Running Head: MODERN ARCHITECTURE 1

Modern Architecture

Name

Institutional Affiliation
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Modern Architecture

Monumentalization of Technique as Form in Modern Architecture

The dictionary of the term monentalization means creating a continuing record

technique in this case in an effort to recognize how technique was employed as form in

ancient archictecture and how it presently plays out in modern architecture. In one way the

paper establishes a record of how the technique as a form has played a role in the

evolution of architecture over the years to relay modernity.

It has been noted that modernism in architecture dates back in the late nineteenth and

early twentieth eras, and it has created an association that transformed the form of the setting of

the contemporary day civilized world. In essence, the development of modern architecture began

following the advancement of building materials in the nineteenth century (Le. 1931). Thus,

based on this many architects have become inspired and they have taken the opportunity in the

new way of reasoning and seeing things. For example, Reese Rowland, and architect believed

that structural design is the first art form that is practical, given it has a such impactful effect on

people`s subsists. Reese also thought that, architecture is literary where people live, work and

that is the way people express their personalities and principles.

With the new way of considering architecture, structures started to have an entirely

diverse implying in the late 20s and started to depict the exterior and the inside of the structures.

The fundamentals in architectural scheme prior to and following the originality have on most

occasions been similar (that is, space creation, definition of space, and even examining how the

light falls within the space) (Le. 1931). The use and connection of materials have changed over

the years. As such, in the late eighteenth century, when High Baroque style surfaced, it

became popular for builders in relation to using smooth, light colored surfaces, mostly rounded,
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and widespread parts of glass (windows and mirrors). After this, the modernism began and the

appearance of roof design changed and flat and simple roofing became eminent (Lefaivre &

Tzonis, 2004). There were alterations in the category of materials and architectural life assumed

the use of glass towers, steel frames, and reinforced concrete.

Bauhaus in Germany is among the most famous structures in the twentieth century and it

was designed by Gropius as the architect of the time in the early 20s. Bauhaus as a great

structure of the time was used mainly for demonstrations, concerts and dramatic presentations,

and also for learning functions. In its beginning year, scholars learnt the fundamental elements

and values of design, color theory, and they experimented with a variety of materials and

processes. As an iconic structure, Bauhas inspired designers from other states and regions to

build a place that individual can come and stake their identical benefits and acquaintance

(Gropius, 1965). It was a faultless residence for individuals that had an original mind and those

who respected talent in every meaning.

The construction of Bauhaus depicted a practical strategy to incorporating philosophy

and presentation in the real life. The Bauhas movement changed the design and fabrication of

present day architecture and it utilized steel edges and glass fortifications and spaces (Gropius,

1965). As such, Gropius utilized a large quantity of glass to brand the structure gain that feeling

of an exposed cosmos, and exposed cosmos implies that he desired to influence individuals

experience that feeling of liberty and self-reliance. The astonishing building of the Bauhas offers

an incredible imprint, especially during the night time when the lights focus on the attractiveness

and independence of glass walls (Gropius, 1965).

Modernity was evident in architecture when the revolution of materials and expertise

came into being in the twentieth century. Modernism can be perceived well when one turns
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attention of many structures like the Burj Al Arab located in Dubai that was created by Lloyd

Wright and the Le Grand Louvre in France created by Lloyd`s utmost workings (Lefaivre &

Tzonis, 2004). The popular contemporary projects are majorly created by use of glass, and in

contemporary structural design glass is virtually like a code of novelty. Another attribute that

depicts originality regards the element of non-symmetrical windows and roofs, where sharp and

perfect outlines utilized to depict the main key notions in modernism. Another essential aspect in

relation to how one can recognize modernism is when one takes notice of the open space with

lots of brightness through diverse formed and right-angled spaces.

Roman Architecture

The Romans engrossed certain essential practices from Etruscans prior to the Greek

influence were conclusively handled. It comprised the arch, the undercroft that were intended to

convey Roman architecture into advancement straight and far from that of antique Greece that

favored post and lintel construction approaches to arcs and cupolas. The basis of the drawing

was laid where the Italic populates were to exceed the Hellenes physical trade. The bounding

methods utilized by the Romans were the fundamental regular procedures that comprised the

semi-circular cask cupola, segmental vault, and the projection cupola. The cupola exteriors were

characteristically enclosed with shingles, and the Basilica of Constantine and Maxentius in Rome

offers an outstanding illustration of the Roman vaulting technique (Bunson, 2009).

A natural advancement of the arch was the auditorium that allowed the establishment of

curved upper limit and the thatch of great community cosmoses as the public pools and

cathedrals. The Romans depended hugely on the vault for much of their construction like the

Hadrian`s Pantheon, the pools of Diocletian and the pools of Cancalla (Mallgrave, 2006).

The typical aspect of the Roman constructional plan was the establishment of the building
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multifaceted practices of vaults to ensemble multi-partitioned earth ideas. The dominance by

Roman designers and engineers of the arc, dome, and cupola additionally was fostered by their

advancement of material assisted them to resolve the initial issue of colossal structural design to

link cosmos (Bunson, 2009). Thatching a huge part implies transporting weighty resources

crossways cosmoses unbearable to span through the Greek`s fundamental post and lintel

structure. In the arc and dome that developed beyond it, the Romans had a way of pushing the

enormous Colosseum fortifications section above floor of casing a comfortable pool room that

could host about 300 people and of establishing the royal form of the Pantheon.

Impact of Ancient Greece on Roman Architecture

The Greek impact on Roman structural design was leading in nearly all affairs of

constructional elegance and 3-D ornamental talent works. The record common Hellenistic talent

was the sequence of Greek guidelines of structural design that comprised of Ionic, Doric,

besides Corinthian elegances. From these, the Romans advanced two additional in terms of

Tucan and Composite, which are alternatives of Greek Doric in addition Corinthian

elegances correspondingly. Roman Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian guidelines were much

slender and extra adorned and the pillars inclined to being un-grooved, while the facade of the

entablature, unadorned by Greek designers, was deeply adorned by the Romans (Bunson,

2009). Based on their trend to boaster, Roman architects has the little concentration in Greek

Doric and when they had concern in utilizing it, they habitually added an attractive beading to

the lower part.

Roman Doric elegance can be cited in the Tabularium and the Colosseum in Rome,

and in the shrine of Hercules at Cori. Ionic command on the other hand, was utilized by the

Romans in some temples and civic structures and secluded households. In the same light, the
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record prevalent expression was the Corinthian instruction founded on the elegance of pillars

take from the Greek shrine of Olympian Zeus, and the order translated to being ornamental and

elegant. In relation to all that, it is barely astonishing that the names of architects are in most

cases Roman or Etruscan, the names of sculptors and painters are Greek (Bunson, 2009). It

appears that architects did all the essential engineering and construction work and then handed

the structure over to new artists from overseas to do the shallow ornamental work. Hence, when

the hand of time exposed the decorative walls from the Caracalla pools or the theatre at Orange,

the walls and arcs stood out with an enormous boost and a persuasive magnificence.

Concrete use in Roman Architecture

A major step forward in Roman architecture regarded the mastery of concrete use in

relation to its strength, flexibility, and convenience. Concrete also came with low cost compared

to other construction material, and it also made easy for the building of arcs, domes, and vaults.

Concrete was first in use in the town of Cosa after 273BCE and one of the key events in the

Roman architectural revolution regarded its widespread use. It offered Roman building liberty

from limitations of stone and brick material and it gave way to revolutionary novel designs

(physical intricacy and measurement). Concrete that was arranged in any form of dome, arches

or arches, swiftly hardened into a rigid mass. Such a mass of concrete was liberated from any

inner thrusts and strains that were troubling builders of such structures who embraced use of

bricks or stones. The widespread utilization of concrete in various Roman buildings guaranteed

that many of them survive and stand out in the present times. A good example of such

outstanding structures comprise of the cathedrals of Constantine, Baths of Caracalla, and the

Pantheon.
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A typical blend of lime mortar, water, sand, and pozzolana (sufficient ochre-painted

volcanic gravel) was the right composition of the Roman material. A blend of tuff, travertine,

brick, and rubble was added to the mixture of the cement. Horse hair was the most unusual

additive used and its work was for making concrete less disposed to fissures and blood of beasts

amplified opposition to iciness. Another unique feature is that concrete walls were faced and

only those underground that were spaced from being faced, and works were sorted based on the

kind of facing utilized. The main sorts of work comprised of opus testaceum concrete, which is a

kind of concrete that comprised brick or tile facing that became widespread across the empire.

Opus quadratum was an ordinary concrete stone used for wall facing, particularly for public

structures. Opus mixtum is a concrete blend of brick or stone facing that was widely known in

the later empire designing period. Furthermore, opus incertum was the record prevalent

encrustation concrete for normal concrete partitions before the grand era.

The earliest structures erected in and nearby Rome were created by use of tuff, a sort of

volcanic astound that exhibits varied rigidity and was easily controlled upon in most cases with

bronze tools. In later years, harder stones came into use and such stones comprised of peperino

as well as local albani stone that was sourced from the Alban hills. Throughout the territory,

the record widespread grit utilized for construction was travertine, a type of mineral, which was

extracted in Tivoli and was utilized on the outside of the Colosseum in Rome. Sandstone was

employed merely for plastering and beautification as well as assortments to some extent, and

colored marbles and pebbles (alabaster, granite, besides porphyry) were prevalent in use

p[articular at Tivoli. The mainstream of local households was constructed with a variation of

unburned elements that were met with stucco to give a unique and attractive feel that appealed to

many designers in the Roman architectural world.

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Roman architecture is the precursor to modernism, and Pantheon, built in Rome in

about 125AD and then rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian in later years. However, the designer who

worked behind the Pantheon building has not been discovered and no accounts have been made,

making it an unknown architectural hand behind the structure. Nonetheless, until presently, the

structure remains the most excellently preserved in Roman Architecture. Increasingly, the

Pantheon is among the best attainments in the world`s history of architecture based on its

outstanding construction and dimension. Although the idea that the architect behind the

Pantheon was not known, the purpose of the building was not known, its design gave out some

clue. For example, the building`s enormous space inside gives people an impression that the

possible use of the structure was a sanctuary to all sorts of deities based on its exposed cosmos

besides a hovel in the cupola. It is a faultless habitation for people to take a break and sooth their

minds, and the other probable function of the project was to illustrate the Roman dominance of

the realm. Hence, the intension was to depict the structure as a massive dome made out of

concrete.

It was extra hard and dangerous to project and build a cupola that would be more than

forty meters long without using any reinforcement made out of concrete as the structure would

crumple out of its own weight. Nevertheless, the designers ventured into constructing the

designed structure and the result was an outstanding and one of the record renowned structures in

the realm. The dominant aspect in the Pantheon was the Latin designation oculus that

interpreted to English to denote eye. The eye was put and the center of the roof and it is a hole

that was 10 meters in diameter. The bizarre exposed cosmos was very essential in this project

since it aided the sunlight to enter in and illuminate the entire dim cosmos in the dome as there is

no illumination system in place.

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Furthermore, the front creation of the structure is supported by 16 of the finest columns

made out of Egyptian granite. The huge front bronze door is among the most eye catching

features and it is 7 meters in height and it opens to a circular area. When one walks in the most

mind catching is the space all around as one walks. The engineers made the dome out of concrete

and hatched the notion of having rings of collars around the dome to help in support or reducing

the weight and pressure the dome exerts. The dome was made thicker at the end and the solid

was agiler inside every coating. Moreover, the intended to mitigate the bulk of the solid cupola

came in as architects thought of and started cutting out regular and typical four-sided forms on

the cupola and this also adorned the inside of the dome in strange manner. It is important to note

that, the construction materials utilized in constructing the Pantheon comprised of limestone

block as and concrete, and such were very popular in Rome during that period as they are

utilized in nearly all structural plan. The lower degree below the cupola was created out of

elements and in amongst the coatings the designers hid a succession of multifaceted semicircles

that helped in reducing the weight.

In essence, Roman architecture has had a massive impact on building in Europe as the

Greeks created the chief plan patterns and the Romans created the fundamental engineering

prototypes. The Romans mastery of arc, dome and cupola set the customary for the majority

kinds of colossal structural design. The Roman specimen shadowed carefully in Hagia Sophia in

the feudal Russian structural design that resulted in the onion-cupolas of St Basil`s Basilica in

Moscow. The other follow up was in the Renaissance architecture or the Florence Basilica that

was perpetuated by Brunelleschi.

Translating to Modern Architecture

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The Swiss Re is a contemporary architectural design and its construction began in the

late 90s and became complete in the middle of the last decade. The colors of the sea (blue,

green, and silver) seem to dominate inside of the building, and they are cold colors that were

chosen to perfectly emphasize the shadows of the sea waters. The appearance of the structure

seems to contrast the remainder of the contextual as it is a massive and distinct cigar form.

Here, green color controls the entire structure and the color stands out of the colors that have

been utilized in the project since the emerald aspects are glass that reflect the sunlight. The plan

of the structure has been ascertained by the twisting aspects of shape that come from the lowest

to the highest part of the structure. The internal diagonal grid of steel beams strengthened by

horizontal bands is another shape that stands out.

The structure has a precise plane form even though the sequences blended are far extra

communicative as it depicts the independence. The theme of the contemporary structural part is

the notion of an ecological sustainability founded on the nature. The structural scheme regards

the form perfects the airstream movement like sea-sponge`s form assist water movement around

it with a lot of ease. The work has been founded on straight forward surveillance that has been

redrafted into a structural plan. The aim of the plan was to determine overstatement so as to

create the graft more distinctly, and in the structure there are concealed features of the plan that

were enthused by natural creatures. The Swiss Re goes high by about sixty feet as a glass

skyscraper that was planned with the use of steel and cut-glass to illustrate and depict the normal

appearance of the sea-sponge. The constructional structure was planned to mitigate hothouse

fumes and this was achieved by the movement of airstreams from street degree and exposed

cosmoses besides its twisting form that funnel through the structures workplaces in a natural

manner. It was an important element since in the natural sense each organism can use more
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energy than it produces. In accordance, the Swiss Re stands out in its design from the

architecture around it based on the huge dimension and unique bullet appearance.

Many individual who visit the structure are attracted to the difference between a

photograph and a structure in reality. The fascination result from the huge size of the structure

that is so astonishing and the simple but attractive design is a marvel for many designers whose

admiration relate to the uniqueness and blend of the structure. The structure started to be an

example of modern architecture that encouraged other designers to establish distinct shape

designs with diverse materials.

It is apparent that the techniques and procedures that foster employed in producing the

work comprised of sketches of creatures and data regarding the way the creatures function in the

natural environment. The work was then advanced into the design of architecture where Foster

started the work that he created into professional sketches. Foster had an idea of blending

architecture and nature swiftly but the natural ventilation structure was work that got prepared

for a long period of time. It was so since the design was impacted by sea sponges in relation to

their feeding structure. The architectural work impacted many people as it shows an appealing

side of arrangement amongst contemporary and ancient structural design. The structure correctly

captures the outlooks regarding existence and nature that have been acquiesced in the last

illustration of the constructional plan. The designer`s experiences when creating the effort of

architecture aimed at introducing today`s civilization to more of nature.

The architectural work offers a calming effect, but at the same time offers a disquieting

comparison between new and ancient construction in the context. The characteristic attributes

that impact people in this piece of effort are the unique forms original imaginations associated to

its absolute form. Thus, the structure fist into the city`s scenery as the plan shows up since the
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gauge of the structure is about two times as immense the design work within its setting. In

accordance, the plan of Pantheon and Swiss Re are absolutely conflicting such that the resources

comprising of concrete, limestone, and bricks in Pantheon and glass and metal in Swiss Re.

The massive variations between the two structures are the shapes and the overall depiction that

resulted after their completion. Moreover, in ancient designs architects utilized pillars, arcs, and

Parthenon that have been inspired by Greeks.

Ancient and Modern Architectural process

In the twentieth century designers began having a varied comprehension regarding

architecture, this happened as ancient designing comprised of paper and pencil where the hand

sketched out required works. However, the advent of technology things changed drastically as

the design process in architecture embraced the use of different materials and distinct shapes

were possible to produce. Throughout the designing time in antique structural design, all details

were drawn using a hand while paper and pencil were the only materials and instrument required

to produce every desired shape or design. No one really anticipated that expertise would emerge

and offer more accuracy than hand drawing. As such designers today no longer spend many

hours on a drawing of any design on paper since today there are programs that assist designers to

save on time while developing each design. The methods of construction in the architectural

world have undergone transformation, and a bulk of data is not an issue since all aspects can be

accomplished, fashioned, and be made complete to be inserted into a plan. In modern times it is

calmer as well as speedier to plan and then yield a portion of architectural work.

In relation to the Bauhas, which represents one of the initial modern architectural designs,

it depicts glass wall having black metal elements. The metal elements add more beauty and

stability to the wall structure, and the colors employed in Bauhas are quite attractive and
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meaningful. They comprise of grey and white that was very popular in the modernism in the

early twentieth century where they were very much in use (Lefaivre & Tzonis, 2004). The

outlines are solid and the overall shape is simple and the shapes employed in the Bauhas are

square and rectangles (Gropius, 1965). Both designs are blended together to form one piece of

architectural work. The structure is elongated in three diverse dimensions and base don that it

creates an impression of three distinct spaces.

A photograph of the Pantheon would depict natural light coming through the ten meter

whole, on the upper part of the dome. The light offers a very appealing illustration and focuses

on some of the ancient details that are in the structure. It also depicts the dull colors that have

been utilized to establish the interior and this reveals that the Pantheon is a regular architectural

design. It depicts how much open space there is within the interior, and the black markings

demonstrate the thick walls of the dome and the front entrance. The last sketches reveal the ideas

and all the details that have been arranged in the design. The major features of those sketches are

the columns in the anterior of the Pantheon, and they offer a secretive experience as one cannot

see what is concealed after them.

The Swiss Re is unique from other structures with its form, dimension, and resources.

The structure`s form is similar to a ammunition that demonstrates the strength and control of the

plan and the structure is mostly comprised of glass that replicates the rays and depicts the colors

of the ocean. The twisting structures make individuals strain their eyes from the lower to the

upper size of the Swiss Re. The structure and its appearance depict the procedure regarding how

the breeze streams in and out of the structure. It also demonstrates how natural creatures

function, the draft depicts a portion of the particulars that the entire structure is completed out of
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in totality. The three-sided forms bring to mind shells as the major notion of the plan was aimed

at revealing the natural sea existence through architecture.

Modernism in the Modern House

Modernism took many turns in architecture, other than the way designs were created in

ancient and present word of technology, and the end products also started departing from the

ancient structures (Lefaivre & Tzonis, 2004). Given this, in the 19th century there were numerous

architectural elegances that one could imitate, but towards the 20th century, a neocolonial dialect

started to appear and became increasingly popular by the 30s. Since the modern house emanated

from a period`s alteration as innovation as an elegance torrent onto the constructional section

without any noticeable appearance, but it promptly confronted the contemporary tradition.

Throughout the 20s, European modernism penetrated the US along with supposition that

architecture could bring about communal alteration (Lefaivre & Tzonis, 2004). As a reaction to

the time of war accommodation issues, the European designers planned cheap productive

accommodation, investigated with preconstruction and deliberate enormous room developments

in green straps.

Originality in the US at no time translated to be a dominant style for contemporary

houses, but it changed American vernacular structural design. Presently, novel area housing

comes with porches and Cape Cod specifics and they comprise honesty, precision and

elasticity, the bland inheritance of originality. Throughout the late 19th era, Richardson directed

the constructional expert`s mission for a novel and uniquely American elegance of structural

design. Thus, in his record impactful urban dwelling, the Glessner House in Chicago, he

stressed on the distinction between public faade and exclusive courtyard. Furthermore, a more

exposed design with quarters clustered about huge living rooms could transmute the shadowy
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Victorian household into contemporary lodge. In later years following 1880, Richardson had

started to pursue structural design in superior synchronization with the American scenery that

proved inspiring for Sullivan and Wright (Kaufman, 1952). The addition to the Paine House in

Massachusetts reveals the role scenery can come to take part in advancing a native and later

contemporary American architecture (Schuyler, 1892). Lloyd was a young boy when Richardson

and his supporters started venturing beyond Victorian diversity, and however his architectural

profession extended prior to the time when Beaux-arts modeling were brought into fashion until

the weakening of innovation. Wright incessantly altered the account of American structural

design as his Prairie elegance households of the early 20th century approached an end to

providing regular American people with a novel alternative for contemporary living (Kaufman,

1952).

In early 20th era a novel dialect was created for whereas in Chicago the grassland

households in Illinois were latter shadowed by an even extra regular sort of household, the

Usonian that was typically created by its proprietors. The Jacobs House, which was the initial

Usonian households established comprised of solid portion flooring that offered gravity

warming, stonework essential, and dehydrated partition building. It contained extraordinary

warming structure advanced out of the Korrean apartment ideal that Wright came across in

Japan. In Middleton, the Jacobs House that Wright designed depicted his initial utilization of the

planetary hemi-sequence where the quarters were clustered in a semicircle and the northern

lateral was excavated out into the ground. Wright and his supporters were full of activity

planning households in the Mid-west, but in California designers were testing with their own

local plan. The grassland conservatory of architectural ideology impacted the works of

craftsman style architecture. It came in the form of its bold utilization of wood forms stressing on
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conventional approaches of joinery, and its slumbering porticos and promenades, as well as

uninterrupted association to the alfresco, the household was appropriate for southern California

(Schuyler, 1892). Nonetheless, the complication of California`s turn of the era regional loyalty

was depicted the Dodge House that appears more contemporary and at peace with Californias

earlier antiquity. Such design remembered the Spanish inheritance in Los Angeles but in a

contemporary expression having sparkling regular arrangements that were both ancient and

original.

In conclusion, it was realized that, innovativeness in structural design dates back in the

late nineteenth and early twentieth era periods, and it helped in creating a association that

transformed the form of the setting of the contemporary days civilized world. It was stated that,

development of modern architecture began following the advancement of building materials in

the nineteenth century. Based on this many architects had become inspired and they had taken

the opportunity in the new way of reasoning and seeing things. It was also clear that, Bauhaus in

Germany was among the most famous structures in the twentieth century and it was designed by

Gropius as the architect of the time in the early 20s. Furthermore, Bauhaus as a great structure of

the time was used mainly for demonstrations, concerts and dramatic presentations, and also for

learning functions. Hence, in its beginning year, scholars learnt the fundamental elements and

values of design, color theory, and they experimented with a variety of materials and processes.

Another thing was that, the Romans engrossed certain essential practices from Etruscans

prior to the Greek influence were conclusively handled. It was clear that, it comprised the arcs

and the cupola that were intended to convey Roman architecture into advancement straight far

from that of antique Greece that favored post and lintel construction approaches to arcs and

cupolas. It was notable that, the basis of the art was laid where the Italic populates were to
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 17

exceed the Hellenes physical engineering. The other element was that, a foremost step forward in

Roman architecture regarded the mastery of concrete use in relation to its strength, flexibility,

and convenience. As such, concrete also came with low cost compared to other construction

material, and it also made easy for the building of arcs, domes, and vaults. In essence, material

was majorly in use in the township of Cosa after 273 BCE, besides one of the key events in

Roman architectural revolution regarded its widespread use. It offered Roman building liberty

from limitations of stone and brick material and it gave way to revolutionary novel designs

(structural complexity and dimension). It was also understood that, concrete that was laid in any

shape of dome, vaults or arches, swiftly hardened into a rigid mass. Such mass of concrete was

liberated from any inner thrusts and strains that were troubling builders of such structures who

embraced use of bricks or stones. It was noticed based on the description that, the widespread

utilization of concrete in various Roman buildings guaranteed that many of them survive and

stand out in the present times.

On the other hand, the Swiss Re was found to be a contemporary architectural design

and its construction began in the late 90s and became complete in the middle of the last decade.

Thus, the colors of the sea (blue, green, and silver) seemed to dominate inside of the building,

and they are cold colors that were chosen to perfectly emphasize the shadows of the sea waters.

The appearance of the structure seems to contrast the rest of the context as it is a huge and

distinct cigar form. It was noted that, in the twentieth century designers began having a varied

comprehension regarding architecture, this happened as ancient designing comprised of paper

and pencil where the hand sketched out required works. Nevertheless, the advent of technology

things changed drastically as the design process in architecture embraced the use of different

materials and distinct shapes were possible to produce. Throughout the designing time in antique
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 18

structural design, details were drafted by hand and writing and pencil were the only materials and

instrument required to produce every desired shape or design.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE 19

References

Bunson, M. (2009). Engineering. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Boston: InfoBase

Publishing.

Gropius, W. (1965). The New Architecture and the Bauhas. Massachusetts: The MIT press.

Kaufman, E. (1952). Three Revolutionary Architects, Boullee, Ledoux, and Lequeu. Philadelphia:

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.

Le. C. (1931). Towards a new architecture. New York: Dover publications, Inc.

Lefaivre, L. & Tzonis, A. (2004). The emergence of modern architecture. London/ New York:

Routledge.

Mallgrave, F. (2006). Architectural theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell publishing.

Schuyler, M. (1892). American architecture studies. New York: Harper & Brothers publishers.