure 4.4, we get the remaining coefficient of mutual influence as
(4.87)
The variation of the coefficients of mutual influence of the first kind and second kind for AS4/3501-6
In the case when fibres are oriented at , either tensile or compressive normal stress is aligned
along the fibres, thus resulting in higher shear stiffness at . However, when the lamina is
loaded in pure shear in principal material directions (as shown in Figure 4.11), the equivalent stress
in fibre is neither pure normal tensile stress nor pure normal pure compressive stress. Thus, it
results in lower shear stiffness, that is
.
It is well known that fibres are good in traction and weak in compressive loading. Thus, it is desirable
from designing point of view that the shear loading should results in an equivalent loading in which
the fibres are subjected to tensile normal stress. This kind of shear loading of an off-axis lamina will
ensure the higher shear strength of the lamina. In case of off-axis lamina the fibres are in
pure tensile for their positive shear loading. Thus, it results into the highest shear strength.
The loading of an off-axis lamina in pure shear should be, in general, positive shear. This is one of
the important design consideration.
Now, for
1/MPa
Using direct equations given above can also be used but this should be done only when one is confident of
remembering these relations in terms engineering constants in principal material directions.
Homework:
1. Obtain the lamina engineering constants for materials given in Table 3.1 for fibre orientation
of
2. Write a computer code to plot the variation of all lamina engineering constants and
coefficients of mutual influence against the fibre orientation from . Further,
plot the variations for the materials given in Table 3.1 simultaneously and compare their
behaviour and comment on key observations.
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
IS Sokolnikoff. Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, First Edition, McGraw Hill
Publications, New York.
PD Soden, MJ Hinton, AS Kaddour. Lamina properties, lay-up configurations and
loading conditions for a range of fibre-reinforced composite laminates. Composite
Science and Technology, 1998;58:1011-1022.
Resultant Moments
Homework
References
2. The stacking sequence gives the orientation of fibres with respect to global axis in degrees.
4. The distinct layers or groups of layers are separated with a slash symbol, /.
6. The symmetric laminate is designated by subscript S on the square bracket, that is, by
.
To help the readers to understand the designation of stacking sequence of laminates, in the
following Table 5.1, some laminate sequences, their description and total number of laminae in that
laminate are given. A laminate with coordinate system and ply numbering is shown in Figure 5.1(a).
Note : In some of the books on composites and research articles the coordinate systems used have
z direction positive in upward direction. In that case the stacking of layers in a laminate starts from
the bottom. Accordingly, the ply top and bottom coordinate designation also changes. However, the
end results remain unchanged.
Table 5.1: Sample laminate stacking sequence notations and their description
and
layers
Laminate Coordinate System:
The coordinate systems for global and principal material directions for laminae are same as given
earlier. Here, we introduce the coordinates in the thickness direction to get the z coordinate of the
top and bottom of each ply. For example, the bottom coordinate of the kth ply is and the top
coordinate of the ply is . Thus, the bottom coordinate of the first ply is and the top coordinate of top
ply is . The total thickness of the laminate is taken as 2H. Thus, the bottom most coordinate of the
laminate is H and top most coordinate is H. The lamina thickness coordinate notations are shown
in Figure 5.1(b).
2. Each lamina is considered to be a homogeneous layer such that its effective properties are
known.
5. The laminate deforms according to the Kirchhoff - Love assumptions for bending and
stretching of thin plates (as assumed in classical plate theory). The assumptions are:
a. The normals to the mid-plane remain straight and normal to the midplane even after
deformation.
The classical laminate theory is abbreviated as CLT. This theory is known as the classical laminated
plate theory and abbreviated as CLPT.
(5.1)
Now, from the figure it is easy to find the slope of the deformed mid-plane as
(5.2)
Since, the deformations in this theory considered are very small, we can write
(5.3)
Now consider a generic point P on the mid-plane which is located at distance z from the mid-plane.
After deformation, the displacement of this point along x direction can be given from the Figure 5.2
as
(5.4)
Similarly, for the deformation in yz plane we can express the slope of the deformed mid-plane as .
Thus, the displacement of a generic point along y axis can be given as
(5.5)
Thus, the complete displacement field for a generic point in the laminate according to the classical
laminate theory is given below:
(5.6)
Second Approach:
The second assumption is that the length of the normal to the mid-plane does not change even after
deformation results into zero transverse normal strain. Thus,
(5.7)
Thus, from this expression it is clear that is a function of and coordinates only. Thus, for any
given location we can write the transverse deflection component as
(5.8)
From the first assumption of the Kirchhoff-Love theory that the normals remain straight and normal
to mid-plane even after deformation, results into zero transverse shear strains. Thus,
.
Using the definitions of small strain, we can write the above equation as
(5.9)
(5.10)
where is a constant of integration which is function of x and y alone. Similarly, from the
second of Equation (5.9), we can get
(5.11)
Thus, Equations (5.8), (5.10) and (5.11) lead to the displacement field as in Equation (5.6).
(5.13)
The terms and are the bending moment curvatures and is the twisting moment
curvature.
Note: It is clear from Equation (5.6) and Equation (5.13) that the midplane strains and the
Note: From Equation (5.13), we see that the strains are continuous through the thickness of
laminate and they vary linearly.
The stresses at any location can be calculated from the strains and lamina constitutive relations. It is
assumed that the lamina properties are known. Hence, the constitutive equation for a kth lamina is
known, that is, the reduced stiffness matrices (in principal material directions and global directions)
are known. Thus, the stresses in k th lamina can be given as
(5.14)
Now, using Equation (5.13), we can write the stresses as
(5.15)
In these equations, the strains are given at a z location where the stresses are required. It should be
noted that the strains are continuous and vary linearly through the thickness. If we look at the stress
distribution through the thickness it is clear that the stresses are not continuous through the
thickness, because the stiffness is different for different laminae in thickness direction. In a lamina
the stress varies linearly. The slope of this variation in a lamina depends upon its moduli. However,
at the interface of two adjacent laminae there is a discontinuity in the stresses. The same thing is
depicted in Figure 5.3 with three layers.
Note: The reduced transformed stiffness matrix fork th lamina used in Equation (5.15) is the
same as in the chapter on Planar Constitutive Equations. There we considered the state of stress as
planar and the transverse normal strain was not zero. However, in this laminate theory we have
plane stress assumption as well as all transverse strains are zero (plane strain conditions as well).
Thus, we have an anomaly of transverse normal strains in using Equation (5.14). However, we will
use this reduced transformed stiffness for a lamina. Inspite of this anomaly, the laminate theory
works well (within its own scope). A detailed study on this issue can be seen in literature. However,
this issue is out of scope of this course and will not be dealt with here.
(5.18)
Now recall that the midplane strains and the curvatures are independent of z
location. The reduced transformed stiffness matrix is function of thickness and constant over a
given lamina thickness. Now we can replace the integration over the laminate thickness as sum of
the integrations over individual lamina thicknesses. Thus, Equation (5.18) can be written as
(5.19)
Here, is the total number of layers in the laminate. This equation can be written as
(5.20)
where
(5.21)
The matrix represents the in-plane stiffness, that is, it relates the in-plane forces with mid-plane
strains and the matrix represents the bending stiffness coupling, that is, it relates the in-plane
forces with mid-plane curvatures.
It should be noted that the matrices and are symmetric as the matrix is also symmetric
for each lamina in the laminate.
The resultant in-plane forces are shown in Figure 5.4.
(5.24)
Now, with the same justification as given for Equation (5.19), we can write the above equation as
(5.25)
(5.26)
where
(5.27)
The matrix represents the bending stiffness, that is, it relates resultant moments with mid-plane
curvatures. Again, the matrix is also symmetric. Further, it is important to note that the matrix
relates the resultant moments with mid-plane curvatures as well.
5. Derive the expressions for resultant inplane forces and bending moments for laminate
Homework
References
This equation is the fundamental equation in classical laminate theory and is known as constitutive
equation. This equation can be written in expanded form as
(5.29)
It should be noted that the matrices A, B and D are symmetric. Hence, the matrix in above equation
is also a symmetric matrix. The inverse constitutive relations of Equation (5.28) can be written as
(5.30)
The matrix is obtained by using individual relations for and as follows. We write
for and as
(5.31)
(5.32)
(5.33)
(5.35)
The above equation is called as partially inverted constitutive equation for laminate. From the second
of the above equation we write
(5.36)
(5.37)
Let us define
(5.38)
Combining Equations (5.37) and (5.36) and using the definitions in Equation (5.38), we can write
(5.39)
This equation is the fully inverted form of laminate constitutive equation. Using Equation (5.34) in
Equation (5.38) we can write the above equation in terms of A, B and D matrices as
(5.40)
(5.41)
The full matrix is symmetric. This also follows from the fact that this is an inverse of a
symmetric matrix, that is , and the inverse of a symmetric matrix is also a symmetric matrix.
Equation (5.28) and Equation (5.39) are very important equations in laminate analysis. These
equations relate the mid-plane strains and curvatures with resultant in-plane forces and moments
and vice versa.
Consider two layers r and s which have the same material, angle and thickness and are located
symmetrically with respect to the mid-plane as shown in Figure 5.7. For these layers we can write the
relation about the reduced stiffness matrix entries as
(5.28)
Balanced laminate
(5.43)
(5.44)
(5.45)
From this derivation it is very clear that the contribution of any pair of symmetric layers to B matrix is
always zero. Thus, the B matrix is zero for symmetric laminates. However, one can show that the
matrices A and D are not zero for symmetric laminates.
(5.46)
(5.47)
This equation is consistent with Equation (5.39) through Equation (5.40). Setting in
Equation (5.40), we get
(5.48)
(5.49)
Note: For symmetric laminates B matrix is zero. It means that there is no coupling between
extension and bending action. Thus, the applied stresses will produce only in-plane and shear
strains and it will not produce any curvatures. Thus, it is easy to understand that the mid-plane
strains will be the strains in each ply.
(5.50)
For symmetric laminates, the uncoupling between extension and bending makes the analysis of
laminates simpler. This is very useful because during thermal cooling down in the processing of such
laminates there will not be any twisting due thermal loads.
(5.51)
Angle-Ply Laminates:
A laminate is called angle-ply laminate if it has plies of the same thickness and material and are
oriented at and . For example is shown in Figure 5.6(c).
For angle-ply laminates the terms are zero. This can be justified by that fact that
and have the term mn. Due to this term and have opposite signs for layers with
and fibre orientation. Since the thicknesses and materials of these layers are same, by the
definition the terms are zero for the laminate.
Note: For angle-ply laminates the following relations are very useful in computing and .
(5.52)
Anti-symmetric Laminates:
A laminate is called anti-symmetric when the material and thickness of the plies are same above and
below the mid-plane but the orientation of the plies at same distance above and below the mid-plane
have opposite signs. For example, is shown in Figure 5.6(d).
For anti-symmetric laminates the terms . The proof is left to the
readers as an exercise.
Balanced Laminates:
A laminate is called balanced laminate when it has pairs of plies with same thickness and material
and the angles of plies are and . However, the balanced laminate can also have layers
oriented at and . For this laminate also are zero. It should be noted that angle-ply
laminates are balanced laminates. For example, is shown in Figure
5.6(e).
For example,
Quasi-Isotropic Laminates:
A laminate is called quasi-isotropic when its extensional stiffness matrix behaves like an isotropic
material. This requires that , and . Further, this
extensional stiffness matrix is independent of orientation of layers in laminate. This requires a
laminate with equal thickness layers and N equal angles between adjacent fibre orientations.
The N equal angles, between the fibre orientations in this case can be given as
(5.53)
The quasi-isotropic laminate with this construction for N=3, 4 and 6 will have fibre orientations as
shown in Figure 5.8.
It should be noted that the isotropy in these laminates is in-plane only. The matrices B and D may
not behave like an isotropic material. Hence, such laminates are quasi-isotropic in nature.
that is,
which gives
and
which gives,
that is,
Now we calculate
That results in .
Thus,
Figure 5.9: Example problems (a) Example 5.1 laminate (b) Example
5.2 laminate
Figure 5.10: Example problems (a) Example 5.3 laminate (b) Example
5.4 laminate
Thus,
Note: In this example, the middle two layers of 1 mm thickness can be treated as one layer of
layer with 2 mm thickness. The A, B and D matrices should be the same. The readers are suggested
to check this.
Solution: The coordinates for this laminate is shown in Figure 5.10(b). Here,
. is the same as in Example 5.1. for and
are the same as in Example 5.3.
This gives,
A matrix is calculated as
This gives us
Matrix B is calculated as
Thus,
which gives,
Figure 5.11: Example problem 5.5, (a) Actual laminate (b) Equivalent laminate
is given as
is calculated as
Thus,
Now, the partially inverted constitutive equation for laminate can be written as
This gives
Thus,
The strains are same in all layers. However, the stresses in each layer will be different as their
stiffnesses are different.
Now, let us find the strains and stresses in principal material directions as well for these laminae.
Let us transform the strains in layer as
6. Show that for a symmetric laminate there is no coupling between extension and bending
responses.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
a. Antisymmetric laminate
b. Cross-ply
c. Cross-ply symmetric
f. Quasi-isotropic
g. Specially orthotropic
9. For the composite material T300/5208, calculate the and for the following
laminates. The thickness of each lamina is 0.1 mm.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10. For the above laminate sequences calculate the compliance relation (for midplane strains and
curvatures). Develop a computer code for this.
11. Using the code developed in exercise (10), verify the solutions given for Example 5.6 and
Example 5.7.
(5.54)
(5.55)
(5.56)
(5.57)
(5.58)
(5.59)
(5.61)
(5.62)
(5.63)
(5.64)
(5.65)
From Equation (5.61) and Equation (5.65), we can write for Equation (5.64) as
(5.66)
Thus
(5.69)
and (5.70)
(5.71)
(5.72)
(5.73)
Let us define the coefficient of mutual influence for the loading in Equation (5.70) as
(5.76)
(5.77)
and (5.78)
Thus, for this loading we can write from Equation. (5.59) as
(5.79)
(5.80)
(5.81)
(5.83)
We have reciprocal relations for lamina. Similarly, we can have reciprocal relations for laminate as
well.
(5.84)
(5.85)
Thus, combining Equation (5.83) and Equation (5.84), we get the required reciprocal relation for
laminate as
(5.86)
(5.88)
(5.89)
(5.90)
(5.91)
(5.92)
(5.93)
In a similar way, one can show that the other flexural moduli can be given by following relations.
(5.94)
Further, it can be shown that the reciprocal relation also holds true for flexural Poissons ratios as
(5.95)
Now we have
Now,
b.
c.
d.
e.
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman. Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. New York, 1980.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press Boca Raton, New York, 1997
PD Soden, MJ Hinton, AS Kaddour. Lamina properties, lay-up configurations and
loading conditions for a range of fibre-reinforced composite laminates. Composite
Science and Technology, 1998, Vol. 58, pp. 1011-1022.
Homework
References
(5.97)
Recalling the development of classical laminate theory with the use of Equation (5.21), we write
(5.98)
Let us define
(5.99)
as the effective laminate thermal forces per unit length. Thus, with this definition we can write
Equation (5.97) as
(5.100)
(5.101)
Let us define
(5.102)
as the effective laminate thermal moments per unit length. Thus, with this definition we can write
Equation (5.101) as
(5.103)
(5.104)
(5.105)
(5.107)
(5.108)
(5.109)
(5.110)
It is known that the and are constant in each lamina in thickness direction. Thus, the
integration over thickness can be simplified as the summation over laminae thicknesses as
(5.111)
Figure 5.12 shows the variation of for laminate along with of layer for for
AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material from Soden et al [4]. Similarly, Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.14 show the
variation of and .
From these figures it is seen that these coefficients vary from positive to negative values. Further, it
is observed that the coefficient of thermal expansion depends upon stacking sequence. This fact is
very important from laminate designing point of view where it is used in an environment with large
thermal gradient. One can choose a laminate sequence for which a coefficient of thermal expansion
is zero.
From Equation (5.109) and Equation (5.110) for a uniform temperature change, the equivalent
thermal force is written as
(5.112)
(5.115)
where,
(5.116)
is defined as the resultant in-plane forces per unit length due to hygral strains.
In a similar way, we can give the resultant moments as
(5.117)
where,
(5.118)
is defined as resultant moments per unit length due to hygral strains. Combining Equation (5.116)
and Equation (5.118), we write
(5.119)
(5.120)
(5.123)
(5.124)
(5.125)
It is known that the and are constant in each lamina in thickness direction. Thus, the
integration over thickness can be simplified as summation over laminae thicknesses as
(5.126)
Combining Equation (5.124) and Equation (5.125) we can get the effective hygral force as
(5.127)
Figure 5.15 shows the variation of for laminate along with of a layer of for
T300/5208 material from Pipes et al [5]. Similarly, Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.16 show the variation of
and .
(5.130)
(5.131)
(5.132)
(5.134)
(5.135)
where,
and
Now, multiply the first of Equation (5.133) with z and integrate with respect to z to get
(5.136)
Now recalling that at and we can write for the third term in Equation
(5.136) as
and
(5.138)
Now putting Equation (5.137) and Equation (5.138) in Equation (5.135) we get
(5.139)
Note that this equation is identical with the homogeneous plate theory. However, in these equations
the definition of the resultants is different.
One can express the moment resultants in terms of A, B and D matrices and the derivatives of mid-
plane displacements as given below.
(5.140)
(5.141)
(5.142)
Now we have
which gives,
Now we calculate effective thermal forces for fictitious thermal change of . In the thermal force
calculation we have assumed that the middle two layers are combined to form one layer of 2 mm
thickness.
which gives,
Example 5.11: Material properties for T300/5208 material are given here [Error! Reference source not
found.]. Calculate the laminate coefficients of hygral expansion for laminate with each layer of 1
mm thickness.
And
Now we calculate effective thermal forces for fictitious hygral change of . In the hygral force
calculation we have assumed that the middle two layers are combined to form one layer of 2 mm
thickness
which gives,
The coefficients of thermal expansion in global directions for and layers are
and
which becomes,
The total strains at the top of the laminate, that is, at in lamina is
We calculate the mechanical strains by subtracting the thermal strains from total strains.
5. Derive the expressions for resultant in-plane forces and moments for a laminate with hygro-
thermal effects.
7. Calculate the laminate coefficients of thermal expansion for the following laminates of
AS4/3501-6 Epoxy from Soden et al [4]. Take thickness of each layer as 1 mm.
a.
b.
c.
d.
8. Calculate the thermal residual stresses for a temperature change of at the top and
bottom of the following laminates of AS4/3501-6 Epoxy. (Write a computer code for this
problem. Repeat the Example 5.12).
a.
b.
9. Calculate the laminate coefficients of hygral expansion for laminate sequences in exercise
example 7 with T300/5208 material as in Example 5.11. Take thickness of each layer as 1
mm.
Defects in Composites
Homework
References
5. Fatigue life
6. Bending
7. Corrosion resistance
8. Impact resistance
9. Resistance to lightening
However, the list is in-exhaustive with many such criteria. In general, failure is understood as
complete de-functioning of the structure.
In case of composites, the failure of a lamina or laminate needs special attention. In case of
laminates there are a number of local failures before it completely breaks into two or more pieces.
The local level failure is called as damage. In case of fibrous composites the term local refers to
the individual constituent phases fibre and matrix. Thus, damage in case of fibrous composites is a
micro level event.
It is important to note that the ultimate failure (rupture/breaking) of the laminate takes place by
gradual accumulation of damage. In turn, this is manifested at the lamina or laminate level by some
form of failure. Thus, the first failure in laminates does not mean the final failure. The
development of additional local failures with increasing loads or time is termed as damage
accumulation. The terms damage growth and damage propagation are equivalently used for
damage accumulation. The branch of mechanics which deals with the study of initiation and
accumulation of damage until and including complete rupture is called as damage mechanics.
In this lecture we are going to see the fibre-matrix level failure mechanisms in detail. The failure at
lamina/laminate or macro-level is the ultimate result of the local failures. Thus, the understanding of
these mechanisms is a key point in the development of a reliable and accurate failure theory for
laminated composites. Further, this understanding also helps in developing new materials with higher
strength.
7) Wrinkles
There are two main sources which can introduce defects and/or damage in a composite. These two
sources are:
The defects that can occur during fabrication or processing are listed below:
2. Cut fibres
13. Tool drop causing low energy impact which results in impact damage
The defects that can occur during in-field or service are listed below:
1. Shock
4. Exposure to radiations
5. Bacterial degradation
6. Vibrations
8. Tool drop
10. Corrosion
1) Fibre Fracture/Breaking:
The fibre breaks into two or more pieces along its length when the axial tensile stress (or strain) in
the fibre exceeds the axial strength (or maximum allowable strain) of the fibre. This kind of fracture
occurs in brittle fibres. Such fractures are more catastrophic in nature than other modes of fibre
failure.
The fibre fracture may also take place in shearing when the shear stress or strain exceeds the
maximum allowable stress or strain.
The fibre fracture is depicted in Figure 6.1(a).
This type of failure occurs when the axial load on the fibre is compressive in nature. The axial
compressive stress causes the fibre to buckle. This form of fibre failure is also called as fibre kinking.
The critical stress at which the kinking takes place is function of material properties of fibre and
matrix properties and the distribution of fibres in the matrix. In general, the fibre kinking first starts at
the site of fibre misalignment or local defects.
It is seen that the kinking of fibres takes place in a sharply defined region. This region is called as
kink band. In general, the kink band is oriented at an angle with respect to fibre direction.
This mechanism is one of the key failure mechanisms for laminates under compression. This failure
mechanism triggers the other failure mechanisms leading to a complex and inter-related
mechanisms.
3) Fibre Bending:
The bending of fibre can take place under flexural load. The bending of fibres also depends upon the
properties of fibre and matrix along with the fibre arrangement.
The fibre bending is shown in Figure 6.1(c).
4) Fibre Splitting:
The fibre fails in this mode when the transverse or hoop stresses in the fibre exceeds the maximum
allowable value. Further, this can also happen when these stresses in the interface/interphase region
(region in matrix very close to the fibre) exceed the maximum allowable stress. The fibre splitting is
elucidated in Figure 6.1(d).
The hoop stresses can also cause the radial cracking of the fibre. This type of cracking is seen in
some of the fibres. The radial cracking of a fibre is shown in Figure 6.1(e).
It is generally seen that the matrix cracks develop along the preferred directions in unidirectional
lamina. The matrix cracks which are parallel to the fibre direction cause significant modulus
degradation whereas the matrix cracks which are perpendicular to the fibre direction cause less
degradation in modulus. The first mode of damage is very critical as one of them causes significant
degradation. The second mode can go undetected sometimes. This is very dangerous from safety
point of view. For example, for gas pipes leakage is an important criterion. If such damage is not
detectable, it can lead to a catastrophe. This damage is shown in Figure 6.2(a), (b).
When the in-plane transverse stresses in matrix are tensile in nature, the weaker interface between
fibre and matrix is broken. A crack in the matrix region at this location is initiated. This crack grows
along the fibre length. This leads to the debonding of the interphase between fibre and matrix. This
mode of damage is also called transverse fibre debonding. This damage is shown in Figure
6.2(c).
When the fibres break the interface close to the tip of broken fibre, acts as a site of stress
concentration. The interface may then fail, leading to debonding of the fibre from matrix.
The interface failure causing debonding (as in fibre breaking and interfacial debonding in above
case) from the matrix may act like as a stress concentration site for the in-plane transverse tensile
stress. When this stress exceeds the limiting stress in matrix, it leads to through thickness transverse
crack in the matrix.
The matrix cracks formed (as in matrix cracking case above) may terminate at fibre interface at low
strains, while, at high strains, the stress at the crack tip may exceed the fracture stress of the fibres,
leading fibre failure.
The fibre fracture or fibre failure due to matrix cracking may cause the matrix crack to propagate as
macro-crack under opening mode until it hits an interface. The shear stresses may cause its
propagation in sliding mode leading to a progressive failure of the interface.
Causes of Delamination:
Delamination can occur due to variety of reasons. The situations which can lead to delamination
initiation and its growth are explained below.
a) Manufacturing Defects
This is the most common reason for existence of delaminations in a laminate. Improper laying of
laminae, insufficient curing temperature; pressure and duration of curing, air pockets and inclusions
are some of the reasons which lead the manufacturing defects causing delamination.
The interface is weaker in transverse strength as compared to the layers. Hence, its failure is
dominated by the transverse stresses. The interface generally fails under tensile load applied normal
to it (see Figure 6.5(a)). Also, the delamination can take place due to compressive stresses in its
inplane direction causing buckling, which in turn, causes delamination.
The inplane loads applied to angle ply laminate can cause delamination in it. This is because the
bending-stretching coupling can give rise to transverse stresses in the interface. A schematic
illustration of how axial tensile loading of angle ply laminates cause rotation of the plies is shown in
Figure 6.5(b). This rotation of the plies generates the interlaminar shear stresses, which is one of the
crucial factors in delamination.
Note: The Inter-laminar stresses are the stresses in the interface between two adjacent layers. The
existence to these stresses is shown in various references. Further, these stresses can be very high
locally depending upon various situations. We will also see the existence of these stresses in a later
chapter.
c) Laminate Geometry
The geometry of the laminate can lead to a three dimensional state of stress locally in the interface
leading to high interlaminar stresses. Some of the geometries of the laminate and structures are
shown below in which delamination damage will be a major damage mode.
i. Free Edge:
The free edges of the laminate have very high transverse normal and shear
stresses. It is shown that significant interlaminar stresses are induced in regions near the
laminate free edges. Interlaminar stresses near the free edges can be controlled to an extent
through the choice of materials, fibre orientations, stacking sequence, layer thickness and the
use of functionally graded materials. However, when free edges are present, interlaminar
stresses can be completely eliminated through the use of a homogeneous material, locally.
The delamination shown in Figure 6.4, infact, is an edge delamination.
ii. Notch:
Notch in the laminates acts like an external crack giving rise to high three dimensional stress
state in the vicinity of the notch (See Figure 6.5(c)).
iii. Cut-out:
Cutouts are inevitable in structures. Cutouts are made to pass electric wires; fluid passage as
in the wings, doors and windows in the fuselage of an air vehicle. These are, especially in
aerospace vehicles, made also to reduce the weight of the component. The cutout boundaries
act like free edges leading to significant transverse stresses. This is one of the most common
site for onset of delamination. A laminate with cutout is shown in Figure 6.5(d).
v. Bonded Joints:
Sometimes laminates are bonded together using resin. Improper bonding leads to weaker
joints. When such weak joints are subjected to serve loading conditions delamination can
occur. A bonded joint in composite is shown in Figure 6.5(f).
vii. Doublers:
These are needed due to geometric or functional requirements in the structures. In this case a
laminate is split into two or more set of laminae (or vice a versa). Thus, at the bifurcation
laminae (or where the laminae join together to form laminate) give rise to high stresses. These
locations are potential zones for delamination initiation. Typical doublers are shown in Figure
6.5(h).
Suppression of Delamination:
Several possible design changes are suggested for delaying/suppressing the onset and growth of
delamination.
The primary cause of delamination is the low interlaminar fracture toughness. This is due to brittle
nature of most resins (epoxy) used as matrix material, which have low mode I fracture toughness.
The suggested models for improving this property are:
a. Adding thermoplastics, interleafing soft and hard layers, increasing length of cross-links
b. Adding second phase materials to matrix like rubber; chopped fibre, fibrils, etc.
The coupling between the transverse cracking of lamina and delamination is depicted in Figure
6.6(b).
Thus, the transverse cracking of lamina and delamination are strongly coupled.
Herakovich CT. Edge effects and delamination failures. Journal of Strain Analysis for
Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 245-252.
The Lecture Contains:
Macroscopic Failure Theories
Maximum Stress Theory
Maximum Strain Theory
Tsai-Hill Theory
Examples
Homework
References
The failure theories for unidirectional composites have some difficulties when they are extended from
homogeneous, isotropic materials. In the following, we list some of the issues related to composite
failure theories.
1. The composites are heterogeneous and orthotropic in nature. Hence, the effective properties
in three directions need to be found.
2. The unidirectional laminae are orthotropic in nature. Hence, the strength parameters (like
ultimate stress or strain) in three directions will be different.
3. In a given direction, the strength parameters will be different in tension and compression.
5. For off axis laminae, the shear strength is different in positive and negative directions. If one
is using the global coordinate system to decide the shear failure, then the positive and
negative shear should be considered carefully. However, in principal material directions the
positive and negative shear has no effect on shear strength.
6. The strength parameters are generally obtained experimentally in principal directions. Hence,
the stresses or strains used in the failure theories should also be in principal directions. Thus,
the transformation of stresses or strains from global coordinate system to principal material
direction in each lamina is imperative.
7. Most of the theories do not give the mode of failure (like fibre breaking, matrix cracking, etc.).
It just mentions that the lamina has failed. Further, they do not give propagation of damages
until final failure.
8. The link between damage and first-ply failure is difficult to establish for failure theories.
Note: (We refer to point 6 in the above.) One should not transform the strength parameters from
principal coordinate system to global coordinate system to use it in a failure theory. This
transformation from principal to global direction is not known. The strengths should be obtained by
experiments on off-axis laminae.
5. Q, R and S denote the ultimate shear stresses corresponding to 23, 13 and 12 planes.
It is defined as the ratio of maximum load which can be applied such that a lamina does not fail to
the actual load applied. Thus,
(6.1)
This concept can be extended to any failure theory. The strength ratio gives the factor by which the
actual applied load can be increased or decreased upto a lamina failure. For example, if , it
means that the lamina is safe and load applied can be increased by this factor and if , it
means that the lamina is unsafe and the load applied must be decreased by this factor. It is
needless to say that when the condition corresponds to failure load.
Failure Envelope:
The failure envelope is a surface formed by various combinations of normal and shear stresses (or
strains) that can be applied to a lamina just before it fails. Thus, any state of stress (or strain) which
lies inside the envelope is safe whereas the one which lies on or outside the envelope is unsafe.
Thus, the maximum stress theory results in the following expression for the safe condition.
For normal stresses,
(6.2)
OR (6.3)
Thus, according to this theory initiation of failure will correspond to one or more inequalities in
Equations (6.2) and (6.3) become an equality. The maximum stress theory can be represented as
intersecting planes in 3D stress space or intersecting lines in 2D stress space.
(6.5)
Now, consider that an off axis lamina is subjected to an axial stress of . Then, we can write the
maximum stress theory for the planar state of stress for off axis lamina as follows.
Recalling the stress transformation for planar state of stress, we write the stress components in
principal material directions as
(6.6)
Thus, the maximum stress theory for off-axis lamina loaded axially can be written as
Figure 6.7: Failure envelope for normal stress space with an example safe
stress state inside the envelope
(6.7)
(6.8)
OR (6.9)
where, and are the ultimate normal strains in tension and compression,
respectively. Further, are ultimate shear strains in 23, 13, 12 planes, respectively.
Thus, according to this theory initiation of failure will correspond to one or more inequalities in
Equations (6.8) and (6.9) become equality.
The maximum strain theory for planar stress can be expressed as
(6.10)
(6.11)
The strains can be obtained from constitutive equation for strains in terms stresses as
(6.12)
These equations can be put in Equation (6.10) and Equation. (6.11). Further, for axial stress applied
we can write the stresses in principal directions as in Equation (6.6).
Note: The maximum stress and maximum strain theories are similar. In both theories there is no
interaction between various components of stress or strain. However, the two theories yield different
results.
(6.13)
(6.14)
where, F, G, H, L, M and N are the material strength parameters. Thus, any state of stress which lies
inside this envelope is safe and the one which lies on or outside the envelope is unsafe.
The strength parameters correspond to failure stresses in one dimensional loading. These can be
obtained by a set of thought experiments. For example, consider that for the pure shear loading in 2-
3 plane, that is with , with corresponding shear strength Q and all other stress
components are zero, the Equation (6.14) becomes
(6.15)
Similarly, for the other two shear stress components, we can get
(6.16)
Now the strength parameters F, G and H are obtained by three states of stress. The state of stress
with corresponding strength X and all other stress components being zero, in Equation (6.14)
leads to
(6.17)
Now the conditions and (and other stress components being zero) in Equation (6.14)
result in
(6.18)
solving the simultaneous equations in Equation (6.17) and Equation (6.18), we get the required
strength parameters as
(6.19)
(6.20)
This is Tsai-Hill theory for 3D state of stress. Note that this is quadratic in stress terms with no linear
terms.
For transverse isotropy, we also have . Thus, the above equation is rearranged as
(6.23)
The above equation gives the Tsai-Hill criterion for failure for planar state of stress. From Tsai-Hill
theory it is clear that it does not differentiate between tension and compression strengths for normal
stresses. Infact, Tsai-Hill theory assumes same strengths in tension and compression. However, this
situation does not occur in case of shear stresses. Thus, for normal stresses the theory represents a
severe limitation that the sign of the normal stresses should be known a priori and the appropriate
strength value should be used for normal stresses in the failure theory.
It should be noted that unlike maximum stress theory or maximum strain theory Tsai-Hill theory
considers the interaction between three lamina strength parameters or interaction between stress
components.
Further, it should be noted that Tsai-Hill theory is a unified theory and does not give the mode of
failure like the maximum stress and maximum strain theory. However, one can make a guess of
failure mode by calculating the quantities , and . The maximum of these three values can be
Note: The right hand side of Equation (6.20) or (6.23) is called as failure index.
% % % % %
Composite
Example 6.1: A ply of fibre orientation is in the planar state of stress. The strains are
. Check that whether lamina will fail if a) maximum stress theory
b) maximum strain theory and c) Tsai-Hill theory is used.
Solution:
The strains given in global direction need to be transformed in principal directions. The state of strain
and stress given here is planar. Hence, we need to use the planar transformations. For ,
we have
and
First, we find the strains and stresses in principal material directions as:
Tsai-Hill Theory:
For planar stress the Tsai-Hill theory is
Now we have to check whether left hand side exceeds unity or not. Here, the normal stresses are
positive (tensile) hence we use tensile strength parameters in respective mode.
The failure index is more than unity. Hence, according to this theory lamina will fail. Further, it can
be seen that the contribution to failure index due to is significant compared to other terms. Hence,
the major mode of failure is tension in 2-direction of lamina.
Thus, we see that for will cause failure as will exceed the limiting value.
Maximum Strain Theory:
Thus, we see that for will cause failure as will exceed the limiting value in tension.
Tsai-Hill Theory:
The expression of failure envelope of this theory for planar stresses becomes
This gives . For this value of the lamina fails by Tsai-Hill theory.
3. What are the differences between maximum stress (or strain) and Tsai-Hill theory?
Azzi VD, Tsai SW. Anisotropic strength of composites, Experimental Mechanics, 1965;
5(9), pp. 283-288.
Tsai SW. A survey of macroscopic failure criteria for composite materials. Technical
Report, AFWAL-TR-84-4025.
Examples
Homework
References
(6.25)
(6.26)
(6.27)
Now, to find remaining constants we apply following state of stress. Let and all other stress
components be zero. For tensile failure, we need for this stress state. Putting this in
Equation (6.24) we get
(6.28)
Similarly for this stress state, the compression failure requires . This results the Equation
(6.24) to give
(6.29)
Now, we have two stress states: First one as and all other stress components are zero and
the second one as and all other stress components are zero. Again, as in previous case for
failure in tension and compression, Equation (6.24) results into following conditions:
(6.30)
Thus, Equations (6.28), (6.29) and (6.30) give a set of six simultaneous equations in
. Solving these, we get
(6.31)
and
(6.32)
(6.33)
Now consider transverse isotropy of the material in 2-3 plane. Thus, and . For
shear strength, we have . Then for plane stress condition , the criterion in
Equation. (6.33) becomes
(6.34)
Equation (6.34) represents Hoffman criterion for planar state of stress in transversely isotropic
materials. It should be noted that in this criterion there is no need to check the sign of the stress
components to decide whether a tensile or compressive strength is to be used.
where, and are strength tensors of the second and fourth order, respectively. The expanded
form of the above equation is
(6.36)
It should be noted that the linear term take into account the difference between tensile stress and
compressive stress induced failures. The quadratic terms define an ellipsoid in the stress
space.
The features of this theory are given below:
1. The resulting criterion is a scalar function and thus an invariant. Further, the interactions
between various components are independent unlike in Tsai-Hill theory where interactions are
fixed and in case of maximum stress or maximum strain theory these interactions are not
possible.
2. The strength components are expressed as tensors; one can use the transformation rules as
discussed earlier for their transformations. Further, the invariants of these strength tenors are
also well defined.
3. The property of symmetry of strength tenors and number of independent and non-zero
components can be derived in similar way that we carried out for anisotropic materials earlier.
4. One can either transform the strength parameters from to and to or transform
to . Most of the existing criteria are limited to specially orthotropic materials. Such criteria
can be applied only by transforming the external stresses to material axes. However, the
transformations of strength criteria cannot be done as this transformation is not known.
5. Since Equation (6.36) is an invariant, hence, an invariant for any other coordinate system.
This also holds for curvilinear coordinate system as well.
6. The theory has also introduced constraints over the magnitude of the strength interaction
terms in the following manner :
(6.37)
The terms represent diagonal terms and are positive terms, whereas the off-diagonal
terms can be positive or negative depending upon their interaction with other terms. However,
their magnitudes are constrained by Equation (6.37). Further, the inequality in Equation (6.37)
is very important as it assures the failure envelope in Equation (6.35) intersects all stress
axes. The surface formed by Equation (6.35) is an ellipsoid and Equation (6.37) ensures that
it is a closed surface unlike a hyperboloid. It should be noted that the positive definiteness is
also imposed for terms.
(6.38)
This form of the equation is more complicated than in Equation (6.35). Further, the size of the
strength terms is enormously very high to handle and the additional terms do not yield more
generality than the linear and quadratic terms.
Note: Statement 4 above equivalently says that the Tsai-Wu strength criterion can be given in
transformed coordinate system. The transformed criterion may be given as
(6.39)
And the strength terms can be transformed using the following relations
(6.40)
However, the transformation of any other strength criteria may not hold true.
where, both strength tensors are assumed to be symmetric with 6 and 21 independent constants for
and , respectively.
The number of independent strength parameters can be further reduced if we have some form of
material symmetry. We consider a special case of specially orthotropic material. Thus, for specially
orthotropic material the terms and will vanish. Further, the off-diagonal terms which give
normal shear coupling like , etc. will also become zero if we assume that the sign of
shear stress does not change the failure stress. Further, with same reasoning we assume that the
shear strengths are also uncoupled leading to . Thus, with this material
symmetry, we have
and
The number of independent strength parameters are now 3 and 9 for and , respectively. Thus,
for orthotropic material the criterion becomes
(6.43)
Now we will determine the strength parameters by thought experiments. First, we apply and
other stress components being zero. For this state of stress, the failure in tension requires .
Thus, Equation (6.43) becomes
(6.44)
Similarly, for this state of stress, the failure in compression requires . This results in
Equation (6.43) to become
(6.45)
Equation (6.44) and Equation (6.45) are two simultaneous equations with and as two
unknowns.
(6.46)
(6.49)
So far we have developed expressions for 3 strength terms for and diagonal terms of . Now
the expressions for off-diagonal terms of require combined state of stress to be applied. The
pure axial or shear state of stress will not be sufficient. In other criteria the interaction terms like
are assumed to be dependent or terms like are zero.
There are an infinite combinations of the stresses from which these terms can be obtained. However,
one should choose those combinations which can yield the desired result in a reliable and easy
manner. In the following, we will see typical combinations of stresses to find .
Consider the equivi-biaxial stress state and other stress components are zero. Putting
this in Equation (6.43), we get
(6.50)
(6.51)
Similarly, if we apply equivi-biaxial stress states in 1-3 and 2-3 planes, then we get the following
constants:
(6.52)
(6.53)
We can find the constants and by imposing the equivi-biaxial state of stress. However,
practically it is very difficult to impose such a state of stress. Hence, many researchers have
proposed tests on angle specimens to determine these strength parameters.
(6.56)
A similar expression can be derived with compressive strength of specimen. One can further find
this constant using the in-plane shear strength of specimen, which produces the stress state
as
(6.57)
(6.58)
(6.59)
(6.60)
(6.61)
which gives
(6.62)
(6.63)
The strength parameters are as given above. If the strength term then, the criterion
becomes
(6.64)
Thus, the failure index is greater than unity. Hence, according to this theory, for the given state of
strain/stress the lamina fails.
Tsai-Wu Theory:
Using the stresses and strength parameters, for planar stress state the Tsai-Wu theory with term
is given as
Since, the value of failure index by Tsai-Wu theory is greater than unity, the lamina will fail.
Thus, we get
For planar stress state the Tsai-Wu theory with term is given as
The strength parameters are as given in Example 6.3. Putting the stresses, we get
6. A ply of AS4/3506-1 material with fibre orientation is in the planar state of stress. The
strains are . Check that whether lamina will fail if a)
Hoffman theory b) Tsai-Wu theory is used.
Reddy JN, Pandey AK. A first-ply failure analysis of composite laminates. Computers
And Structures, 1987; 25(3), pp. 371-393.
Examples
Homework
References
(6.65)
(6.66)
(6.67)
(6.68)
(6.69)
(6.70)
If
(6.72)
(6.73)
(6.74)
Thus, the strength parameters corresponding to tensor polynomial criterion as in Equation (6.35) for
maximum stress theory are:
(6.76)
The remaining strength parameters are zero. In above equation the higher order terms are neglected.
2) Tsai-Hill Theory:
Comparing Equation (6.20) with Equation (6.35), we get
(6.77)
3) Hoffman Theory:
Comparing Equation (6.33) and Equation (6.35), we get
(6.78)
Examples:
Example 6.5: For the details in Example 6.1, check the modes of failure using Hashins criteria.
Example 6.6: For the details in Example 6.2, check the modes of failure using Hashins criteria.
Home Work:
1. Explain Hashins criteria for three dimensional and planar state of stress.
2. Explain connection of various failure theories with respect to tensor polynomial criterion.
3. Verify the strength parameters of all the theories studied according tensor polynomial criterion.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Introduction
In the earlier lectures we have used the effective properties of the unidirectional layers in the
development of various lamina or laminate mechanics issues. However, we know that at microscale
the fibrous composites are heterogeneous. A composite is made of two main phases - fiber and
matrix. Further, we know that apart from these two phases, additional phase may be present in the
composite. These phases may be fillers, zones formed due to reaction between fibre and matrix and
the coatings applied to the fiber, if any. The properties of these constituents, their amounts present
and their distribution affect the effective properties of the composite.
It is now well understood that to determine the effective properties of a composite one needs to
consider the microscale, that is, the scale at which the fibre and matrix are present. Thus, the study
of composites at the fiber and matrix level is referred to as micromechanics.
In the present lecture we will present various methods to determine the effective hygro-thermo-
mechanical properties of the composite. It is assumed that the properties of constituents, their
arrangements and amounts are known a-priori.
Mass Fractions
Density
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Effective Elastic Constants:
The unidirectional lamina is interest of this course. The unidirectional lamina is orthotropic in nature.
We know from the 3D constitutive equations that an orthotropic material has 9 independent
constants. Further, for a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent constants. The
average or effective constitutive equation for transversely isotropic material is given as below. The
transverse isotropy is in plane 2-3.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Idealization of Microstructure of Fibrous Composite:
As mentioned earlier, the micromechanics is a study at fibre and matrix level. Thus, the geometry of
arrangement of the fibres and matrix in a composite is an essential requirement to develop a model
for the study. Some of the methods do not use the geometry of arrangement. Most of the methods
developed for micromechanical analysis assume that:
1. The fibers and matrix are perfectly bonded and there is no slip between them.
2. The fibres are continuous and parallel.
3. The fibres are assumed to be circular in cross section with a uniform diameter along its
length.
5. The elastic, thermal and hygral properties of fibre and matrix are known and uniform.
7. The fibres and the matrix are only two phases in the composite.
There are many ways to idealize the cross section of a lamina. In Figure 7.1 are shown two popular
idealizations. The most commonly preferred arrangements are square packed and hexagonal packed
arrays of fibres in matrix. The square and hexagonal packed arrays can be as shown in Figure
7.1(a), and (b), respectively.
In these idealizations it is seen that due to symmetry and periodicity of these arrays one can
consider only one array to analyze the lamina at micro scale. Further, if this one array represents the
general arrangement of fibres with respect to matrix and the interactions of fibre and matrix phases,
then such array is called Representative Volume Element (RVE). Further, this RVE as a volume of
material statistically represents a homogeneous material. In the analysis of an RVE the boundary
conditions are chosen such that they reflect the periodicity. Thus, the arrays shown in Figure 7.1 are
various RVEs. One should be able to see that the RVE also reflects the volume fractions. The term
RVE was first coined by Hill in 1963.
For example, the square RVE represents a lower fibre volume fraction than a hexagonal RVE. Note
that RVE is also called as Unit Cell.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Volume and Mass Fractions, Density and Void Content:
In the present section we are going to introduce some important concept of relative fraction of fibres
and matrix by volume and mass. This is very important from the point that the most of the
micromechanics based approaches use these fractions, along with the properties of individual
phases, to express the properties of the equivalent homogeneous material.
In the present case, the effective properties of a composite are obtained with the assumption that
the fibre is orthotropic or transversely isotropic and matrix is isotropic in behaviour. However, with
appropriate changes, fibre can also be considered to be isotropic. In the following, the subscripts or
superscripts and will denote fibre and matrix, respectively.
Volume Fractions:
As stated earlier, the fibre volume fraction is defined as the ratio of fibre volume to composite volume
and matrix volume fraction is defined as the ratio of matrix volume fraction to composite volume. Let,
be the volume occupied by fibres and matrix, respectively. Let, be the composite volume.
We know that,
(7.1)
(7.2)
Thus, in notations
(7.3)
where, denotes the fibre volume fraction and denotes the matrix volume fraction. Note that
total volume and composite volume are used interchangeably.
Note: If the interphase is also present as a third phase then, Equation (7.2) is modified as
or
(7.4)
where, denotes the interphase volume fraction and denotes the interphase volume.
In case, there are voids present in composite, then the above equation becomes as
or
(7.5)
where, denotes the void volume fraction and denotes the void volume. In the remaining,
we will consider that there are only two phases and Equation (7.3) is used.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Mass Fractions:
Let and be the mass of fibres, matrix and composite, respectively. We know that
(7.6)
The mass fractions, similar to volume fractions, are defined as the ratio of mass of respective phase
to the mass of composite. Thus, we can write,
(7.7)
where, is fibre mass fraction and is matrix mass fraction. Now, let us write the mass of
each phase in terms of density and volume of respective phase as
(7.8)
where, and are the densities of fibre, matrix and composite, respectively. Now, mass
fractions can be written in terms of density and volume fractions as
(7.9)
This relation between mass and volume fractions is given in terms of individual constituent properties
(using Equations (7.6) and (7.8)) as
(7.10)
Thus, it is clear from the above equation that the volume and mass fractions are not the same. One
should always state the basis for calculating the fibre content in a composite.
Density:
The density of composite is derived in terms of densities and volume fractions of the individual
phases as follows. The mass of composite is given by Equation (7.6). We can write this in terms of
respective volume fractions and densities (with rearrangement) as
(7.11)
This is written using the definition of volume fraction for fibre and matrix as
(7.12)
We will write the density of composite in terms of mass fraction from Equation (7.9) as
(7.13)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Strength of Material Approximations:
In general, the laminates made are thin. Hence, for such laminates the analysis done using Kirchhoff
and plane stress assumptions is reasonably good. For such analysis, one needs the engineering
constants that occur in defining planar constitutive equations. These engineering constants are:
1. - the axial modulus
2. = - transverse modulus
3. - axial Poissons ratio (for loading in - direction)
Further, it is seen that for transversely isotropic composite, four out of five (the fifth one is )
properties can be developed from this approach. For the planar hygro-thermal analysis of such
laminates, one can also obtain the in-plane coefficients of thermal expansions and and
hygroscopic expansion and as well.
It is important to note that this approach involves assumptions which do not necessarily satisfy the
requirements of an exact elasticity solution. In this approach the effective properties will be
expressed in terms of the elastic properties and volume fractions of the fiber and matrix. The lamina
is considered to be an alternate arrangement of fibres and matrix. The RVE chosen in these
derivations is shown in Figure 7.2. The RVE here does not take into account the cross sectional
arrangement of fibres and matrix, rather it represents volume of the material through the cross
sectional area of fibre and matrix.
Figure 7.2: (a) Unidirectional lamina, (b) RVE for unidirectional composite for
prediction of elastic properties
Let, and represent fibre area and matrix area, respectively. and represent fibre
and matrix widths, respectively. be the length of the RVE.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Effective Axial Modulus :
The unit cell as shown in Figure 7.2 is used to compute the effective axial modulus . It should be
noted that the thickness of the unit cell is not important in this computation. Further, the cross
sectional shapes are not considered in this calculation. However, the cross sectional areas are
important in this calculation. The thicknesses of the fibre and matrix constituents are same in the unit
cell. Hence, the areas of the constituents represent the volume fractions of the constituents.
In the calculation of effective axial modulus, it is assumed that the axial strain in the composite is
uniform such that the axial strains in the fibers and matrix are identical. This assumption is justified
by the fact that the fibre and the matrix in the unit cell are perfectly bonded. Hence, the elongation in
the axial direction of the fibre and matrix will also be identical. Thus, the strains in the fibre and
matrix can be given as
(7.14)
where, is the axial strain in the composite and and are the axial strains in fibre and
matrix, respectively. Now, let and be the axial Youngs moduli of the fibre and matrix,
respectively. We can give the axial stress in the fibre, and matrix, as
(7.15)
Using the above equation and the cross section areas of the respective constituent in the unit cell,
we can calculate the forces in them as
(7.16)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
The total axial force in the composite is sum of the axial forces in fibre and matrix. Thus, the total
axial force in the composite substituting the expressions for axial strains in fibre and matrix from
Equation (7.14) in above equation, can be given as
(7.17)
Now be the average axial stress in composite. The total cross sectional area of the composite is
. Thus, using the average axial stress and cross sectional area of the composite, the
axial force is
(7.18)
Thus, combining Equation (7.17) and Equation (7.18) and rearranging, we get
(7.19)
Figure 7.3: (a) Undeformed unit cell under (b) and (c) deformed individual
constituents of the unit cell
Let us define
(7.20)
Further, noting that the ratios and for same length of fibre and matrix represent the fibre
and matrix volume fractions, respectively. Thus, combining Equations (7.19) and (7.20), we get
(7.21)
The above equation relates the axial modulus of the composite to the axial moduli of the fibre and
matrix through their volume fractions. Thus, the effective axial modulus is a linear function of the
fiber volume fraction. This equation is known as rule of mixtures equation. It should be noted that the
effective properties are functions of the fiber volume fractions; hence it should always be quoted in
reporting the effective properties of a composite.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Effective Axial (Major) Poisons Ratio :
To determine the effective axial Poissons ratio we consider the loading as in the case applied for
determining the effective axial modulus. Here, for this loading we have and other stresses
are zero. We define the effective axial Poissons ratio as
(7.22)
The effective strain in direction 2 from Figure 7.3(b) and (c) can be given as
(7.23)
Now, the changes in and can be obtained using the Poissons ratio of individual
constituents. The axial Poissons ratios for fibre and matrix are given as
(7.24)
(7.25)
(7.26)
The strain in direction 2 for the composite can be given using Equation (7.25) and Equation (7.26)
as
(7.27)
Here, and denote the fibre and matrix volume fractions for same length of fibre and
matrix. Note that denotes the effective axial strain . Thus, from Eq. (7.27) the effective axial
(7.28)
The above equation is the rule of mixtures expression for composite axial Poissons ratio.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
Effective Transverse Modulus :
Here, we are going to derive the effective transverse modulus by loading the RVE in direction 2 as
shown in Figure 7.4(a). There are two considerations while deriving this effective modulus. The first
approach considers that the deformation of the each constituent is independent of each other as
shown in Figure 7.4(b) and (c) and the deformation in direction 1 is not considered. The second
approach considers that deformations of the fibre and matrix in direction 1 are identical as they are
perfectly bonded.
is applied to the RVE as shown in
To calculate the effective modulus in direction 2, a stress
Figure 7.4(a).
First Approach:
As mentioned, the fibre and matrix deform independently of each other. The resulting deformation in
direction 1 is not considered here. This assumption is simplistic and was used by early researchers.
The fibre and matrix are subjected to same state of stress. The state of stress is unidirectional, that
is, . Now, using the individual moduli and deformations in direction 2, these
stresses can be given as
(7.29)
From this equation we can write the individual deformations, which give the total deformation in
direction 2 as
(7.30)
Now, the composite strain in direction 2 can be calculated from the definition as
(7.31)
Figure 7.4: (a) Undeformed unit cell under uniform stress (b) and (c)
deformed individual constituents of the unit cell
(7.32)
(7.33)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. What are the assumptions in a typical micromechanical analysis?
2. Write a short note on RVE/Unit Cell.
3. Define volume and mass fractions for fibre and matrix and derive expressions for them.
4. Derive an expression for density of a composite in terms of densities of its constituents.
5. Using strength of materials approach, derive expressions for effective axial modulus, Poissons
ratio and transverse modulus.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach
References:
R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech.
Phys. Solids, 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing,
Lancaster, PA, 1980.
MW Hyer, AM Waas. Micromechanics of linear elastic continuous fibre composites, in
Comprehensive Composite Materials. Vol. 1: Fiber Reinforcements and General Theory
of Composites, Eds. Kelly A, Zweben C. Elsevier 2000.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Introduction
In the previous lecture we have introduced the concept of Representative Volume Element or Unit
Cell. This is the basic building block in a micromechanical study. Further, we explained the need of
micromechanical study. In the previous lecture we have obtained effective axial and transverse
modulus and axial Poissons ratio using the strength of materials approach. In the present lecture we
will derive the expressions for effective transverse and axial shear moduli. Further, we will derive the
expressions for coefficients of thermal and hygral expansions as well. We will conclude this lecture
with some numerical examples.
The Lecture Contains
Examples
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Effective Transverse Modulus :
In the earlier lecture we have seen the first approach, where the deformation of individual
constituent is independent of each other and the deformation in direction 1 is not considered. In this
lecture we are going to derive an expression for effective transverse modulus using second approach
as follows.
Second Approach:
In this approach, we consider the resulting deformation in direction 1. It should be noted that when
the stress is applied in direction 2, the deformations of fibre and matrix in direction 1 are identical.
The deformation in direction 1 is calculated from two dimensional state of stress in fibre and matrix.
The deformations are shown in Figure 7.5.
The axial and transverse stresses in fibre and matrix can be given using planar constitutive relations
as
(7.34)
where,
(7.35)
To compute the effective transverse modulus we need to find the total deformation as a
function of the applied transverse stress . It should be noted that the net force in the direction 1
is zero. Thus,
(7.36)
Figure 7.5: (a) Undeformed unit cell under uniform stress (b) and (c)
deformed individual constituents of the unit cell
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Generally, the stresses are uniform in the fibre and matrix. Thus above equation reduces to
(7.37)
Further, for equilibrium in transverse direction, we have
(7.38)
The axial and transverse strains in fibre and matrix are
(7.39)
(7.40)
(7.41)
We solve Equations (7.40) and (7.41) for , and . The transverse composite
(7.42)
Finally, putting the values of and in the above equation, we get an expression for
as
(7.43)
where,
(7.44)
Equation (7.43) is an alternate equation for effective transverse modulus . This is also a rule of
mixtures equations. It should be noted that the factors and are the nondimensional
factors.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Effective Axial Shear Modulus :
To derive the effective axial shear modulus of the composite the RVE is loaded in shear as shown
in Figure 7.6(a). The fibre and matrix are assumed to deform independently. Figure 7.6(b) shows the
overall deformation of the RVE. The overall axial deformation is denoted by . It is important to
note that for equilibrium considerations the shear stresses acting on fibre and matrix are assumed to
be identical.
Under the pure shear loading, that is, and other stress components are zero, the effective
axial shear modulus is defined as
(7.45)
Figure 7.6: (a) Undeformed unit cell under uniform stress (b) overall
deformation of unit cell (c) and (d) deformed individual constituents of the unit
cell
where, and are the effective applied shear stress and the resulting effective shear strain in
the composite, respectively. The effective shear strain in composite is obtained from the
deformations of the fibre and matrix in RVE. The fibre and matrix undergo deformations and
, respectively. These deformations are shown in Figure 7.6(c) and (d), respectively.
(7.46)
where, is the inplane shear modulus of the fibre and is the shear modulus of the matrix
material. From Figure 7.6(c) and (d), we can write the individual deformations in fibre and matrix as
(7.47)
Using Equation (7.46) in above equation, the total axial deformation is given as
(7.48)
(7.49)
Finally, the effective axial shear modulus of the composite can be given from above equation as
(7.50)
This is the rule of mixtures equation for the effective axial shear modulus. This equation is analogous
to Equation (7.33) for the effective transverse modulus of the composite.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and :
The coefficients of thermal expansion are very important as the composite is fabricated as elevated
temperature and cooled down to room temperature. In this process, due to difference in the
coefficients of thermal expansion of fibre and matrix materials, the thermal residual stresses are
developed. The determination of the coefficients of thermal expansion of the composite is dealt in
this section.
First, we will derive an expression for the coefficients of thermal expansion in transverse direction,
. We will use the deformation same as shown in Figure 7.5. The only difference is that the
effective stress in transverse direction must be zero. This is because that the thermal expansion
should occur without any applied stress. Thus, for the deformations as shown in Figure 7.5, we take
. Now the deformation in fibre and matrix in transverse direction can be given as
(7.51)
where, is the coefficient of thermal expansion of fibre in transverse direction and is the
coefficient of thermal expansion of matrix. It should be noted that the matrix is assumed to be
isotropic in nature. is increase in temperature. Let us define the coefficient of expansion for
(7.52)
(7.53)
This is the rule of mixtures for the transverse coefficient of thermal expansion. It should be noted
that in this derivation the interaction between fibre and matrix under the temperature effect is not
constant. Thus, this derivation neglects the thermally induced stresses in fibre and matrix. However,
this is not true as thermal stresses will be induced in fibre and matrix. We take into account this fact
and derive alternate expression for this coefficient of thermal expansion as follows.
The stresses in fibre can be given for the temperature change of as
(7.55)
(7.56)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Now it should be noted that due to temperature change the force in direction 1 should be zero.
Further, the stresses in transverse direction in fibre and matrix should be identically zero. The first
condition leads to
(7.57)
Further, assuming that the stresses in fibre and matrix are uniform, the above equation becomes
(7.58)
The second condition that the stresses in transverse direction are zero leads to
(7.59)
Putting the first of Equation (7.55) and Equation (7.56) in Equation (7.58), we get
(7.60)
Using the second of Equation (7.55) and Equation (7.56) in Equation (7.59), we get
(7.61)
Thus, Equation (7.60) and Equation (7.61) are three simultaneous equations in , and
. We solve these three equations and define the coefficients of thermal expansions for
composites as
(7.62)
and
(7.63)
The above expressions are the rule of mixture for coefficients of thermal expansions for composite in
terms of individual coefficients of thermal expansion, volume fractions and other properties. In the
above equation is the effective axial modulus, as given earlier. Comparing Equation (7.54) and
Equation (7.63), it is clear that the last term in Equation (7.63) is due to the imposition of deformation
constraint under thermal loading.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Coefficients of Hygral Expansion and :
When the composite is subjected to hygroscopic environment, it absorbs the moisture and deforms.
It should be noted that the deformation of the fibre and matrix depends upon the amount of moisture
absorbed. Further, the amount of moisture absorbed by fibre and matrix in same environment are, in
general, not same. It will be shown that, unlike the coefficients of thermal expansion, the moisture
content will enter into the expressions of coefficients of hygral expansion of composite.
The derivation also follows similar procedure as used in the derivation of coefficients of thermal
expansion. The deformation constraints, similar to the derivation of coefficients of thermal expansion,
are also imposed in this derivation.
The force in axial direction in composite should be zero. This condition leads to the equation
(7.64)
The axial stresses in fibre and matrix due to moisture absorption alone are given as
(7.65)
where, and are the coefficients of hygral expansion of fibre and matrix, respectively.
and are the per weight % moisture absorption for fibre and matrix, respectively.
Putting this in Equation (7.64) and knowing that the axial strain in fibre and matrix are equal, that is,
(7.66)
(7.67)
where, is the per weight % moisture absorption for composite. Thus, the above equation
becomes
(7.68)
The above equation can be further simplified by expressing the percentage weight moisture
absorbed by composite to the moisture absorbed by fibre and matrix. Thus,
(7.69)
where, , and are the masses (as defined earlier) of composite, fibre and matrix,
respectively. The above equation can be written as
(7.70)
(7.71)
The mass fractions are written in terms of volume fractions with the use of densities of composite,
fibre and matrix. Then the above equation becomes
(7.72)
(7.73)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Examples:
Table 7.1: Mechanical and thermal properties of fibres [5]
E-Glass 21xK43 Silenka E-Glass
Property/Fibre AS4 T300
Gevetex 1200tex
GPa 225 230 80 74
GPa 15 15 80 74
GPa 15 15 33.33 30.8
15 12 4.9 4.9
45 55 58 58
Example 7.1 : For AS4/3501-6 Epoxy with 0.6 fibre volume fraction calculate all mechanical and
thermal properties using strength of materials approach of composite.
Solution:
where,
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
Home Work:
1. Using strength of materials approach, derive the expression for effective transverse modulus
with deformation constrains satisfied.
2. Derive an expression for effective axial shear modulus of the composite using strength of
materials approach.
3. Using strength of materials approach, derive the expressions for effective coefficients of
thermal and hygral expansions in axial and transverse directions.
4. For fibre volume fraction of 0.6, determine all the effective mechanical and thermal properties
of the fibre and matrix materials given in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 and compare them with the
experimental effective properties as reported in Soden et al [5]. Calculate percentage
difference for all properties with respect to experimental effective properties.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 25: Strength of Materials Approach
References:
MW Hyer, AM Waas. Micromechanics of linear elastic continuous fibre composites, in
Comprehensive Composite Materials. Vol. 1: Fiber Reinforcements and General Theory
of Composites, Eds. A Kelly, C Zweben. Elsevier, 2000.
RA Schepery. Thermal expansion coefficients of composite materials based on energy
principles. Journal of Composite Materials, 1972, Vol. 2, pp. 380-404.
BW Rosen. A simple procedure for experimental determination of the longitudinal shear
modulus of unidirectional composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 1972, Vol. 21,
pp. 552-554.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics
Introduction
In the previous lectures, we have seen the use of RVE along with strength of materials approach in
determining the effective elastic, thermal and hygral properties of the composite in terms of properties
of individual constituents.
In this lecture and the following lectures we are going to see some more concepts and approaches to
determine the effective properties of the composite. In this lecture and the subsequent lectures we will
use the continuum approaches.
The Lecture Contains
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics
The Concept of Equivalent Homogeneity
As we have understood, at sufficiently small scale all materials are heterogeneous in nature. In such
a situation, one would like to start at atomistic or molecular level. This will lead to an intractable
situation for engineering materials. Hence, the continuum hypothesis is invoked in such situations. In
this hypothesis, a statistical averaging process is considered. Further, the actual constituents and
their structures are idealized in such a way that resulting material is considered to be a continuum.
Once we establish the existence of continuum hypothesis then the concept of equivalent
homogeneity can be developed based on the structure of the material.
In general, the heterogeneity can be divided into two types. In the first type, the heterogeneity occurs
as an idealized continuous variation of properties with the position and in the second type there is an
abrupt change in properties across the interfaces of the constituents. In unidirectional fibrous
composites, in cross sectional planes, we get the second type of inhomogeneity. Hence, the second
type of inhomogeneity is of our concern in this micromechanical study. However, within the
constituent we assume that the constituents are homogeneous and orthotropic, transversely isotropic
or isotropic in nature.
Now we will introduce the characteristic dimension of inhomogeneity based on the constituent
arrangement and nature. We will consider an idealized system of fibres and matrix in a composite as
shown in Figure 7.7. For this system the characteristic dimension of inhomogeneity is the mean
distance between fibres, as shown. Now there also exits a length scale over which the properties
can be averaged in some meaningful way, that is, . The length scale of averaging must be a
dimension much larger than that of the characteristic dimension of the inhomogeneity, that is, .
When this condition is satisfied the material can be idealized as being effectively homogeneous and
the analysis of such a body can be done using the average properties associated with length scale
.
The condition mentioned above is called the effective or equivalent homogeneity. The other terms
used are macroscopic homogeneity and statistical homogeneity.
The effective or the average properties of the composite can be given through the relations between
the average stress and average strain in the composite. Here, we introduce the concept of volumetric
averaging.
Let us consider an RVE with dimension of inhomogeneity of and averaging dimension of (see
Figure 7.7). Let be the volume of the RVE. Let us further assume that this RVE is subjected
to macroscopically homogeneous stress or deformation field. Let us define the average stress as
Figure 7.7: Scale of inhomogeneity and averaging of properties along with an RVE
(7.74)
(7.75)
where, is the infinitesimal strain tensor at . Now, the effective, linear stiffness tensor is
given by the relation
(7.76)
The process of volume averaging may look very simple at the first sight. However, the averaging of
stresses and strains involves a significant amount of task. The exact stress and strain fields, that is,
and in heterogeneous material are needed.
(7.77)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics
Concept of Energy Equivalence:
The effective properties of composite are defined through Equation (7.76) using the average stress
and strain in the RVE. One can propose the alternate definition of the effective properties using the
concept of energy equivalence.
Let us write the Equation (7.76) by contracting it with average strain tensor as
(7.78)
It should be noted that the average stress and strain field used in Equation (7.78) are obtained by
solving the problem with RVE applied by appropriate boundary conditions. The stresses and the
strains in RVE are macroscopically homogeneous. Hence, the averages can also be obtained by
boundary values instead of volume integrations. Thus, the left hand side of Equation (7.78) can be
given in terms of surface tractions and displacements as
(7.79)
where, denotes the RVE boundary, and denote the traction and displacement vector on
RVE boundary. Using the divergence theorem and equilibrium equations for the body without
anybody forces, , we get
(7.80)
Thus, the above relation gives the effective properties through the equivalence of the strain
energy stored in the heterogeneous material to that stored in the equivalent homogeneous material.
In the following example, we explain concept of averaging. Consider the Figure 7.8(a). This figure
represents the alternate repetition of two different materials with Youngs modulus and and
and be their respective axial lengths. Further, let be the cross sectional area of the bar.
This is equivalent to the alternate repetition of fibre and matrix in cross section. The bar made of
such a material is subjected to axial force . From the equilibrium consideration between the
interface of fibre and matrix, it is clear that the force is uniform throughout the bar as shown in
Figure 7.8(b). Thus, the axial force in any section . The axial strain in each of the
segment of the bar is given as
(7.81)
From the above equation it is clear that the axial strains in fibre or matrix element are constants but
there is a jump between interface of adjacent fibre and matrix. This is shown in Figure 7.8(c).
Now replace the material by an equivalent homogeneous material. Let be the equivalent or
homogeneous modulus of this material. Then, the force in equivalent material can be given as
(7.82)
Figure 7.8: (a) A beam representing alternate fibre and matrix (b)
force distribution and (c) strain distribution along the length of the
beam
where, is the average or equivalent axial strain in the homogeneous material. Now, for a fibre
and matrix element and its equivalent element the axial deformation is same. Thus,
(7.83)
Thus, from this equation we can write the average axial strain in the element as
(7.84)
Now, from Equation (7.82) and Equation (7.84) we can give the equivalent axial Youngs modulus as
(7.85)
In the above derivation Equation (7.81) has been used. Thus, Equation (7.85) gives the equivalent
axial Youngs modulus based on equilibrium considerations.
Now we will use the equivalence of strain energy approach to derive the equivalent axial Youngs
modulus. Let us consider that the fibre and matrix materials are linear elastic in behaviour. The strain
energies of the non-homogeneous and homogeneous materials are equated as follows:
(7.86)
(7.87)
(7.88)
Thus, Equation (7.88) gives the equivalent axial Youngs modulus based on energy equivalence
approach.
Note: In the above example, the equilibrium approach and energy equivalence approach gave the
same expression for effective axial Youngs modulus. However, for other examples and geometric
details the effective properties obtained at the end may be different.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics
Standard Mechanics Approach:
In this approach the standard mechanics based problems imposed on an RVE are solved. There can
be two types of loads: displacements or tractions. The boundary conditions that are imposed on RVE
are such that in case of displacement loading an average strain is produced in homogeneous
material of same size as the RVE. While in case of traction loading, the boundary conditions are
chosen such that an average stress is produced in homogeneous material of same size as the RVE.
The average strain as defined in Equation (7.75) is further written in terms of displacements using
divergence theorem as
(7.89)
where, denotes the unit normal to the RVE boundary and other quantities are as defined earlier.
Now, let us write the average stress in Equation (7.74) as
(7.90)
where, denotes the local boundary coordinates. For more details of the above derivation one can
see work due to Hill [4].
Now the important task is to choose the boundary conditions that will give us either averages strain
or stress for displacement or traction loading. However, there is no unique relationship either
between average strain and displacements or average stress and tractions. For example, a number
of different combinations of displacements can produce the same average strain. Similarly, for the
average stress in the material case there can be different combinations of tractions. Thus, in general,
a uniform displacement or traction loading is chosen as boundary condition. These boundary
conditions are shown in Figure 7.9. It should be noted that the applied boundary condition shown in
this figure is displacement when average strain is desired and is traction if average stress is desired.
Further, it should be noted that the boundary conditions shown in this figure are for a planar
problem.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics
The standard weak form of the equilibrium equation is solved to calculate the local RVE strain. In
case of the applied displacements, the weak form of the RVE equilibrium equations is
(7.91)
where, is the point-wise stiffness tensor in the RVE materials, are the virtual strains,
are the microstructural strains due to the applied displacements, is the applied
displacement, is the specified boundary displacement which produces the desired uniform
average strain in a homogeneous material and is the virtual displacement. Here, the
boundary displacements are implemented using a penalty method with as the penalty parameter.
In case of applied tractions the weak form the equilibrium equation to be solved for each applied
mn th stress component is
(7.92)
where, is the applied traction which produces the average stress in a homogeneous
material. Further, are the microstructural strains due to the applied mnth traction. The other
terms in above equation are as defined earlier.
Equation (7.91) and Equation (7.92) need to be solved only for three times. In these two equations
we solve for local or microstructural strains. In this case we are considering symmetry of stress and
strain tensors. In case of three dimensional problems we need to solve for six problems.
The relation between the average strain and local or microstructural strains is given as
(7.93)
where, is called as local structure tensor or strain concentration factors. It should be noted
that this tensor has minor symmetries like . .However, it does not have the
major symmetry .. Thus, if the local structure tensor is known then local strain at any
point can be given as
(7.94)
Now the effective stiffness tensor is as defined by Equation (7.76). This tensor can be
calculated from . Using the Hookes law at microscopic level, we can write
(7.95)
Now, using the definition of average stress as in Equation (7.74), the above equation can be written
as
(7.96)
(7.97)
(7.98)
The tensors and are the local tensors and can be obtained in individual
constituents of the RVE. Once, the effective stiffness tensor is obtained the inverse of this gives the
effective compliance tensor. Now the relation between the individual elements of this tensor and
engineering constants can be used to determine the effective engineering constants.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. What is statistical homogeneity?
2. Write a short note on volumetric averaging.
3. Write a short note on energy equivalence approach in averaging.
4. Explain in detail the standard mechanics approach.
5. For the one dimensional problem as shown in Figure 7.8, show that the effective Youngs
modulus determined using standard mechanics approach is same as given in Equation (7.85)
(which is same as in Equation (7.88)).
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
SJ Hollister, N Kikuchi. A comparison of homogenization and standard mechanics
analyses. Computational Mechanics. 1992, Vol. 10, pp. 73-95.
R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech.
Phys. Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.
R Hill. Theory of mechanical properties of fibre-strengthened materials-I. Elastic
behaviour. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 1964, Vol. 12, pp. 199-212.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Introduction
In the previous lecture we have introduced the concepts of statistical homogeneity, volumetric
averaging and standard mechanics approach. In case of standard mechanics, the effective stiffness
tensor for the composite is given in terms of local structure tensor and pointwise stiffness tensor. In
this lecture we will introduce another approach of Hills concentration factors. This approach is an
extension of standard mechanics approach to two phase composites.
The Lecture Contains
Voigt Approximation
Reuss Approximation
Examples
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Hills Concentration Factors Approach
The Hills concentration factors approach is based on the concept similar to the standard mechanics
approach. In this approach, a composite with two elastic phases is considered. These phases are
fibre and matrix.
The average stress in composite is given from Equation (7.74). In this equation, the stresses in
individual phases are used to give following equation
(7.99)
where and are the local stresses in fibre and matrix, respectively. Now let us
define the volume averaged stress in fibre as
(7.100)
(7.101)
Putting these two definitions in Equation (7.99) and adjusting the and terms properly, we get
(7.102)
(7.103)
Note: The average stresses in Equation (7.100) and (7.101) and average strains in Equation (7.103)
are also known as phase averaged stresses and phase averaged strains, respectively.
Putting these definitions for the definition of average strain in composite, we get
(7.104)
Now let us derive the average stress in fibre and matrix using the pointwise constitutive equation for
fibre and matrix in Equations (7.100) and (7.101) as
(7.105)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
In the above derivation it is assumed that the material behaviour is same everywhere for fibre and
matrix. Further, Equation (7.103) has been used in above equation. The above equation can be
written in terms of compliance of fibre and matrix material as
(7.106)
Using Equation (7.105) in Equation (7.102) we get the average stress in composite in terms of
volume fractions, stiffness tensor and phase averaged strains as
(7.107)
Similarly, the average composite strain in terms of phase averaged stresses in the fiber and matrix,
respective compliances and volume fractions using Equation (7.106) in Equation (7.104) is given as
(7.108)
Note: It can be shown that if an RVE is subjected to homogeneous traction on its boundary, that is,
with is a constant state of stress, then the average stress in composite is
The local structure tensor used in Equation (7.94) in standard mechanics approach to define the
local strains in terms of composite average strains. Hill [4] used this concept to relate the pointwise
stresses and strains in fibre and matrix with average stresses and strains in composite through
pointwise phase concentration factors. The pointwise strains in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.109)
where and are the pointwise fibre and matrix strain concentration factors,
respectively. Similarly, the pointwise stresses in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.110)
where and are the pointwise fibre and matrix stress concentration factors,
respectively.
The local strains and stresses in fibre and matrix as given in Equation (7.109) and Equation (7.110)
can be integrated over their respective volumes to give the phase averaged strains and stresses in
terms of phase averaged concentration factors and . The phase averaged
concentration factors as defined are given below.
(7.111)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Thus, using this definition the phase averaged strains in fibre and matrix can be written using
Equation. (7.109) and Equation (7.110) as
(7.112)
Now, using the first of Equation (7.112) in Equation (7.107) composite average stress is given as
(7.113)
Similarly, using the second of Equation (7.112) in Equation (7.108) composite average strain is given
as
(7.114)
(7.115)
It should be noted that in above equation the stresses on left and right hand side are the composite
average stresses. Hence, they are same. Thus, the bracketed term in above equation is an identity
tensor of fourth order, that is,
(7.116)
Likewise, from Equation (7.104) and the first of Equation (7.112) we can write
(7.117)
(7.118)
(7.119)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Voigt Approximation
Voigt [5] assumed that the strains are constants throughout the composite. Thus, we can say that
(7.120)
From the first of Equation (7.112), this leads to
(7.121)
Now, Equation (7.117) is written as
(7.122)
(7.123)
(7.124)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Reuss Approximation
Reuss [6] assumed that the stresses are constant throughout the composite. This assumption leads
to the relation
(7.125)
which upon substitution in Equation (7.116) leads to the relation
(7.126)
Putting the above relation in Equation (7.119) gives
(7.127)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Examples
Example 7.2: For AS4 fibre and 3501-6 Epoxy material with 0.6 fibre volume fraction calculate all
effective engineering constants of the composite using a) Voigt and b) Reuss approximations. The
properties are given in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2.
Solution:
a) Voigt Approximation:
According to this approximation the effective stiffness tensor for composite is given as
The stiffness matrices for fibre and matrix are calculated using the respective engineering constants
and are given below.
For this purpose it is better to calculate first the compliance matrices for fibre and matrix materials
and invert them to get the stiffness matrices. We know that getting stiffness from compliance can be
easier than remembering individual stiffness entries in terms of engineering constants. The
compliance matrices for fibre and matrix material are calculated as below.
Thus, the effective stiffness matrix according to Voigt approximation for fibre volume fraction of 0.6 is
b) Reuss Approximation:
According to this approximation the effective compliance tensor for composite is given as
Using the compliance matrices for fibre and matrix we get the effective compliance for composite as
Module 7: Micromechanics
Example 7.3: Plot the variation of following effective stiffness terms against the fibre volume
fractions for both Voigt and Reuss approximation. .
Solution: The plots of are shown in Figure 7.10 and plots of
are shown in Figure 7.11. The Voigt approximation gives upper bound for the
terms whereas Reuss approximation gives the lower bound for these terms.
However, for the terms Voigt approximation gives lower bound and Reuss
approximation gives upper bound.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Example 7.4: Plot the variation of following effective compliance terms against the fibre volume
fractions for both Voigt and Reuss approximation. .
Solution: The plots of are shown in Figure 7.12 and plots of
are shown in Figure 7.13. The Voigt approximation gives lower bound and Reuss
approximation gives upper bound for terms. Further, for terms
Voigt approximation gives upper bound and Reuss approximation gives lower
bound.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. Explain in detail the Hills concentration factors approach.
2. What are Reuss and Voigt approximations in connection with Hills concentration factors
approach?
3. For fibre volume fraction of 0.6, determine all the effective mechanical properties for the fibre
and matrix materials given in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 and compare them with the
experimental effective properties as reported in Soden et al [7]. Calculate percentage
difference for all properties. Use Voigt and Reuss approximation for this exercise.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech.
Phys. Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.
R Hill. Theory of mechanical properties of fibre-strengthened materials-I. Elastic
behaviour. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 1964, Vol. 12, pp. 199-212.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 28: Homogenization
Introduction
In the previous lectures, we have seen the various micromechanics based approaches to find the
effective composite properties. In the standard mechanics approach we introduced the concept of
local structure tensor which relates the macroscopic or average strains or stresses in composite to
microscopic or local strains or stresses in the phases of composite. In the standard mechanics
approach the boundary conditions are chosen such that the applied displacements or tractions
produce average strains or stresses in the RVE material.
In this lecture we are going to introduce the concept of homogenization.
The Lecture Contains
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 28: Homogenization
Homogenization
First, we will discuss the key points from statistical homogeneity and standard mechanics approach
in the RVE analysis to determine the effective RVE properties. In micromechanical analysis most of
the methods accurately predicts the effective composite properties provided that the ratio of the RVE
size to the global structural dimension is very small tending to zero. In reference to Figure 7.9, we
. We denote .
have
In the micromechanics based methods the local level and global level analyses are decoupled. The
local level analysis considers the microstructural details in its modeling. This analysis gives the
effective elastic properties. Further, as we have seen in standard mechanics approach, the local
level analysis can also be used to calculate the relationship of the effective or average RVE strain to
the local strain within the RVE. However, the global level analysis is used to calculate the effective
or the average stress and strain within the equivalent homogenous structure.
The process of calculating effective properties has been termed homogenization by Suquet [1].
Further, the local strains can be estimated from the relationship between average and local strains
through local structure tensor obtained from local analysis. This process is called as localization.
In the RVE analysis the RVE is subjected to boundary condition. The solution of this boundary value
problem gives the average properties along with the relation between the average and local strains.
However, the accuracy of the results depends upon the fact that the applied boundary conditions
should be able to reflect the in-situ (or the actual) boundary conditions to which an RVE is
subjected. This is explained in the following paragraph.
Consider that the applied boundary conditions to the RVE which produce the same average strain in
RVE are not same as the in-situ boundary conditions. Using the principle of minimum of strain
energy the average stiffness predicted by the RVE analysis with assumed boundary conditions will
be higher than that with in-situ boundary conditions. This is because the in-situ boundary conditions
will minimize the strain energy. On the contrary, although the assumed boundary conditions are
admissible they produce higher strain energy as the average stress produced is higher. Similarly, for
the applied tractions by the principle of minimum of complementary energy the RVE analysis with
applied homogeneous boundary produces higher complementary energy than that with in-situ
boundary conditions. The applied boundary conditions would produce higher average stress in RVE
than due to in-situ boundary conditions and also results in higher compliance. Thus, the RVE
analyses with applied displacement boundary conditions give upper bound on effective stiffness
whereas applied traction boundary conditions give the lower bound.
The homogenization theory is developed from studies of partial differential equations with rapidly
varying coefficients. This theory is based on the two assumptions: the first one is that the fields vary
on multiple scales due to existence of a microstructure and second one is that the microstructure is
spatially periodic.
In the composite, it is well known to us that the microstructure is spatially periodic. Now in the
following we explain that the displacement field is oscillating around the mean displacement and
strain field is periodic over this microstructure. Further, the displacement and strain fields are varying
over the two length scales.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 28: Homogenization
Figure 7.9: (a) A bar representing alternate fibre and matrix (b)
actual and average strain (c) actual and average displacement and
(d) periodic nature of displacement difference over RVE length
Consider Figure 7.9. Figure 7.9 (a) represents a bar with alternating materials. This bar represents alternate
arrangement of fibre and matrix material in cross section. Let be the RVE length such that . Figure
7.9 (b) shows the variation of strain field. It should be noted that the strain in either of the element is constant
and periodic in nature. However, the average strain in the bar is constant. Figure 7.9(c) shows the variation of
actual displacement and average displacement field . From this figure it is clear that the actual
displacement is oscillating around the average displacement. Figure 7.9 (d) shows the variation of
and one can easily notice that this variation is periodic over the RVE length. Thus, displacement and strain
fields are varying over the two length scales, that is, at micro and macro scales. Further, the strain field and
are periodic over the RVE. Thus, the problem of determining effective stiffness can be addressed by
using the homogenization concept. The details of theory can be seen in [1-3].
In the following we explain the theory of homogenization in brief.
Let denote the global level or macro coordinates and denote the micro level coordinates. These two level
coordinates are related through
(7.128)
Here is the ratio of the RVE size to the size of the macroscopic region in which it exists. The field variables
involved in this study are approximated by an asymptotic expansion as
(7.129)
where is the exact value of the field variable, is the macroscopic or average value of the field
variable. In elasticity theory, this is known as continuum level displacement field. The displacements
etc. are the perturbations in the field variable due to the microstructure. These are also called microstructural
displacements.
(7.130)
In this derivation, the derivative of any function is given using chain rule as
(7.131)
Note: The perturbation part of the solution is small, but clearly the corresponding strain is not. This strain is of
the same order as the average strain.
Note: The quantities on the local level like stress vary times more rapidly than the corresponding global level
quantities.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 28: Homogenization
Equation (7.130) can be simplified neglecting the terms of and higher order. Further, from Equation
(7.131) we define the following strain tensors as
(7.132)
where , as defined earlier, is the local or microstructural strain tensor, is the average or macroscopic
strain tensor corresponding to the average displacements and is fluctuating strain tensor corresponding to
the oscillating displacements. As shown earlier, the fluctuating strain tensor is assumed to vary periodically.
Now for the virtual displacement or weak form of the equilibrium equations let us assume that the virtual
displacement and hence the virtual strain can also be expressed as asymptotic functions of
and . Thus, the virtual strain is given as
(7.133)
Further, this strain can be written as average and microscopic strain due to virtual displacement as
(7.134)
(7.135)
Here, denotes the total, that is, macroscopic plus microscopic domain of the composite. The tractions
and the boundary displacements, if any, are applied only on the macroscopic boundaries of the composite. The
first of Equation (7.132) and the first of Equation (7.134) are used in above equation. The resulting expanded
form of the above equation is then given as
(7.136)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 28: Homogenization
It should be noted that the virtual displacement is any arbitrary displacement. It can be chosen
to vary on macroscopic or microscopic level. If we choose to vary only on macroscopic level
and be a constant on microscopic level then we get the macroscopic equilibrium equation as
(7.137)
Here, for the chosen variation of virtual displacement. However, if we choose to
vary only on microscopic level and be a constant on macroscopic level then we get the microscopic
equilibrium equation as
(7.138)
Here, for the chosen variation of virtual displacement. Since varies periodically,
Equation (7.137) and Equation (7.138) may be simplified assuming approaching zero in the limit
as
(7.139)
and
(7.140)
Equation (7.140) to be true, the integration term over the RVE should be zero. This leads to the
following condition:
(7.141)
Here, in general, the strain is not known. However, for a linear problem, any arbitrary can
be written as linear combination of unit strains as given in the following equation. The unit strains in
the following equation are given for 3D case.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 28: Homogenization
(7.142)
Due to symmetry considerations one needs to consider only the first six strains components in the
linear combination. Substituting these unit strains in right hand side of Equation (7.141) we get the
stress tensor
Now, putting this stress tensor in Equation (7.141) we solve the resulting auxilliary problem as
(7.143)
The periodicity of the strain field is obtained by constraining equal displacements on opposite
sides of RVE. Once is determined, the solution to Equation (7.141) is obtained by
(7.144)
where is Kronecker delta and is the local structure tensor. When the relationship between
local RVE strain and the average strain is substituted into the macroscopic equilibrium equations, we
get
(7.145)
Here, it should be noted that the terms and are outside the integration over the RVE as
they represent the average strain, which is constant, over RVE. The homogenization approach gives
the equivalent properties of the composite laminate. The effective stiffness tensor, is defined
(as in standard mechanics approach in Equation (7.98))
(7.146)
Using this effective stiffness tensor, the final form of macroscopic equilibrium equation may be written
as
(7.147)
It is important to note that the effective stiffness tensor obtained from Equation (7.146) is
independent of size of RVE due to periodicity assumption used in obtaining .
Note: The effective stiffness tensor obtained using homogenization approach is independent of size
of RVE as periodicity assumption has been imposed on RVE. In case of standard mechanics such
boundary conditions are not imposed. Hence, the effective stiffness obtained is dependent on the
size of RVE. This fact can be explained by St. Venants principle for applied displacement or traction
boundary conditions. However, when St. Venant effect is not significant (as in case of analysis with
multi cell RVE) the two approaches may yield the same results.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. What are the lacunas in standard mechanics approach?
2. Explain the importance of applied boundary conditions on RVE in determining the effective
properties.
3. Explain in detail the concept of homogenization.
4. Show that for the one dimensional case as shown in Figure 7.9 the effective Youngs modulus
determined using homogenization approach is same as given by the standard mechanics
approach.
Module 7: Micromechanics
References:
P Suquet. Elements of homogenization theory for inelastic solid mechanics. In: E
Sanchez-Palencia, A Zaoui. (eds): Homogenization techniques for composite media, pp.
194-278. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer, New York, 1987.
SJ Hollister, N Kikuchi. A comparison of homogenization and standard mechanics
analyses for periodic porous composites. Computational Mechanics. 1992, Vol. 10, pp.
73-95.
NS Bakhvalov, G Panasenko. Homogenisation: Averaging Processes In Periodic Media:
Mathematical Problems In The Mechanics Of Composite Materials, Springer, 1989.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
Introduction
In this lecture we are going to introduce a new micromechanics model to determine the fibrous
composite effective properties in terms of properties of its individual phases. In this model a
composite is represented as an assemblage of concentric cylinders. The core of this cylinder is a fibre
and surrounding annulus is a matrix material. This model is called concentric cylinder assemblage
(CCA) model.
In this lecture we give the introduction and back ground of this model.
The Lecture Contains
Home Work
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
Concentric Cylinder Assemblage (CCA) Model
As we know, the unidirectional fibrous composite has fibres embedded in matrix material. The fibres
are, in general, cylindrical in nature. Thus, Hashin and Rosen [1] introduced a micromechanical
model in which the composite is represented as an assemblage of concentric cylinders. The inner
cylinder represents the fiber and outer annulus is matrix. The fibres are considered to be infinitely
long cylinders and matrix is considered to be continuous.
The model is shown in Figure 7.10(a). For each individual fibre of radius , there is associated an
annulus of matrix material of inner radius and outer radius . The individual cylinder, thus formed,
is called as a composite cylinder. This is shown in Figure 7.10 (b). It should be noted that the all
cylinders do not have the same radii. The radii of each cylinder vary in a way such that they
completely fill the composite volume. However, the ratio of the fiber cylinder to the outer radius of
matrix cylinder is same for all cylinders. This leads to the fact that all composite cylinders have the
same volume fractions. Further, the resulting material is transversely isotropic in nature.
The advantage of this model is that analysis of one composite cylinder is sufficient to determine the
four out of five effective elastic moduli of a transversely isotropic material.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
Background of CCA Model
Here, we will relate five effective independent stiffness coefficients with the measurable effective
engineering constants. In the following, for a transversely isotropic material we derive relations
between the stiffness coefficients and engineering constants.
The unidirectional fibrous composite is transversely isotropic in nature in plane perpendicular to fibre
direction (or in plane perpendicular to the plane in which fibres are placed together). The stress
strain relations for the transversely isotropic material in 23 plane is written as
(7.148)
Thus, there are five constants, and are independent constants. These
constants define the effective properties of the composite. Note that in above relations tensorial
shear strains are used. The relation between these independent constants and effective engineering
constants can be given as follows:
Consider an uniaxial stress state such that and .
. Putting this in Equation (7.148) we can solve for the normal strains. The normal strains in terms of
and are given as
(7.149)
(7.150)
(7.151)
(7.152)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
Similarly, we define the following the Poissons ratios and as
(7.153)
Thus, using Equation (7.149), we get
(7.154)
The other engineering constants that can be directly related to the effective stiffness coefficients are
(7.155)
Equations (7.152), (7.154) and (7.155) are four equations with five effective stiffness constants. We
need one more equation in effective stiffness constants that relates an effective engineering constant.
Then we can solve for and in terms of effective engineering constants.
We develop this equation as follows. Let us define the plane strain bulk modulus, corresponding
to the state of strain
(7.156)
For this state of strain, from the constitutive equation in Equation (7.148) the normal stresses are
given as
(7.157)
(7.158)
(7.159)
In the above exercise, the measurable properties are and . However, one can
measure the other engineering properties and express the effective stiffness coefficients. Let us
consider that a uniaxial tension normal to the fibre direction is applied such that and
. Putting this in Equation (7.148) we can solve for the normal
strains. The normal strains in terms of and are given as
(7.160)
(7.161)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
Now we define the effective Poissons ratios and as
(7.162)
Thus, using Equation (7.149), we get
(7.163)
and
(7.164)
(7.165)
(7.166)
(7.167)
Thus, if we know the effective engineering constants and ,then we can find the
effective stiffness coefficients for transversely isotropic material. Further, the remaining engineering
constants can also be determined.
The effective stiffness can be determined from the composite cylinder either using the concept of
equivalence of strain energy or the basic definitions for each of the engineering property. For the
equivalence of strain energy approach the strain energy of the composite cylinder must be equal to
the strain energy of the single homogeneous cylinder. The strain energy in a given volume of the
cylinder is given as
(7.168)
In the case of a composite cylinder, the integral over volume extends over the volume of the core
cylinder plus the volume of the annulus and in case of homogeneous cylinder it is over the one
cylinder. It should be noted that both cylinder systems are subjected to same deformations. This
approach can be complicated in the case of concentric cylinders as it involves both the geometry
and elastic properties of two cylinders.
In the following sections we derive the effective engineering constants using the CCA model and
basic definitions of engineering properties as follows. In this, the concentric cylinders are axially
loaded. The composite axial modulus can be defined as axial force divided by axial strain produced
by this axial force. Further, in this loading the assumption is that no other stresses are applied and
the cylinders are free to deform.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
Analysis of Concentric Cylinders
When the concentric cylinders are subjected to either an axial load or a uniform radial stress then
there are no shear stresses produced. Further, in an infinite cylinder away from the ends, the
stresses are independent of . For this state of stress, there will be one equilibrium equation given
as
(7.169)
where, and are radial and circumferential stresses, respectively. For a cylindrical coordinate
system with no shear stresses, we can write normal stresses for transversely isotropic material as
(7.170)
Similarly, for transversely isotropic fibre and isotropic matrix the normal stresses are given as
(7.171)
(7.172)
where, and are axial, circumferential or tangential and radial displacements, respectively.
Further, with no shear effects and axisymmetry the tangential displacement is zero. It should be
noted that the stresses are not function of . Hence, the strains are independent of . Hence, the
displacement can be a function of . However, can be function of and, at most, a linear
function of . Hence, in the expression for strain there is partial derivative and not in the
expression for . For the expression of we have the full derivative with respect to .
Thus, the normal strains for the displacements in this case simplify to
When these strain-displacement relations are used in stress-strain relations then the equilibrium
equation in Equation (7.169) gives an ordinary differential equation in as
(7.173)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
The solution to this equation is
(7.174)
Thus, the solution for fibre is
(7.175)
(7.176)
The axial displacement in fibre and matrix can be determined by integrating the first of Equation
(7.172) with respect to . In this equation the left hand side is independent of .
Thus,
(7.177)
It should be noted that and are constants and and are the arbitrary
constants of integration. The constants and and functions and
are unknown. These can be determined from specific boundary conditions.
The displacement in fibre as given in Equation (7.175) should be bounded when . This
requires the condition that
(7.178)
Further, the displacements are continuous at the interface of fibre and matrix. This results in
(7.179)
Using Equation (7.178) and Equation (7.179), the continuity conditions become
(7.180)
(7.181)
This means that the strains in -direction in fibre and matrix are given by same function of .
Further, the unknown constant in fibre and matrix is same. This constant, in fact, is the axial
strain. Therefore, it is denoted as .
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
The third continuity condition required is the continuity of the stress component normal to the
interface between the fibre and matrix, that is,
(7.182)
Using, Equation (7.171) and the unknown constants in above condition, we get
(7.183)
The unknown constants and
(7.183)
can be determined from the first of Equation (7.180) and Equation (7.183) along with additional
equations that will result due to the application of specific load or deformation, which in turn will
depend upon which of the engineering property is to be determined.
Let us write the strain displacement relations for fibre and matrix using Equation (7.172) and
Equation (7.175) through Equation (7.177).
(7.184)
(7.185)
From the above equation, it is easy to see that like strains, the stresses are also spatially uniform in
the fibre. Further, the radial and hoop/transverse stresses are identical for this case.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. What is a CCA model?
2. Give a brief description of the background for CCA model.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model
References:
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech.
1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J.
Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse
phase geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol.
50, pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
MW Hyer, AM Waas. Micromechanics of linear elastic continuous fibre composites, in
Comprehensive Composite Materials. Vol. 1: Fiber Reinforcements and General Theory
of Composites, Eds. A Kelly, C Zweben. Elsevier, 2000.
JC Halpin Affdl, JL Kardos. The Halpin-Tsai equations: A review. 1976, Vol. 16(5), pp.
344-352.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
Introduction
In this lecture we are going to determine the effective properties of a composite cylinder in terms of
properties of fibre and matrix materials using CCA model. We will use the relations and concepts
developed in the previous lecture for concentric cylinders.
In this approach the fibre is considered to be transversely isotropic and matrix is isotropic in nature.
However, as a special case and whenever possible, we will derive expressions considering both fibre
and matrix as isotropic materials.
In the present lecture we will derive the expressions for effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio.
The Lecture Contains
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
Effective Axial Modulus
The effective axial modulus is determined from the basic definition of axial modulus. The axial load is
applied to the composite cylinder. The axial stress is uniform across the cross section. Further, this stress
can be given as the axial load divided by the cross sectional area, that is,
(7.186)
If the effective axial modulus is is known then the axial strain can be given as
(7.187)
For the axial load applied, the radial stress on the outer boundary, that is, at is zero. Thus,
(7.188)
(7.189)
The effective axial force can also be obtained by integrating the axial stresses in fibre and matrix over the
cross sectional area as
(7.190)
Putting the expressions for and from Equation (7.185) and carrying out the integration we get
(7.191)
The unknown constants and can be determined by solving Equations (7.180), (7.183),
(7.189) and (7.191). The unknowns and then can be used in Equation. (7.191) to calculate the axial
force .
The unknown constants and are given as
(7.192)
where,
(7.193)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
The denominator is given as
(7.194)
with
(7.195)
Thus, the effective axial modulus can be found from Equation (7.187) as
(7.196)
Note: One can determine the effective axial modulus from Equation (7.191). The unknown can
be expressed from this equation in terms of unknown . For this, one has to solve Equations (7.180),
(7.183) and (7.189) for and . Then divide both sides of this equation by cross sectional area
of the composite cylinder and . This gives the effective axial modulus. For this case, the unknown
constants are given as
(7.197)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
Special Case: Fibre and Matrix Materials are Isotropic
The constitutive equations for an isotropic and linear elastic material, we write
(7.198)
where, and are the Lam constants. Further, is shear modulus. To be consistent with the
notations for shear modulus one can use the symbol in the following derivations. However, we
will use the symbol in this case. The axial stresses in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.199)
Here, is defined as bulk modulus. The axial stress in fibre and matrix is spatially
uniform. The radial stresses in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.200)
(7.201)
These are the same as radial stresses. Further, as mentioned earlier all shear stresses are zero.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
The first continuity condition is the first of Equation (7.180). The continuity of radial stresses at the fibre and
matrix interface from Equation (7.182) gives
(7.202)
The radial stress free condition on outer surface as in Equation (7.188) gives the relation
(7.203)
(7.204)
Here, and are the unknowns. These can be obtained by solving the Equations (7.180) and
Equations (7.202) through (7.204). These are given as
(7.205)
where,
(7.206)
and
(7.207)
with
(7.208)
Then the effective axial modulus can be determined from Equation (7.196) with appropriate substitutions
of equations for isotropic assumption of fibre and matrix materials.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
As an alternate approach, one can determine the effective axial modulus from Equation (7.204) if
and are expressed in terms of unknown and divide both sides of this equation by
and cross sectional area of . and are obtained along with by solving Equations
(7.180), (7.202) and (7.203). These unknown constants are given in Equation (7.209).
(7.209)
The effective axial modulus for this special case is then given as
(7.210)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
Equivalence of Strain Energy Approach
In this approach the strain energies of the concentric cylinders and equivalent homogeneous cylinder are equated.
The strain energy of the equivalent homogeneous cylinder is written as
(7.211)
In this equation a unit length of the cylinders has been assumed. Further, use of Equation (7.191) can be made in
this equation. Now, the strain energy of the concentric cylinders is given as
(7.212)
Recall that the stresses are functions of alone. They are independent of and . Further, for this cylinder
system also a unit length has been assumed. Equation (7.184) and Equation (7.185) are substituted in the above
equation and integration over is carried out. It gives us
(7.213)
Further, the unknown constants , and as given in Equation (7.192) are used. Then comparison of
Equation (7.211) and Equation (7.213) gives the effective axial modulus .
(7.214)
In above equation, the unknown constants , and and as given Equation (7.205) can be used for
further simplifications. Thus, equivalence of strain energies of concentric and equivalent homogeneous cylinder
will lead to effective axial modulus .
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
Effective Axial Poissons Ratio:
The effective axial Poissons ratio can be determined from the preceding problem definition. Here, we
define the effective axial Poissons ratio as the ratio of associated lateral strain to the axial strain due to
applied load in axial direction. Thus,
(7.215)
From Equation (7.176) we can write
(7.216)
The constants , and and given from Equation (7.192) can be used in the above equation.
Further, one can give the constants and in terms of as in Equation (7.197).
(7.217)
(7.218)
Comparing this equation with the corresponding equation in strength of materials approach, we see that
the first two terms are exactly same. It should be noted that the third term is not a small term.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
Home Work
1. What are the deformations or load conditions to be imposed on the concentric cylinders to
determine the effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio?
2. What are the continuity conditions to be imposed on the concentric cylinders to determine the
effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio?
3. Outline the methodology with key points to determine the effective axial modulus and
Poissons ratio using CCA model.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
References:
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech.
1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J.
Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse
phase geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol.
50, pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Z Hashin. Viscoelastic fiber reinforced materials. AIAA J, 1966, Vol. 4, pp. 1411-1417.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 31: CCA Model: Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
Introduction
In the previous lectures we have introduced the concept of CCA model. Further, we have determined
the effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio using the concepts of mechanics and equivalence of
strain energy approach.
In the present lecture we will derive the expressions for effective plane strain bulk modulus.
The Lecture Contains
Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 31: CCA Model: Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
We need to find the effective plane strain bulk modulus such that the axial strain is zero and there is
same strain in two transverse directions. This state of strain can be applied as follows:
(7.219)
For this state of strain, the displacement field in cylindrical coordinates system on the outer
boundary of the cylinders becomes
(7.220)
The displacement field at the outer boundary of the cylinders reflects a pure radial stress tractions,
that is, will give us the same boundary conditions of a homogeneous cylinder. If these
tractions are transferred to the Cartesian coordinate system, then we get
(7.221)
Alternatively, for the displacement field in Equation (7.220) on the outer surface of the cylinder, the
tractions in cylindrical coordinates are
(7.222)
(7.223)
However, one can give the strains from the displacement field in Equation (7.220).
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 31: CCA Model: Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
It should be noted that the axisymmetric problem given here has the same form of solution as given
previously. However, the constants involved in this problem will take different values depending upon the
boundary conditions of this problem. For this problem in hand, we have the following boundary conditions:
The radial displacement at the fibre and matrix interface should be continuous as in the first of Equation
(7.180).
The second condition is continuity of radial stresses at the fibre and matrix interface as in Equation (7.182).
With transversely isotropic fibre, this condition leads to
(7.224)
and with isotropic fibre, this condition from Equation (7.202) with becomes
(7.225)
The third condition is that the outer boundary of the cylinder has the radial stress equal to the as in
Equation (7.221) or Equation (7.222). In case of fibre with transversely isotropic material, this leads to
(7.226)
and in case of fibre with isotropic material, from Equation (7.200) with it becomes
(7.227)
For the case of transversely isotropic fibre the constants and are determined by solving the
Equations. (7.180), (7.224) and (7.226). These constants are
(7.228)
For the case of isotropic fibre the the constants and are determined by solving the Equations
(7.180), (7.225) and (7.227). These constants are given as
(7.229)
Thus, all stresses and strains can be given in terms of unknown and constants. The effective
plane strain bulk modulus of the equivalent homogeneous material is then defined as
(7.230)
(7.231)
(7.232)
(7.233)
where, is the ratio of change in volume per unit volume of the concentric cylinders. It is given as
(7.234)
In this the second order terms are ignored. Thus, the effective plane strain bulk modulus for this definition
gives us same expression for plane strain bulk modulus as in Equation (7.232).
Thus, for the transversely isotropic fibre, using the constants as given in Equation (7.228) the effective plane
strain bulk modulus becomes
(7.235)
(7.236)
For isotropic fibre, using the constants from Equation (7.229) the effective plane strain bulk modulus is given
as
(7.237)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 31: CCA Model: Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
Equivalence of Strain Energy Approach:
We can derive the effective bulk modulus using the concept of equivalence of strain energy. The
strain energy of the equivalent homogeneous single cylinder is given as
(7.238)
The stresses and strains are known from Equation (7.219), Equation (7.222) and Equation (7.223).
When these are substituted in above equation, for a unit length, it gives
(7.239)
Now this strain energy is compared with that obtained for concentric cylinders as given in Equation
(7.212). The stresses and strains in fibre and matrix for this expression can be obtained as the
constants and are known.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. Write a short note on deformations/loads to be imposed on the concentric cylinders to obtain
the effective plane strain bulk modulus.
2. Derive an expression for the effective plane strain bulk modulus using CCA model.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 31: CCA Model: Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
References:
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech.
1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J.
Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse
phase geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol.
50, pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Z Hashin. Viscoelastic fiber reinforced materials. AIAA J, 1966, Vol. 4, pp. 1411-1417.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus
Introduction
In the previous lectures we have introduced the concept of CCA model and then used those concepts
to derive the expressions for effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio.
In this lecture, we continue with the CCA model to derive the expressions for effective axial shear
modulus.
The Lecture Contains
Effective Axial Shear Modulus
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus
Effective Axial Shear Modulus
The effective axial shear modulus is obtained by subjecting the concentric cylinders and equivalent
homogeneous single cylinder to pure axial shear loading. Consider the concentric cylinders as shown
in Figure 7.11. The outer surface of the cylinder in plane is subjected to a displacement
field such that the overall strain produced in this plane is equal to , that is,
(7.240)
The displacement components on the boundary of the cylinder then becomes
(7.241)
Let us assume that both fibre and matrix materials are transversely isotropic in nature. Further,
assume that they experience only shear strains. Under these assumptions, it can be shown that the
each component of the displacement in either of the phase is governed by Laplace equation. For the
details of the derivation one can see work by Chou and Pagano [7]. For the present case of
deformations, the strains are not the function of . The displacement components in each
constituent are then given with corresponding simplification in the general solution as
(7.242)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus
Here, and are the unknown constants. Further, it should be noted that for
the axisymmetric problem the displacement in fibre must be bounded. This poses a condition that
the constant as in Equation (7.178). The continuity of the displacement components at the
interface may be written as
(7.243)
The first continuity condition of the above equation gives the relation
(7.244)
which is same as the first of Equation (7.180). The remaining two displacement continuity conditions
give
(7.245)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus
The non-zero stresses resulting from the displacement field in Equation (7.242) are
(7.246)
The continuity of the stresses in radial direction leads the continuity of the stress at the interface.
This condition becomes
(7.247)
Now, at the outer boundary of the concentric cylinders the displacements must match the following
boundary conditions.
(7.248)
Note that from the second and the third of the above condition, we get
(7.249)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus
The constants and can be determined in terms of by solving Equations (7.244), (7.247), the first
of Equations(7.248) and (7.249). These are
(7.250)
At last, at the outer boundary the shear stress must match the shear stress in coordinate system. Thus, at
, the shear stress then becomes
(7.251)
(7.252)
Thus, the equivalent axial shear modulus can be given combining Equation (7.251) and Equation (7.252). Then
values of constants and are substituted from Equation (7.250). Thus, we get the result
(7.253)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Home Work:
1. Write a short note on the deformation or the loads to be imposed on the concentric cylinders
to determine the effective axial shear modulus.
2. Derive the expression for the effective axial shear modulus of the composite using CCA
model.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus
References
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech.
1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J.
Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse
phase geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol.
50, pp. 481-505.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
Introduction
In the previous lectures we have introduced the concept of CCA model and have derived the
expressions for effective axial modulus; Poissons ratio; shear modulus and plane strain bulk modulus.
Now, only one of the effective properties is left to be determined so that we can get all effective
properties of the composite. This property is transverse shear modulus.
In the present lecture, we will derive the expression for effective transverse shear modulus.
The Lecture Contains
Three-Phase Composite Cylinder for Transverse Shear Modulus
Homework
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
Three-Phase Composite Cylinder for Transverse Shear Modulus
The determination of effective transverse shear modulus with concentric cylinders is quite difficult. At
present, for this problem no exact solution has been presented. Hence, a different model is
presented for the determination of transverse shear modulus. In this model, all cylinders except one
are replaced with equivalent homogeneous material. This model is shown in Figure 7.12. In this
model, the outer composite cylinder can have infinite radius. The outer cylinder represents the
composite and hence, it should not affect the overall effective properties of the three cylinders. This
model is called as three phase composite cylinder model or three phase model. The closed form
expression for this property proposed by Christensen and Lo [10] has been presented here.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
The state of deformation imposed is such that the far away from the fibre and matrix a state of pure
shear is produced.
The planar stresses for the cylinder can be given in terms of stress function as
(7.254)
(7.255)
Here, and are the constants that are evaluated using the boundary conditions. Using Equation
(7.255) in Equation (7.254), the stresses become
(7.256)
Now, considering the plane strain condition with and using the stress-strain relations, the
strains in composite material are written as
(7.257)
where, . Now using the strain displacement relations as in Equation (7.172) the
displacement components in composite material are obtained as
(7.258)
Here, the polar coordinates are used. Further, as the above equation leads to the imposed
state of simple shear deformation. It should be noted that the displacements in this equation satisfy
the equilibrium equations.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
In a similar way, we can derive the displacement field in matrix phase. It is given as
(7.259)
The displacement in fibre phase is given as
(7.260)
where,
and (7.261)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
The displacement continuity at gives the relations
(7.262)
(7.263)
(7.264)
(7.265)
Now the effective properties are determined from the equivalence of strain energy in heterogeneous
media and in the equivalent homogeneous media. Thus, we write this condition as
(7.266)
The strain energies in the above equation can be given in terms of Eshelby formula.
(7.267)
where is the strain energy of a homogeneous medium containing an inclusion under the conditions
of applied displacements. is the surface of the inclusion and is the strain energy in the same
medium when the medium does not contain any inclusion. Further, and are the tractions and
displacements on the surface when the medium has no inclusion. and are the tractions and
displacements on the surface when the medium has inclusion. It should be noted that the context of
three phase cylinder model the inclusion here it means the concentric cylinders. Thus, refers to the
strain energy of the Figure 7.12(a). refers to the strain energy of the Figure 7.12(b) when the
inclusion is replaced by the equivalent homogeneous material outside. However, this energy is
.
(7.268)
Thus, from Equation (7.266) and Equation (7.268) we can write that
(7.269)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
Using the definitions of stresses and displacements this equation is written as
(7.270)
The various quantities in above equation are given as
(7.271)
This expression is derived from the condition that the displacements must be bounded at .
Thus, from Equation (7.256), . Thus, we can write
(7.272)
(7.273)
The stresses at can be given again using Equation (7.256) as
(7.274)
Finally, and are evaluated at from Equation (7.258) and are given as
(7.275)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
Now using all the required terms in Equation (7.270) and carrying out the integration, we get
(7.276)
The solution for obtained by solving eight simultaneous equations is thus set equal to zero. This leads to the
following equation.
(7.277)
where
(7.278)
(7.279)
and
(7.280)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
Further, in the case of dilute suspension, that is, a single inclusion or fibre in an infinite equivalent
homogeneous medium (that is, a condition leading to a low fibre volume fraction) the following
relation is given
(7.281)
where is the bulk modulus of the matrix relating hydrostatic stress to the change in volume. The
bulk modulus relates the hydrostatic stress and the change in volume as
(7.282)
It should be noted from Equation (7.281) that there is no correlation with rule of mixture for
transverse shear modulus.
Note: The remaining effective properties like and can be obtained from the
relations given in Equation (7.167).
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
Home Work:
1. What is a three-phase cylinder model? Why is it required?
2. Write a short note on determination of transverse shear modulus using three phase cylinder
model.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus
References
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech.
1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J.
Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.
Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse
phase geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol.
50, pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
MW Hyer, AM Waas. Micromechanics of linear elastic continuous fibre composites, in
Comprehensive Composite Materials. Vol. 1: Fiber Reinforcements and General Theory
of Composites, Eds. A Kelly, C Zweben. Elsevier, 2000.
RM Christensen, KH Lo. Solutions for effective shear properties in three phase sphere
and cylinder models. J. Appl. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1979, Vol. 27(4), pp. 315-330.
GN Savin. Stress Concentration Around Holes, Pergamon Press, New York, 1961.
Z Hashin. Viscoelastic fiber reinforced materials. AIAA J, 1966, Vol. 4, pp. 1411-1417.
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Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
Introduction
In this lecture we will introduce some more micromechanical methods to predict the effective
properties of the composite. Here we will introduce expressions for the effective properties without the
detailed derivations.
In the present lecture we will study the self consistent method, Mori-Tanaka method and some
relations based on semi-empirical method introduced by Halpin-Tsai.
The Lecture Contains
Self Consistent Method
Mori-Tanaka Method
References
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
Self Consistent Method
The self consistent method is based on the solution to an auxiliary inclusion problem where a single
ellipsoidal inclusion is embedded in an infinite medium. In this system it is assumed that the bond
between inclusion and the infinite medium is perfect. Therefore, there is displacement and traction
continuity across the interface of the two phases. One can determine the stresses and strains by
applying uniform stresses or strains to the system at infinity. It was shown by Eshelby [1] that in
these types of problems, the stress and strain fields in the inclusion are uniform. Further, the elastic
properties can be determined by finding the relation between far-field stresses and strains in the
homogeneous medium and stresses and strains in the inclusion, or the stress or strain concentration
factors.
The problem of determining the effective properties of such a system was dealt in depth by Hill [2]
and Budiansky [3]. In this approach the average stress and strain fields in the fiber are taken to be
equal to those in the inclusion problem. Further, the infinite medium is taken to be homogeneous
with the same properties of the composite.
For fibrous composites, which are transversely isotropic in nature with both fibre and matrix phases
also transversely isotropic, the self consistent estimates of Hill [2] of the overall moduli give the
following relations.
(7.283)
It was shown by Hill [4] that regardless of the method used to obtain the estimates, only three of the
five overall moduli of such composites are actually independent. Then the moduli and are
related through so called universal relations in terms of overall moduli and phase moduli and their
volume fractions as,
(7.284)
Therefore, only one of the three moduli is independent. This fact is clear from the relation in
Equation (7.283). This equation gives a cubic equation in and quadratic equations for and
, again, in terms of . Hence, if is known, then and can easily be obtained from Eq.
(7.284).
Note: When one or both phases are isotropic, then there are only two independent moduli in such
phase. Further, one can write then and in terms of engineering constants.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
Mori-Tanaka Method
The original method was proposed by Mori and Tanaka [5] in 1973. Further, Benveniste [6] proposed
a simpler version of the same model. The key assumption in this model is that the average strain in
the inclusion, that is fibre, is related to the average strain in the matrix by a fourth order tensor. This
fourth order tensor gives the relation between the uniform strain in the inclusion embedded in an all
matrix material. Further, this material is subjected to uniform strain at infinity.
The strain concentration factors in fibre are given as
(7.285)
where,
(7.286)
Here, is the fourth order tensor which relates the average strain in the inclusion to the average
strain in the matrix. is Eshelbys tensor, and are the stiffness tensors of fibre and
matrix materials, respectively. Dvorak et al [7-9] have given the explicit relations in terms of Hills
moduli as
(7.287)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
Halpin-Tsai Semi-Empirical Relations
A set of semi-empirical relations have been developed by Halpin and Tsai for easy design
procedure. These relations were developed by curve fitting to the results that are based on elasticity.
These relations are called semi-empirical relations because the parameters involved in these
relations have some physical significance. In the following we give these relations.
The longitudinal Youngs modulus is same as given by rule of mixtures using strength of materials
approach. Thus,
(7.288)
Further, the axial Poissons ratio is the same as given by the rule of mixtures using strength of
materials approach. Thus, the axial Poissons ratio is
(7.289)
(7.290)
where
(7.291)
Further, stands for or and and stands for corresponding values for fibre
and matrix, respectively. Here, is a measure of reinforcement geometry which depends upon
loading conditions and geometries of the inclusion, that is, fibre.
The parameters used in the Equation (7.290) have physical significance. The limiting values give
following significant information:
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
The limiting values of are given as follows:
. . For this value, Equation (7.290) becomes
(7.292)
This gives,
(7.293)
It is easy to see that this is a series connected model which gives the lower bound of a composite
modulus.
(7.294)
(7.295)
This is the parallel connected model. This gives the upper bound of a composite modulus. Thus,
is regarded as a reinforcement measure. This factor covers all possible range of the composite
moduli as it varies from zero to infinity. Once this factor is known, the composite moduli are
determined from the generalized formula.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
For example, in case of for a circular fibres in a square array, and for rectangular
fibres cross section of length and width in a hexagonal array, where is in the
direction of loading. Similarly, for for circular fibres in a square array , and for
rectangular cross-section with length and width in a hexagonal array, ,
where is in the loading direction.
Note: In case of transversely isotropic material in 23 plane, the constitutive relations are given as
(7.296)
and
(7.297)
Here, the moduli and refer to the values in the longitudinal or axial direction
of straining and and refer to the values in transverse plane. Further, the
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
The relationship between the Hills moduli, and and the engineering moduli are given
as
(7.298)
Some additional useful relations are
(7.299)
Further, if the phase is isotropic then with bulk modulus and shear modulus , we have
(7.300)
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
Home Work:
1. What is meant by self consistent method?
2. Write a short note on Mori-Tanaka method.
3. Write a short note on Halpin-Tsai semi-empirical models.
Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models
References
JD Eshelby. The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion, and
related problems. Proc. R. Soc. London. 1957, Vol. A241, pp.376-396.
R Hill. A self consistent mechanics of composite materials. J. Appl. Phys. Solids. 1965,
Vol. 13(4), pp. 213-212.
B Budiansky. On the elastic moduli of some heterogeneous materials. J Mech. Phys.
Solids. Vol. 13, pp. 223-227.
R Hill. Theory of mechanical properties of fibre-strengthened materials-I. Elastic
behaviour. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 1964, Vol. 12, pp. 199-212.
T Mori, K Tanaka. Average stress in matrix and average elastic energy of materials with
misfitting inclusions. Acta Metall. 1973, Vol. 21, pp. 571-574.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
JC Halpin, JL Kardos. The Halpin-Tsai equations: A review. Polymer Engg. Sci., 1976,
Vol. 16(5), pp. 344-352.
The Lecture Contains
Societies for Testing Standards
Background to Mechanical Testing of Composites
Effect of Anisotropy of Composites on Mechanical Testing
Nature and Quality of the Test Data
Samples and Specimens for Mechanical Testing
Homework
These questions arise when one needs to establish the response of these materials various types of
loading like tensile, compressive or shear, for short-term or long-term duration, or cyclic. Further,
their behaviour in the presence of high or low temperatures or other environments which might
significantly modify their behaviour is essential.
There are few societies which develops the standards related to composites. They essentially
provide the information and guidance necessary to design and fabricate end items from composite
materials. Their primary purpose is the standardization of engineering data development
methodologies related to testing, data reduction, and data reporting of property data for current and
emerging composite materials.
a) ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials was
founded in 1898 by chemists and engineers from Pennsylvania Railroad, USA. At the time of its
establishment, the organization was known as the American Section of the International Association
for Testing and Materials. In 2011, the society became known as ASTM International.
ASTM members deliver the test methods, specifications, guides and practices that support
industries and governments worldwide. ASTM International standards are developed in accordance
with the guiding principles of the World Trade Organization for the development of international
standards: coherence, consensus, development dimension, effectiveness, impartiality, openness,
relevance and transparency.
The ASTM standards are also available in the volume form as The Composite Materials Handbook.
b) Composites Research Advisory Group (CRAG), which set about in the early 1980s to attempt to
define what the best practice should be over a range of test methods. The CRAG recommendations
were proposed to the British Standards Institution and subsequently had a considerable effect in the
development of new international standards.
c) Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) was formed in 1905. In early 1900s there were a lot of
automobile companies worldwide, which needed to address their common design issues, patent
protection and the development of engineering standards. The development of standards for
It should be noted that these processes are dependent upon each other. However, if they are
considered individually then the data required can be different for the evaluation. For example, some
tests are carried out as multipurpose tests using various processes. A conventional tensile test
carried out under fixed conditions may serve quality control function whereas one carried out varying
factors like temperature, strain rate, humidity etc. may provide information on load bearing capacity
of the material.
The properties evaluated for materials like composite is very sensitive to various internal structure
factors. However, these factors depend mainly upon the fabrication process or other factors. The
internal structure factors that affect the properties are, in general, at atomic or molecular level. These
factors mostly affect the matrix and fibre-matrix interface structure.
The mechanical properties of the fibrous composite depend on several factors of the composition.
These factors are listed below again for the sake of completeness.
Another important factor is processing of the composites. There are many parameters that control
the processing of composites that access the quality of adhesion between fibre and matrix, physical
integrity and the overall quality of the final structure.
In case of composite the spatial distribution and alignment of fibres are the most dominating factor
which causes the variation of properties. The spatial distribution and alignment of the fibres can
change during the same fabrication process. Thus, for a given fabrication process the property
evaluated from the composite material may show a large variation.
The first four considerations are similar to the testing of homogeneous isotropic materials. These
considerations give rise to various constraints on specimen dimension, test configurations and
machine specifications. However, the fact of heterogeneity imposes more severe constraints and
demands more considerations while testing.
In case of composite, the St. Venants Principle reflects in more stringent requirement. In anisotropic
composites, the region of uniform stress is developed more gradually. It shown that the decay
length, is of the order
(8.1)
where is the maximum dimension of the cross-section. In case of rectangular strips subjected to
end tractions
(8.2)
where, is the distance over which a self equilibrated stress applied at the ends decays to its end
value of . In above expressions, the ratio , that is degree of orthotropy, is an important factor.
For unidirectional composites this ratio varies between 40 to 50 whereas for an isotropic material this
is about 3. Thus, the ratio of respective decay lengths is about 3.5:1.
The mean value and a measure of width of the distribution, like standard deviation or range
are the two main statistical factors that are used to characterize the distribution of the values. Apart
from their direct role as a measure of the variability in a set of data, the variance and the standard
deviation, which is square root of variance, can be used to infer following points:
The flat sheets available for commercial use come in following four categories:
a. Specific states of stress can not be developed. For example, the state of pure shear is
difficult to develop in such specimens.
b. The axial compression is also a difficult issue due to buckling
c. Further, developing a combined state of stress in such specimens is also a difficult
task.
Home Work:
1. Write a short note on societies of mechanical testing.
2. What are the objectives of the mechanical testing?
3. What are the effects of the anisotropy of composites in their mechanical testing?
4. What are the issues with the mechanical testing of the specimen?
Quality Assessment
Homework
The requirement of property evaluation listed above is based upon the tests for an isotropic
homogeneous sample. However, this minimum requirement is not sufficient to completely quantify
the strength and stiffness tensors. Further, it neglects the viscoelastic behaviour aspect of the
composites.
All the tests included in the minimum requirement of the property evaluation are not carried out by
most of the industries working in composites. Their objective can be different and carry out some of
the tests. For example, most of the fibres manufacturing companies give the properties of composite
which are fibre properties dominant. In such cases, the properties like axial tensile and flexure are
given more significance. However, the resin manufacturers tend to give more significance to
compression and shear properties of the composite. In this case, these properties are dominated by
matrix properties.
The call for open hole tests reflects reservations about the reliability of the theories of failure and
about the relevance and relative paucity of the empirical evidence from conventional fracture
toughness tests. The protagonists of such tests sometimes seem to be preoccupied with a search for
authentic and/or definitive data which is perpetually frustrated by a preponderance of mixed-mode
failures in their experiments.
The following are the primary engineering properties for preliminary selection of composite materials
in a commercial aeroplane industry:
The tests mentioned above are the essential tests in the initial testing phase.
2. Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method of testing. Using this method one can assess the
quality of the composite. The ultrasonic testing method includes the propagation of mechanical
waves through the object to be inspected. The mechanical waves propagated are in the range of 100
kHz to 25 MHz. Some of the waves propagated are reflected or transmitted at the other end. The
intensity of the waves at the other end is measured by a receiving transducer.
There are two types of waves: Longitudinal and transverse waves. In longitudinal waves direction of
oscillation of atoms and the direction of propagation of the wave is along same direction. In the
transverse waves the direction of oscillation of atoms is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of wave. The longitudinal waves propagate in all materials whereas the transverse waves propagate
only in solid materials. Further, due to Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves travel
at lower speeds.
When the wave propagating in the material is intercepted by a defect and interfaces (like change
from fibre to matrix material and vice a versa or a foreign particle) the energy transmitted through
the material also gets reduced due the effect of reflection and attenuation. Thus, one can use both
reflection and transmission form of energy for ultrasonic inspection.
The ultrasonic beam requires a transfer medium. In general, water is used as a transfer medium.
This is a disadvantage of this method. Further, use of water during the test process can lead to
absorption water by composite.
In the recent years the new developments in the ultrasonic testing have made this process very
sophisticated and attractive. One can get the complete map or intensity distribution corresponding to
the discontinuity in the material. Such a map is called C-scan.
The detailed information on the ultrasonic inspection can be found in ASTM E114-90 for Pulse-Echo
method, E214-68(91) for Reflection method, E317-93 for Pulse-Echo and E494-91 for ultrasonic
velocities.
3. X-Ray
X-ray technique is a very useful technique. It uses the electromagnetic waves of extremely of short
wavelength. These waves are capable of penetrating solid substances and are affected by
discontinuities much as other waves. It should be noted that the polymer composites X-rays. A X-ray
opaque penetrant is introduced in the damaged area as a liquid solution or suspension so that it fills
the cracks and delaminations and makes them clearly visible on X-ray films as a dark region.
Opaque dye penetrant such as tetra-bromo-ethane (TBE) is used in these processes.
It is cautioned that the frequent use of dye penetrant should be avoided. This is because the
penetrant actually enhances the crack growth. Thus, under loading the frequent use of penetrant will
increase the growth rate. Hence, this technique is treated as effectively destructive.
The regions with lower density such as voids, defects and cracks absorb less radiation. This result in
higher intensity of the radiation that reaches a photographic film or plate placed on the far side of
the sample. The higher intensity causes the darkening of the film or the plate. Thus, the darker
areas of the film indicate the outline of the low density region.
ASTM Standards related with this technique are E 94-93, E 142-92 and E 1316-94.
4. Thermography
This is one of the sophisticated techniques that are used in infrared thermography. The advantage of
this technique is that it does not require any interruption for inspection. Thus, it is well suited for
fatigue testing.
This technique is based on the principles that the infrared thermography detects the heat generated
from a source. In case of damage in composite there are two types of such heat sources. The first
one is hysteresis evolving from resin and interface. The second source is heating due to friction
between the cracks and delaminated interfaces. Thus, the area which appears hot on the
thermographs is the area of damage. Once the area of damage is detected, one can zoom into it
and get more details.
ASTM Standard guide for nondestructive testing of polymer matrix composites used in aerospace
applications is E2533-09.
The density of a material is determined using its weight in air and in water . The densities of
air (negligible) and water are taken as known parameters in this
test. The volume of the specimen is determined from the difference between the weight of the
material in air and the weight in water and using the known density of water. Then the composite
density is given as
(8.3)
2nd Method: In this method the matrix material is digested or dissolved by putting a measured
volume of composite in an acid bath. Then weigh the (dry) fibers remaining after digestion. Thus,
knowing the density of the fibers, the volume of fibers and the fiber volume fraction can be
determined. One should be careful to choose the liquid for digestion such that the fibers are not
digested. Generally, hot nitric acid is used for carbon/epoxy. The ASTM standards used for digestion
method are D3171-76 (1990) for polymeric composites and D3553-76 (1989) for metal matrix
composites.
3rd Method: In this method one determines the density of the composites and then calculates the
fiber volume fraction knowing the density of the fiber and the matrix. This method makes an
assumption that the void content is negligible. However, which is not true for any composite. Hence,
the results of this method may vary with the results of earlier two methods.
(8.4)
(8.5)
where, is the weight of the fibre, is the weight of the resin, is the density of the fibre and
is the density of resin. Now, percent the void content is given as:
(8.6)
Home Work:
1. List the parameters needed to assess the three main properties modulus, strength and
ductility.
2. What are the ways of assessing the quality of the composite?
3. What the physical properties of composite that needs to be quantified?
4. Explain the methods in short to measure the physical properties of a composite.
Strain Measurement
Tensile Testing
Off-Axis Laminae
Measurement of Modulus
Compression Testing
Examples
Homework
Mechanical Property Characterization
The characterization of composites for mechanical properties is very important from design and
analysis as well as life prediction point of view. The general considerations for mechanical property
characterization have already been seen in the earlier lectures. However, we will revise the key
considerations in brief in the following.
1. Specimen must provide desired state of stress and strain
2. Cost of material, fabrication, testing
3. Specimens used to generate the data must be of same fiber volume fractions, thickness and
fabrication method.
4. Flat laminates and laminated tube type specimens
1. Extensometers: They provide average strain over a finite length, typically of the order 1 in
(25.4 mm).
These are used primarily for measurement of axial strains. They can also be used to measure
transverse strains.
2. Strain gages: The strain gages can be uniaxial, bi-directional and rosettes. They measure
strain in one, two and three directions, respectively.
3. Rosettes: They provide a complete description of the average strain over the region of
measurement through strain transformation equations.
The strain gages are available in a range of sizes with smallest of the order 1.59 mm bidirection and
rosettes can be stacked or adjacent
The length of the gauge may be specified by the relevant standards, but should always be
significantly shorter than the gauge length of the specimen. Composites can cause particular
difficulties not encountered with metals. The issues that must be addressed are as follows:
1. High gauge resistances are desirable because high voltages (24 V) with low current can then
be used; this improves hysteresis effects and zero load stability.
2. If possible, use gauges with lead wires attached, or solder wires to the gauge before
installation; this should avoid soldering damage to the composite.
3. Ideally the pattern of the autoclave scrim cloth should be removed before gauge installation;
this is particularly important if contact adhesives are used.
4. Corrections may be necessary to gauge transverse sensitivity effects; errors of over 100%
between actual and measured strains can be obtained.
5. Gauges must be precisely aligned; errors of 15% can result from a misalignment. There is
no universally acceptable way of ensuring alignment. The scrim cloth pattern can be
misleading. Sometimes C-scan after installation can be useful or checking with failure
surfaces after fracture.
6. Dummy gauges are the preferred method for temperature compensation but, again, precise
alignment is needed. It is necessary to mount the dummy gauges on an identical piece of
laminate, with the same orientation relative to the fibres as used for the active gauges.
Figure 8.2: Strain gage rosette principle
When the normal strains are known then, Eq. (8.7) is a system of three equations with
three global strains as the unknowns. It should be noted that when the rosettes are
placed on both sides of flat specimen it provides the most complete information as to axial,
transverse and shear strains. Further, it provides the information on the development of specimen
curvature. The Figure 8.2 shows the arrangement of strain gages in a rosette.
One should pay attention while using the rosettes that the measurements are sensitive to
temperature. Hence, appropriate gage should be used for the test. Further, the measurements are
sensitive to fiber orientation of the composite and gage alignment. Therefore, it is very important to
measure the fibre orientation and gage alignment accurately and must be used appropriately in the
analysis of experimental results.
In general, the tensile tests are done on coupons with laminae/laminate for corresponding axial
properties and coupons with laminae/laminate for corresponding transverse properties. The off
axis laminae specimen also provides data on coefficient of mutual influence and the in-plane shear
response.
(8.9)
The tensile strength is defined as the average stress at failure. Thus, the tensile strength can be
given using the maximum applied force per unit length and thickness as
(8.10)
It should be noted that the failure of laminates is often influenced by inter laminar stresses along the
free edge effects of the coupon. These factors will be explained in brief in one of the lecture.
The measurement of tensile strength by experiments can also provide information on the comparison
of laminate theory with experiments.
There is an important issue associated with these tests is that what boundary conditions one should
impose on the specimen? If a pure, uniform state of axial stress can be
applied to the ends and sides of a specimen and the specimen is free to assume any desired
deformation pattern, the state of stress will be uniform and constant through-out the specimen. The
deformation pattern is shown in Figure 8.4(a).
For uniform, far-field axial stress loading, that is , the stresses in principal material
directions can be given as
(8.11)
Further, the global elastic constants associated with axial stress loading are measured as
(8.12)
(8.13)
From the above equation all three strain components can be obtained for non zero value of axial
stress. Thus, from the third of the above equation we can find the shear modulus.
Figure 8.4: Axial load on off-axis laminae with effect of end constraint
(a) unconstrained displacement and
(b) constrained displacement
It is not easy to apply pure, uniform tensile stress to an off-axis coupon. The specimens are gripped
in such a manner that the ends of the specimen are constrained and boundary condition is actually
a specification of the axial end displacement. Further, there are more issues with these tests like the
constrained displacement induces a doubly curved displacement field in the specimen. The deformed
shape of the coupon with restrictions on the ends is depicted in Figure 8.4(b). We will not deal the
complete analysis for the measurements of the properties with tests on off-axis laminae.
The bone shaped specimens for chopper-fiber, metal matrix composite tensile tests. More details can
be seen in ASTM D3552-77(1989). Further, for the tensile testing for transverse properties of hoop-
wound polymer matrix composite cylinders are used. The details of this testing can be seen in ASTM
D5450/D5450M-93.
During compression loading the buckling of the specimen should be avoided. This demands a
special requirement on the holding of the specimen for loading purpose. Further, it demands for
special geometry of the specimen. These specimens are smaller in size as compared to the tensile
testing specimens. A compression test specimen according to ASTM D695 (modified) standard is
shown in Figure 8.7.
The compression testing of composites is a vast topic. Additional reading on this topic from other
literature is suggested to readers.
Figure 8.6: Load imposition methods for compression testing. (a) Direct
end loading (b) Shear loading and (c) Mixed shear and direct loading
Solution:
and
Solving, we get
Example 8.2
The strain rosette is mounted on a wing as shown in Figure below. The readings in each strain
gage obtained are , and . Determine
the strains in global directions.
Solution:
and
Putting the value of in the first and third of above relation and upon solving
them, we get
7. What are the ways of imposing a compression load on a specimen for compression testing?
8. The strain rosette is mounted on a shaft as shown in Figure below. The following
readings are obtained for each gage: , and
. Determine the strains in global directions.
Shear Testing
Tensile Test
Homework
A tension test on laminate is popularly used test for the measurement of in-plane shear
modulus . The more details of this test are available in ATSM standard D3518/D3518/M91.
According to ASTM standard the method uses a 250 mm long rectangular specimen with width 25
mm and thickness 2 mm. Further, it is recommended that for materials constructed with layers
thicker than 0.125mm, the laminate should consist of 16 layers, that is, .The specimen is
shown in Figure 8.8. The dimensions in this figure are in mm.
(8.14)
where,
(8.15)
and other quantities as defined in earlier chapters. For a special case with we get the
shear stress as
(8.16)
Thus, from this equation one can see that the shear stress in principal material directions is statically
determinate, that is, it is independent of material properties of the specimen and only depends upon
the magnitude of the applied stress. The magnitude of this stress is half of the applied stress.
(8.18)
The above equation can be rearranged in the following manner to express the shear modulus in
terms of effective properties of laminate.
(8.19)
The shear stress in the principal material directions due to axial tensile stress can be given using
transformation relations as
(8.22)
The shear strain is measured from the strains and with the help of strain
transformation relations. Then the apparent shear modulus can be given as
(8.23)
The in-plane average shear stress in a thin walled unidirectional tube under
pure torsional loading, is related to torque by
(8.24)
where, is the outer diameter and is the inner diameter of the tube.
The shear strain is measured by means of two bonded triaxial strain gauges (0/45/90). The strain
gauges are bonded diametrically opposite each other, at the centre of the specimen. The strain
gauges have a gauge length of 6 mm. The longitudinal and transverse strain gauges are monitored
to ensure there are no significant bending forces applied to the specimen during the test set-up and
no bending loads present during the test. The shear strain is determined from the average of shear
strains measured using the strain gauges. The shear modulus is then given as
(8.25)
where and denote the strain measured by and and strain gages. It should
be noted that above equation indicates that the shear modulus is obtained from the initial slope of
the shear stress strain curve in some range.
The two bi-axial strain gages, one on each face, in the area between the notches are bonded. The
strain gauges should have a gauge length of 1 mm or 2 mm, to keep within the region of uniform
stress, and are aligned at 45 to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.
The average shear strength is given as
(8.26)
(8.27)
where is ultimate failure load, is the distance between the notches, is the specimen
thickness, is the change in applied load and and are the corresponding changes
in normal strain in and and strain gages. Again, it should be noted that the shear
modulus is obtained as initial slope in some range of strain.
Home Work:
1. Explain in brief the tension test on and off-axis lamina to determine the shear
properties.
2. What is Iosipescu shear test?
3. Write short note on measurement of shear modulus by torsion of a thin walled tube.
Flexural Tests
Homework
References
(8.28)
where, is ultimate failure load, is the specimen length along the rails and is the specimen
thickness.
(8.30)
(8.31)
It should be noted that the holes in the specimen are slightly oversized than the bolts used for
clamping. Further, the bolts are tightened in such a manner to ensure that there is no bearing
contact between the bolt and specimen in the loading direction. It is recommended that each bolt is
tightened with a 100 Nm torque.
The pre-treatment of specimen is essential in this testing. The pre-treatment is given in the following
paragraphs.
The specimen is pre-sheared several times before experiment, so as to make the yarns, as well as
their intervals, more uniform hence obtaining a more consistent geometry of the whole fabric. When
clamped into the fixture, the specimen is kept exactly loose in order to avoid pre-tension in both two
directions of yarn. Beforehand, several marks are drawn on the contacting point of fixture and
specimen; then after the test, it can be ensured by observation that the marks are still contacted;
therefore, there is no slippage between the specimen and the clamping plates.
From the shear force and bending moment diagrams it is clear that there is a stress concentration at
the point of loading. However, for four point bending there is uniform bending moment and both
shear force and interlaminar shear stress are zero between the loading points. Thus, it leads to the
pure bending loading. Such a state of stress is desirable in testing.
(8.32)
where, is the bending moment, is width and is the thickness of the specimen. Further,
and denote compressive and tensile normal stresses, respectively.
The shear stress varies parabolic through the thickness with maximum at mid plane and zero at the
outer surface. The maximum shear stress at the mid plane is given as
(8.33)
where is the shear force on the specimen cross section. The normal stress and shear force
variation through the thickness is shown in Figure 8.18.
The flexural response of the beam in three or four point bending test is obtained by recording the
load applied and the resulting strain. The resulting strains are measured using the strain gages
bonded on the beam in the gage length. It is clear from the distribution of the shear force and
bending moment that the state of stress in specimens subjected to three and four-point bending
tests are somewhat different. Thus, it may lead to differences in the results.
Figure 8.17: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for (a) three
point and (b) four point bending test
In case of four point bending there are two options according to ASTM D790 standard. In the first
option the loading span is one third of the support span. For this case the flexural modulus is given
as
(8.35)
In the second option the loading span is half of the support span. The flexural modulus for this case
is given as
(8.36)
where, the parameters in these two equations are as defined earlier.
The maximum stress on outer surface of the beam is given below for all the cases.
(8.37)
It is important to note that the measurement of width and thickness of the beam is important for
accurate measurement of flexural modulus and maximum stresses.
For more details on these tests one can refer to ASTM D790-92 and ASTM D790M-93.
Home Work:
1. Explain in brief: (a) Two and three rail shear test, (b) picture frame test and (c) three and four
point bending test.
2. What are differences between two and three rail shear test? Give their relative advantages
and disadvantages.
3. Differentiate between three and four point bending tests along with their pros can cons.
ASTM D695, Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics.
http://www.astm.org/Standards/D695.htm.
ASTM D3518/D3518M, Test Method for In-Plane Shear Response of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials by Tensile Test of a 45 Laminate.
http://www.astm.org/Standards/D3518.htm.
ASTM D4255/D4255M, Test Method for In-Plane Shear Properties of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials by the Rail Shear Method.
http://www.astm.org/Standards/D4255.htm.
ASTM D3479/D3479M, Test Method for Tension-Tension Fatigue of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D3479.htm.
I De Baere, W Van Paepegem, J Degrieck, Design of a modified three-rail shear test for
shear fatigue of composites, Polymer Testing, Vol. 27(3), 2008, pp 346-359.
Space Simulation, Aerospace and Aircraft, Composite Materials, ASTM Vol. 15.03.
N Iosipescu, New accurate procedure for single shear testing of metals, Journal of
Materials, Vol. 2(3), 1967, pp 53766.
HW Jr. Bergner, JG Jr. Davis, CT Herakovich, Analysis and shear test method for
composite laminates, VPI-E77-14, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, 1977.
Interlaminar Stresses
Free Edge Effects
Homework
References
- coupling between inplane normal and shear coupling for membrane action
- coupling between membrane and bending actions
- coupling between membrane and twisting actions
The knowledge of these coupling is very much important as one coupling actions may lead to an
unwanted action. At the same time it may helpful in design. For example, the extension-twisting
coupling through terms can be harnessed in the manufacturing of helicopter blades where
a pre-twisting of blade is done.
The orthotropic materials, like isotropic materials have effects of thermal or hrgral expansion only in
principal material directions. They do not have shear effect in principal material directions. However,
when the principal material directions are rotated about an axis then there exist a shear effect due to
thermal or hygral actions. In such a rotated system one has or present in off axis laminae.
Thus, a thermal or hygral change gives rise to shear effect in such off-axis laminae/laminate. This
phenomenon should be studied carefully so that one can avoid it or harness is according to the
design needs.
In the case when fibres are oriented at , either tensile or compressive normal stress is aligned
along the fibres, thus resulting in higher shear stiffness at . However, when the lamina is
loaded in pure shear in principal material directions (as shown in Figure 9.1), the equivalent stress
in fibre is neither pure normal tensile stress nor pure normal compressive stress. Thus, it results in
lower shear stiffness, that is .
It is well known that fibres are good in traction and weak in compressive loading. Thus, it is desirable
from designing point of view that the shear loading should results in an equivalent loading in which
the fibres are subjected to tensile normal stress. This kind of shear loading of an off-axis lamina will
ensure the higher shear strength of the lamina. In case of off-axis lamina the fibres are in
pure tensile for their positive shear loading. Thus, it results into the highest shear strength.
The positive and negative shear loading has no effect in case of unidirectional lamina as shown in
Figure 9.2.
The loading of an off-axis lamina in pure shear should be, in general, positive shear. This is one of
the important design considerations.
Interlaminar Stresses:
The inplane loads applied to angle ply laminate develop the interlaminar stresses. This is because
the bending-stretching coupling can give rise to transverse stresses in the interface. A schematic
illustration of how axial tensile loading of angle ply laminates cause rotation of the plies is shown in
Figure 6.5(b). This rotation of the plies generates the interlaminar shear stresses, which is one of the
crucial factors in delamination. The interlaminar stresses are very pronounced in the region of free
edges. The development of these stresses under axial extension is discussed in the following.
The free edge effects are due to discontinuous change of elastic material properties in the adjacent
layers of the laminate. The development of interlaminar stresses near the free edges has been
shown with the help of cross-ply symmetric laminate in the following paragraphs.
Consider a laminate under axial extension as shown in Figure 9.3. The axis is along the
length of the laminate, axis is along the width and axis is along the thickness of the laminate.
The coordinate is measured inward from the laminate edge. The CLPT predicts only intralaminar,
that is, planar stresses whereas it neglects the interlaminar transverse normal and shear
stresses. However, with the use of equilibrium equations one can determine these
interlaminar stresses. It should be noted that the quality of these stresses depends upon the quality
with which the planar stresses are determined.
The laminate shown has thickness of and all the laminae are of equal thickness. Further, the
laminate is sufficiently long. Therefore, the displacement components and are independent of
coordinate. First consider that the laminae are not bonded to each other and are subjected to axial
extension. Under these constraints, each layer is free to deform individually. From our earlier studies
we know that, the transverse contraction of outer layers contract more than the inner layers.
This is because the contraction in direction is perpendicular to the principal material directions of
the layers material. Therefore, the displacement components will be discontinuous across the
thickness. However, this is not true in practical situation as the layers are perfectly bonded leading to
continuous displacement in the thickness direction. Hence, to maintain a continuous displacement
one should apply tensile stresses on layers whereas compressive stresses on
layers. This fact is depicted in figure 9.3(b). These stresses are exactly predicted by the CLPT and
together maintain the compatibility of the displacement. The absolute values of these stresses in
and layers are identical and thus the resultant value through the thickness vanishes, that is,
(9.1)
Now it should be noted that the free edge is traction free. Therefore, the stresses should
actually vanish. Thus, for equilibrium of forces in direction there must be interlaminar shear
stresses in the interface of the and layers (at ). This is depicted in the exploded
view of Figure 9.3(a)
(9.2)
This holds true for high values of coordinate, that is, near the free edge. The variation of is
shown in Figure 9.4(a).
It can be seen that these stress resultants do not share a common line of action, thus it leads to the
bending moment about axis. Hence, for the equilibrium of this moment interlaminar stress as
depicted in Figure 9.3(c) arises at the interface between and layers (at ). Thus, we
can write
(9.3)
The interlaminar stress acts only in - direction at the interface , the upper layer as
shown in the free body diagram of Figure 9.3(d) must be sufficiently long and the resultant must
vanish. Thus,
(9.4)
From this it is clear that the interlaminar stress must change its sign along - direction. The
variation of is shown in Figure 9.4(b). The interlaminar stress shows a higher tensile value
at the free edge.
Similarly one can show the development of other interlaminar shear stress in angle ply
laminates. For details, see [2,3].
A thorough understanding of the free edge effect is essential for a designer so that there are
minimum interlaminar stresses in the structure.
Figure 9.4: Variation of transverse stress across the width (a) and (b)
Notch:
Notch in the laminates acts like an external crack giving rise to high three dimensional stress state in
the vicinity of the notch. Hence, the notches should be avoided in the laminated structures.
Cut-out:
Cutouts are inevitable in structures. Cutouts are made to pass electric wires; fluid passage as in the
wings, doors and windows in the fuselage of an air vehicle. These are, especially in aerospace
vehicles, made also to reduce the weight of the component. The cutout boundaries act like free
edges leading to significant transverse stresses. This is one of the most common site for onset of
delamination. A laminate with cutout is shown in Figure 6.5(d).
Ply Drop/Termination:
The optimum design of composite structures in air vehicles is important. As a result of the
optimization (e.g. weight minimization) process or sometimes purely due to geometric
requirements/constraints, one or more of the plies have to be terminated (also known as ply drop)
inside the laminate. The region of ply termination acts like a region of high stresses for neighbouring
laminae which can be a reason for delamination of the plies adjacent to the ply drop region. A ply
drop in laminate is shown in Figure 6.5(e).
Home Work:
1. What are the key points in the design considerations?
2. Explain in detail the development of interlaminar stresses in the free edge region.
3. What is positive and negative shear? Which one has detrimental effect?
SS Wang, I Choi, Boundary layer effects in composite laminates: Part I Free edge
stress singularities, Jl. Applied Mechanics, Vol. 49, 1982, pp 541-548.
References:
Lecture 2
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 3
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 4
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 5
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 6
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 7
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 8
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Module 2
Lecture 9
References:
Module 3
Lecture 10
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Lecture 11
References:
5. CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Lecture 12
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Lecture 15
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
References:
G Kirchhoff. ber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung einer elastischen Scheibe", J.
Reine und Angewante Mathematik (Crelle). 1850, Vol. 40, pp. 51-88.
AEH Love. A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2nd Edition, Cambridge
University Press, 1906.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman. Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York, 1980.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press Boca Raton, New York, 1997
Lecture 17
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman. Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York, 1980.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press Boca Raton, New York, 1997.
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman. Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York, 1980.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press Boca Raton, New York, 1997
Lecture 19
References:
Module 6
Lecture 20
References:
Beaumont PWR. The failure of fibre composites: An overview. Journal of Strain Analysis
for Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 189-205.
Herakovich CT. Edge effects and delamination failures. Journal of Strain Analysis for
Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 245-252.
Lecture 21
References:
Rankine WJM. On the stability of loose earth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, 1857; 147(I), pp. 9-27.
Tresca H. Mmoire sur l'coulement des corps solides soumis de fortes pressions. C.R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, 1864; 59, pp. 754-758.
von Mises R. Mechanik der festen Krper im plastisch deformablen Zustand. Gttin.
Nachr. Math. Phys., 1913; 1, pp. 582592.
Tsai SW. Strength Theories of Filamentary Structures, in Schwartz RT and Schwartz HS,
Eds., Fundamental Aspects of Fibre Reinforced Plastic Composites, Chapter 1,
Interscience, New York, 1968.
Azzi VD, Tsai SW. Anisotropic strength of composites, Experimental Mechanics, 1965;
5(9), pp. 283-288.
Tsai SW. A survey of macroscopic failure criteria for composite materials. Technical
Report, AFWAL-TR-84-4025.
References:
Tsai SW, Wu EM. A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials. Journal of
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Lecture 23
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R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech. Phys.
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Lecture 25
References:
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech. Phys.
Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.
Lecture 27
References:
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech. Phys.
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Lecture 29
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Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964,
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Lecture 30
References:
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964,
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol. 50,
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CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
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Z Hashin. Viscoelastic fiber reinforced materials. AIAA J, 1966, Vol. 4, pp. 1411-1417.
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Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964,
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol. 50,
pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Z Hashin. Viscoelastic fiber reinforced materials. AIAA J, 1966, Vol. 4, pp. 1411-1417.
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Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964,
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Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol. 50,
pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Lecture 33
References
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964,
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol. 50,
pp. 481-505.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
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Lecture 34
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Module 8
Lecture 39
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Module 9
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