MAK 402E

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LAB 2

LAB MANUAL

2015 - 2016 SPRING

CONTENTS:

EXP # EXPERIMENT TITLE Page

1. Heater Performance Analysis 1

2 Drag Behavior of Objects in Air Flow 7

3 PID Controller Tuning 14

4 Sound Intensity Analysis 19

5 Finding the Center of Gravity of A Vehicle 23

 SPACE HEATER EXPERIMENT

1. Prerequisites
a. MAK 402E Mechanical Engineering Lab 2 Sheet should be read before the
first session.
b. Basic radiation and natural convection knowledge should be reviewed.
c. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (Incropera-Dewitt) book could be
needed for calculations (for second session)

2. Introduction

Hydronic heating systems are widely used throughout the world and also in Turkey. Water
heated in a fossil fuel-fired water heater is circulated through the space heaters installed in the
rooms to be heated, thus carrying the thermal energy charged to it. Figure 1 illustrates principle
elements of a hydronic heating system schematically.

Figure 1. Principle equipment constituting a hydronic heating system.

Circulation pumps deliver ample amount of heated water to heat exchange equipment installed
in rooms, which in turn transfer the thermal energy of water to room air. So called radiators
(Figure 2a) and fan coil units (Figure 2b) are the basic types of space heaters used in residential
and commercial applications.

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 Figure 2. Types of space heaters for hydronic systems.

Figure 3. Different types of water distribution system (piping) design for hydronic heating
systems.

3. Purpose

This lab work aims to enable students to understand basic heat transfer mechanisms involved
in the operation of a space heater. A mathematical model shall be built by the lab group, in
order to define the mathematical relations between the heating capacity of the radiator and

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variables and parameters effecting it. Water mass flow rate (or velocity) and temperature,
radiator material and wall thickness, air temperature, dimensions of the radiator parts, spacings
between the radiator and the rear wall and floor, on which it is mounted, are some of these
variables and parameters. Thermodynamic equation giving the enthalpy loss of water through
the radiator, convective and radiative heat transfer rate equations between water and radiator
inner surface, or radiator outer surface and surroundings, and non-dimensional convective heat
transfer correlations applicable to the geometry under discussion are some of the equations to
be used. Such heat transfer analysis and correlations can be found in heat transfer textbooks [2].
The group shall visit the lab, at least a few days prior to scheduled lab day, and examine the
radiator under discussion and take its critical dimensions, so that required mathematical
modelling and calculations can be made before the lab day.

4. Experimental Apparatus

Figure 4 shows a photograph of the experimental setup. An aluminum radiator (1) is installed
on a stand (2), so that there is ample spacing between the radiator and the wall and the floor.
Hot water from a constant level tank (3), located near the ceiling of the lab, flows through the
radiator at a flow rate which can be assumed constant. At the radiator water inlet (4) and outlet
(5), thermocouples are installed for water temperature measurement. All thermocouples are
connected to a multimeter (6) and cold junction water tank (7). The water temperature in the
water tank (8) is fixed by temperature controller (9). The volume flow rate of water can be
determined from the flowmeter (10) readings. Surface temperature measurements are made
using an infrared thermometer.

5. Safety Procedure

At least one teaching assistant (TA) and one technician (TS) will be available in the lab
during the stay of lab groups. They will not instruct the students what to do. Their basic task
is to make sure safety rules are obeyed and provide assistance in case the students need help
in operating the equipment. Conduct yourselves in a responsible manner at all times in
laboratory. Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully.

There are electrically driven power equipment involved in this experiment. Thermocouples
are connected to a multimeter which displays the data on the screen.

If at any time any part of the system does not appear to be operating properly, alert your lab
TA and TS. Do never try to connect/disconnect bare-ended cables to electrical circuitry.

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 Figure 4. Photograph of the experimental setup.

6. Experimental Work

d. Startup Procedures
i. Request assistance of your lab TA and TS.
ii. Make sure that the heater is operating and supplying water at 655 oC
to the constant level tank.
iii. Check the multimeter and infrared thermometer are on and working.
iv. Check the cold junction water tank is filled with ice.
v. Learn how to get data.
vi. Record the initial temperature values and flowmeter readings, as well.

e. Rated Heating Capacity of the Radiator

i. Adjust the inlet and outlet valves to fully open position.

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 ii. Observe the variation of temperature values. When they are nearly
stabilized start adjusting the outlet valve, so that the temperature
difference between inlet and outlet is 15 5 oC.
iii. When temperature values are stabilized again, start a capacity test
recording time and flowmeter readings at an instant. For 15 minutes
measure and record temperature values at various locations on the
radiator surface and surrounding surfaces (i.e., rear wall and nearest
surrounding surfaces in the front and sides of the radiator). Make sure
that the flowmeter readings are recorded just at the end, i.e. 900th
second, of the test period.

f. Operation with A Decorative Wooden Slab Placed at the Top of the

Radiator
i. Place the decorative wooden slab at the top of the radiator, so that it
closes the spacing between the top of the radiator and the rear wall.
ii. Wait at least for 10 minutes to let the system is in steady state, before
making any measurement.
iii. Repeat procedures ii and iii of the previous section (part b), without
making any adjustments to valves, so that the difference in heating
capacity due to the marble slab can be determined.
iv. Remove the wooden slab.

g. Operation with A Blocking Object in Front of the Radiator

i. Place the wooden panel in front of the radiator and 5 cm away from it,
so that the situation simulates a radiator with some blocking furniture in
front of it.
ii. Wait at least for 10 minutes to let the system is in steady state, before
making any measurement.
iii. Repeat procedures ii to iv of the previous section (i.e. part b), without
making any adjustments to valves, so that the difference in heating
capacity due to the wooden panel can be determined.
iv. Remove the wooden panel and shut the outlet valve OFF.

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7. Data Analysis

h. Heating Capacity
i. For all operating procedures described above, calculate the total heating
capacity of the radiator. Taking the rated capacity of case (b), compare
all situations and rank them considering the capacity deficiency.
ii. Estimate the ratios of convective and radiative parts of total heat
transfer rate between the radiator and surroundings.

i. Heat Losses
i. How is the heat loss from the rear wall to outside (i.e., to the outdoor
air at the back of the rear wall) effected by the faulty practices of cases
(c to f)? Support your opinion with numerical predictions.

j. Comparison with the Mathematical Model

i. Compare the predicted heating capacity of the radiator from the
mathematical model built prior to lab day with the measured capacity.
Are they different? If yes describe why? Try to explain with both
quantitative and qualitative reasoning.

8. Readings Recommended for the Mathematical Model Study

[1] Kalorifer Tesisat, MMO 2004/352.
[2] F. P. Incropera, D. P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th Ed.n,
John Wiley&Sons, 1996.

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DETERMINING THE DRAG COEFFICIENTS OF BODIES HAVING DIFFERENT SHAPES

In this experiment, it is aimed to determine the profile which creates the minimum drag force
under certain circumstances. You are expected to measure the drag forces for a given Reynolds
number range and determine the model which disturbs the flow field less than other models used
in the experiment. You shall also validate your experimental results with theoretical models from
the literature.

Introduction and Background

The object of this experiment is to measure the drag forces on models of different shapes and
calculate the drag coefficients as a function of Reynolds numbers.
When there is relative motion between a solid body and the fluid in which it is immersed, the
body experiences a net force due to the action of the fluid. If the body is moving through a viscous fluid,
both shear and pressure forces act on the body.

F
body surface
dF
body surface
d F shear
body surface
d F pressure

The force parallel to the direction of motion is the drag force and the force perpendicular to the direction
of motion is the lift force. Therefore, the total drag force is the sum of the friction drag and pressure
drag.

a) Pressure Drag

Flow over a flat plate normal to the wall

Wall shear stress does not contribute to the drag force.

FD
surface
pdA

b) Friction Drag

Flow over a flat plate parallel to the wall

Pressure gradient is zero

FD
plate surface
w dA

The force depends on the shape, attitude and size of the body, the density and viscosity of the fluid and
the velocity of relative motion. It may also in some circumstances depend on such things as the surface
roughness of the body and the unsteadiness or turbulence in the fluid stream, but these will not be
considered in this experiment. It will also depend on other parameters if the relative velocity is

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sufficiently high to be comparable with the speed of sound in the fluid, but in this experiment, velocities
are low.

Thus, under the conditions being invesitgated, the force on a particular shape body at a particular
attitude will be a function of the size of the body, the density and viscosity of the air, and the velocity.
Therefore, the drag force, FD can be written in the functional form:

FD f1 (d ,V , , )

Application of the Buckingham Pi theroem resulted in two dimensionless parameters that are written
in functional form as:

FD Vd
f2
V d
2 2

Note that d2 is proportional to the cross-secitonal area and hence,

FD Vd
f3 f3 (Re)
V A
2

The characteristic length used in the Reynolds number depends on the body shape. Thus, the drag
force:

1
FD CD m AV 2
2

The drag coefficient CD is not constant. CD depends upon the velocity of the body, viscosity of the
medium, the shape of the body, and the roughness of the body's surface. The Reynolds number has been
found to be a useful dimensionless number that can characterize the drag coefficient's dependence upon
the velocity, thus:

2 FD VD
CD CD CD Re A D2
m AV 2 4

FD Drag Force [ N ]
CD Drag Coefficient
S Cross sec tional Area(Pr ojected Area) perpendicular to the flow [m 2 ]
V Velocity of the body relative to the medium [ m / s]
m Density of the medium [ kg / m3 ] air 1, 293 kg / m3
Kinematic vis cos ity of the medium [m2 / s] air 1, 4 x105 m2 / s
D Characteristic length of the mod el D = 64 mm for models

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At low Re number, the drag coefficient is a strong function of Reynolds number, while at high Re
number, the drag coefficient is essentially independent of Re number.
The following figure shows the changes in drag coefficient CD with Re number for a bodies of different
shapes.

In the case of flow over a sphere, both friction drag and pressure drag contribute to total drag. At very
low Reynolds number, Re<1, there is no flow separation from a sphere; the wake is laminar and the drag
is predominantly friction drag. As the Reynolds number is increased up to about 1000, the drag
coefficient drops continously. As a result of flow separation, the drag is acombination of friction and
pressure drag. The relative contribution of friction drag decreases with increasing Reynolds number. In
the range 103 < Re < 3.105, the drag coefficient curve is relatively fast.

Wind Tunnel

The tunnel provides a complete sub-sonic faciliy for the study of aerodynamics. The degree of
accuracy of the tunnel and associated instrumentation is more than adequate for research purposes. The
facility comprises a wind tunnel with two component balance system and an air speed indicator. Air
enters the test section through a carefully designed contraction section followed by an aluminuim
honeycomb. The flow in the test section is steady in both magnitude and direction with flat transverse
velocity profile. A small angle diffuser contributes to flow stability. The tunnel working section is
fabricated from plexiglas and may be retractedon stainless steel rails to permit unobstructed access to
the model. The tunnel air speed is controlled in a stepless manner by adjusting the fan speed, the fan
being driven by a direct current motor. The two component balance system is provided by which lift
and drag forces are counter-acted without interaction by sliding weights mounted on calibtared scales.
The tunnel air speed is indicated on a calibrated sloping manometer. This manometer operates in
conjunction with a manifold which surrounds the upstream end of the test section.

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Salient Features
A compact, self-contained, mobile castor mounted unit. 305 mm2 working section. Modern
styling making use of latest materials and methods of construction. A robust, accurate, two component
direct reading balance is included in the basic unit. A direct reading sloping manometer is included for
air speed measurement in the basic unit. Free unobstructed access to models. A wide range of models
and accessories is available.

Typical Experiments
Velocity profile traverses. Determination of lift and drag forces. An analysis of the effect of
shape on drag. Performance of an aerofoil with slot and flap. Investigation of the pressure field around
an aerofoil. Study of laminar and turbulent boundary layers. Wake surveys. Investigation of the pressure
field round a cylinder. Wing flutter experiments. The use and evaluation of yaw and Pitot probes.

Determination of Drag Coefficient

The force on a particular shaped body at a particular attitude will be a function of the bodys
size (d), the density () and viscosity () of the fluid and the velocity (V). Therefore the drag force (FD)
can be written as a function of these properties.

FD f d ,V , ,
Application of the Buckingham Pi theorem resulted in two dimensionless parameters that are
written in functional form of the Reynolds number.
FD Vd
f
V A
2

The characteristic length used in Reynolds number depends on the body shape, thus the drag force is
given as: 1
FD CD air AV 2
2
The drag coefficient is not constant and depends upon the velocity of the body, viscosity of the
medium, the shape of the body and the roughness of the bodys surface. The Reynolds number is
found to be a useful dimensionless number that can characterize the drag coefficients dependence
upon the velocity, thus,

2FD d2
CD A
air AV 2 4

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Measurement of Flow Velocity

The fluid speed can be calculated based on the principle of a Pitot tube. In the experiment,
pressure tapings are connected from Pitot-static tube to a multi-tube manometer, thus the velocity can
be calculated as;

Knowledge of the values of the static andpressures in a fluid implies

that the fluid speed can be calculated. This is the principle on which the
Pitot-static can be calculated. In this experiment, pressure tappings are
connected from pitot-static tube to a multi-tube manometer. So,
pressure difference indicated by the multi-tube manometeris given by:

p ( water ) g h

Thus,

V 2g water 1 h
air
Apparatus

The main equipment comprises the sub-sonic tunnel with a balance system and air speed indicator.
Additional parts are multi tube manometer, Pitot static tube and the drag models.

Multi-tube manometer

This is an inclinable tube manometer board equipped with 20 tubes, acrylic

manifold and a reservoir mounted on a vertical rod such that the position of the
datum manometer tube levels may be adjusted to convenient heights before
commencing experiments.

Pitot-static tube

This item is of 4 mm diameter stainless steel tube with a

collet type mounting chuck to facilitate full traverse across
the working section.

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Test models

Four models, designed to be mounted in the lift and drag balance and all of the same equatorial diameter,
are provided: streamlined shape (see figure above); circular disc, hemisphere convex to airflow direction
and hemisphere concave to airflow direction ( see figure below).

Procedure

-Ensure that the can control is in the full counterclockwise position.

-Mount the first model in the wind tunnel test section and adjust the balance system.
-Turn on the fan motor switch.
-The velocity of the airstream can be changed by changing the power input to the fan motor.
For six different velocity values:

-Balance the drag component of force exerted on the model by sliding weights along the arms of the
balance until a state of null deflection is reached.
-Record the drag force.
-Record the static and totoal pressure value from multitube manometer.

-Repeat the same procedures for other models.

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING ASSIGNMENTS BEFORE THE EXPERIMENT DAY !

1) Try to guess which shape has the lowest drag coefficient intuitionally.
2) Find drag coefficients of 4 Test Models on the upper figure for Re>104 from the literature. If
available, try to figure out expressions depending on Reynolds number. Then try to validate
with experimental results. Write reference(s) in your report.
3) Calculate drag force acting on the test models for at least 5 free stream velocity values V in
the range 525 m/s by using drag coefficients found in the 1st step.

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Lab Report

-Description of the aim of the experiment.

-For each models, plot the drag coefficient in function of Re number again.
-For each models, compare the found CD value with the values in literature.

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PID Controller Tuning Experiment
Note: Modern Control Engineering by K. Ogata and setup
documentations of Quanser are utilized in the preperation of this
experiment handout.

1. Introduction
PID controllers are the most commonly used controllers in industry. Today, more than half of the
industrial controllers in use are PID type controllers. Simplicity, robustness, general applicability of
PID type controllers make them very useful and first choice. In this experiment, basic design and
tuning methods for PID controllers are covered.

2. Objectives
Selecting the appropriate PID type controller for a certain system
Understanding the basic properties of proportional(P), integral(I), and derivative(D) effects
Understanding the Ziegler-Nichols PID tuning method
Understanding the analytical design methods for PID controllers

3. System Overview
DCMCT (DC Motor Control Trainer) produced by Quanser is used in the experiments. Basic
components of the setup could be seen on Figure 1.

Figure 1 DCMCT General Layout

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Descriptions of the components are below (Components required in the experiment are shown by bold
characters).

1. Maxon DC Motor
2. Removable Inertial Load
3. Linear Power Amplifier
4. High Resolution Optical Encoder
5. Ball Bearing Servo Potentiometer
6. RJ11 Port on QIC: for downloading firmware using a compatible programming device
7. USB Port on QIC: for online tuning and plotting (used by QICii)
8. Breadboard Option: to implement controllers with your own circuits
9. Embedded/Portable Option: QIC installs in this socket to perform embedded control in place
of PC-based control
10. Removable Belt: to drive the potentiometer
11. PIC Reset Switch
12. User Switch: Momentary Action Pushbutton Switch For Manual Interaction
13. Inertial Load Storage Pin
14. Jumper J6: to switch between DAQ and QIC use
15. 6-mm Power Jack
16. Power Supply Header: J4
17. Analog Signals Header: J11
18. i. PC Interface Option: this is implemented by using one of Quanser's HILboards, NI's E-
Series or M-Series boards, or the dSPACE DS1104 board ii. Analog Controller Option: to
implement controllers using Quanser's Analog Plant Simulator

The setup is connected to a PC via a USB cable. QICii software with a GUI is used to control the
setup. Figure 2 shows a snapshot of the GUI.

Figure 2 Graphical User Interface

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 4. Theory
A PID controller is simply a three term controller which uses error as input. Generally, proportional
action is represented by  , while integral action by  , and derivative action by ! . A representive
feedback control system with PID controller is shown on the Figure 3.

Figure 3 A Representive Block Diagram for a PID Controlled System

,-./
Obtain transfer function of PID controller ( 12)
0-./

Tuning PID Controller with Ziegler-Nichols Sustained Oscillations Method

In this method, integral and derivative time constants are set as  1 4 and ! 1 5 first. Then,
proportional control coefficient  is increased from 5 to a critical value 78 at which the output
first exhibits sustained oscillations. It is obvious that, to apply this method sustained oscillations
should be observed at output. Otherwise, this method is not applicable.

Figure 4 Closed-
Closed-loop System with a Proportional Controller

After determining critical gain 78 and sustained oscillation period ?78 , suggested  ,  , !
values could be computed for selected PID type controller according to the Table 1 proposed by
Ziegler and Nichols.

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 Type of BC DE DF
Controller
P 5.G78 4 5

PI 5.4G78 5.H3?78 5

PD 5.I78 4 5.12G?78

PID 5.I78 5.G?78 5.12G?78

Table 1 Ziegler-
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Rule Based on BJK and LJK

Figure G Sustained Oscillation with Period LJK

5. Experiments
Two experiments should be realized. First experiment is PID position control of the DC motor. In this
experiment, PID coefficients should be tuned according to the Ziegler-Nichols tuning method
described in the previous chapter. Second experiment is PID velocity control of the DC motor. This
experiment consists of modeling and analytical tuning of PID coefficients according to the model. (Be
careful: GUI accepts  and ! , not  and ! . Therefore, you should convert the parameters if
necessary)

Experiment 1: Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of PID for Angular Position Control

Required steps for Experiment 1:

1. Select the position control mode in the GUI interface

2. Apply the Ziegler-Nichols method to obtain the 78 and ?78
3. Suggest a PID type controller for position control of the system
4. Determine the controller coefficients by using the table
5. Apply determined corfficients and observe the response of the system

Experiment 2: Analytical Tuning of PID for Angular Velocity Control

A schematic representation of the system is shown on the Figure 6. MN and ON show the motor
resistance and motor inductance respectively. PN is the motor current. QN is the torque constant of the
motor. RST is the total inertia of the motor and the load (disc). UN and U! are motor torque and
disturbance torque applied to the rotor respectively. In the first part of this experiment, you should
obtain the transfer function of the system where motor voltage (VN / is input and angular velocity of

17
the rotor (WN ) is output. Verification of the model should be done by using the modeling mode of the
GUI.

Figure I Schematic Representation of the System

In the second part of the experiment, you should suggest a PID type controller for the system. First,
obtain the closed-loop transfer function of the system, then calculate the PID coefficients according to
the desired performance criteria(desired natural frequency WX and desired damping ratio Y) given to
you.

Required steps for Experiment 2:

1. Obtain the dynamical model of the electrical part of the system

2. Obtain the dynamical model of the mechanical part of the system
3. Obtain the transfer function where motor voltage (VN / is input and angular velocity of the
rotor (WN )
4. Draw the block diagram and obtain the closed-loop transfer function
5. Suggest a PID type controller
6. Compute the controller coefficients according to the desired performance criteria
I. Apply the controller that you designed

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 Sound Intensity Analysis
1. Case Study:

In the Vibrations & Acoustics Lab, there are a lot of noisy machines. Also a vacuum cleaner produces
too much noise. It is expected to determine the contribution of the vacuum cleaner to the noise and
reasons of this noise.

With pressure measurements, the only way to measure the vacuum cleaner separately under load
would have been by enclosing it in a soundproof box. And these measurements are not made under
operating conditions. This would have been impractical and since no box is completely soundproof it
would also have been inaccurate. However, with intensity measurements we can distinguish
between the vacuum cleaner and other machines in situ. Time could, however, have been saved by
performing measurements in situ since sound intensity measurements do not require controlled
sound fields.

Figure 1 The vacuum cleaner

Determine the total sound power level for the vacuum cleaner with the experiment set-up in the
Vibrations & Acoustics Lab, perform necessary calculations and hand in your report in the time given
to you.

Note 1:
Please examine the references and take notes from them in order to write down your report just
after the experiment.

Note 2:
If you do not have information about calculations with dB, please review those subjects prior to the
lab session (can be found in references).

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 2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area. The intensity is the product of the sound
pressure and the particle velocity

I = pv



Notice that both v and I are vectors, which means that both have a direction as well as a magnitude.
The direction of the intensity is the average direction in which the energy is flowing. For
instantaneous acoustic pressure pinst(t) and particle velocity v(t) the average acoustic intensity during
time T is given by
T
1
I= p inst (t )v(t ) dt
T 0
The SI units of intensity are W/m2 (watts per square meter).
Sound intensity level is a logarithmic measure of the sound intensity (measured in W/m2), in
comparison to a reference level.
The measure of a ratio of two sound intensities is
I
L1 = 10 log10 1 dB
I0
where I1 and I0 are the intensities.
The sound intensity level is given the letter "LI" and is measured in "dB". The decibel is
a dimensionless quantity.
If I0 is the standard reference sound intensity
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I = 10
0 W/m 2

(W = watt), then instead of "dB SPL" we use "dB SIL". (SIL = sound intensity level).

2.2. Sound Power and Sound Power Level

Sound power is a measure of sonic energy E per time t unit.
It is measured in watts and, can be computed as sound intensity (I) times area (A):
Pacoustic = I A
The difference between two sound powers can be express in decibels using this equation:

P
Lw = 10 log10 1 dB
P0
where P1, P0 are the sound powers.
The sound power level SWL, LW of a source is expressed in decibels (dB) and is equal to 10 times the
logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the sound power of the source to a reference sound power. It
is thus alogarithmic measure.
The reference sound power in air is normally taken to be, P0 = 10 12 Watts that is 0 dB SWL.
Sound power level is a logarithmic measure of the sound power in comparison to a specified
reference level. While sound pressure level is given in decibels SPL, or dB SPL, sound power is given in
dB SWL. The dimensionless term "SWL" can be thought of as "sound watts level," the acoustic output
power measured relative to a very low base level of watts given as 10-12 watts. As used

20
by architectural acousticians to describe noise inside a building, typical noise measurements in SWL
are very small, less than 1 watt of acoustic power.
The sound power level of a signal with sound power W is:

W
Lw = 10 log10 1 dB
W0
where W0 is the 0 dB reference level:

W0 = 10 12 W
The sound power level is given the symbol LW. This is not to be confused with dBW, which is a
measure of electrical power, and uses 1 W as a reference level.

The relationship between sound power level and sound intensity is as follows:

S
Lw = LI + 10 log
S0

2.3. Intensity Mapping

Contour and 3-D plots give a more detailed picture of the sound field generated by a source. Several
sources and/or sinks can then be identified with accuracy. A grid is set up to define a surface. Sound
intensity measurements normal to the surface are made from a number of equally spaced points on
the surface. We can use the same measurements to calculate the sound power over the grid. These
values are then stored. There is now a matrix of intensity levels one value for each point. Lines of
equal intensity can be drawn by interpolating and joining up points of equal intensity. These are
sometimes called isointensity lines and they can be drawn either at single frequencies or for an
overall level.
We can, of course, also make contour maps and 3-D plots with pressure measurements. But intensity
maps can be made in the near field where the correlation between the measured intensity levels and
the source position is greater. This increases the resolution. Furthermore, both sinks and sources can
be identified with intensity and measurements can be made in any acoustic environment.
S8

S7

S6
85-90
80-85
S5 75-80
70-75
65-70
S4
60-65
55-60
S3 50-55

S2

S1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 2 An example for intensity mapping

3. Report

Your report should contain these sections:

a. Introduction: State the problem and propose your solution.
b. Experimental Set-Up: Describe the experimental set-up you used and explain in what
means it helped you to model the stated problem.

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 c. Experiment Procedure: Draw a flowchart and exhibit the steps of the experiments.
d. Mathematical Model: Using the values and measurements in your experiment,
calculate the sound power level for each region of the vacuum cleaner and generate
intensity map.
e. Results and Discussions: Give all the measurements and results as a table and
discuss the results by answering the following questions:
i. What is the total sound power level for the vacuum cleaner?
ii. Decide which region of the vacuum cleaner causes the most noise by using
its intensity maps from each sides of it.

REFERENCES
[1] Acoustic Fundamentals http://www.scribd.com/doc/30888784/HVAC-Acoustic-Fundamentals
[2] Decibel Calculator - http://www.noisemeters.com/apps/db-calculator.asp
[3] Previous Years Sound Intensity Experiment Sheet.

22
VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY
Part 1. Determination of the center of gravity location:

The location of center of gravity (CG) is necessary for

Calculating the climbing ability (Gradability)

Acceleration performance
Designing brake systems and springing
Vibration considerations
Handling and rollover considerations
Driving stability investigations
Determining mass moment of inertia etc.

Low center of gravity is always desirable, as they are associated with fewer driving
dynamic problems and increased vehicle performance during cornering and braking, but
in practice the design options are relatively restricted.

The position of center of gravity is highly dependent on the loading; when the vehicle is
loaded the CG changes in both longitudinal and vertical axis. The body lowers when it is
loaded, i.e. its center of gravity drops. The center of gravity of the passengers and the
luggage is usually higher than that of the body so the end results a higher overall center of
gravity.

The first step in calculating the individual wheel loads in steady state cornering,
accelerating, or braking conditions is to determine the CG location. Therefore, in Part 1,
the location of CG will be determined experimentally, and using this data, braking
performance of this vehicle will be analyzed in Part 2

Instruments:

A simple crane, a frame to lift the axle of the test vehicle, a load cell connected between
the frame and the crane, amplifier (bridge), voltmeter, and a straight ruler.

h W
rst
Wf l1 l2 Wr
L

Figure 1 Location of vehicles center of gravity.

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Mathematical observation of the measurement is as follows: Using known front and rear
axle loads, location of the center of gravity along the longitudinal axis (l1 and l2) can be
easily calculated.

From Figure 1, total weight is

W = W f + Wr (1)
and where
L = l1 + l 2 (2)
Taking moment at rear tire contact point:

W .l 2 = W f . L
Thus,
Wf
l2 = L and l1 = L l 2 (3)
W
In Figure 2, taking moment at the center of the rear axle

W f .L.Cos + W .Sin .h W .Cos .l 2 = 0 (4)

where
H
sin = (5)
L
and calculating h, height of the center of gravity is

h = h + rst (6)

where rst is the static radius of the tires.

WSi
n
s
WCo

W h`

H Wf`

Wr`

Figure 2 Determination of center of gravity height.

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Procedure:

1) Properly inflate all tires on the test vehicle. To eliminate tire springing during the
measurement, it is recommended that the tire pressure on both axles be increased to
3.0 to 3.5 bar.
2) In order to eliminate the springing effect. Both axles must be prevented from
compressing or rebounding before the vehicle is raised. A locking device must be
used to adjust the amount of compression in the suspension springs when the
vehicle is loaded. (Welding an old set of shock absorbers is an easy solution)
3) Measure and record the tire static radius (both front and rear).
4) Measure and record the front and rear tire track width.
5) Measure and record the wheel base length.
6) Record the vehicle fuel load and other weight variables. Any load that could shift
must be secured; fuel tank should be empty or full. The vehicle should be in on-road
condition, i.e. tools, spare wheel etc.
7) Place the load sensor between the frame and the crane and calibrate the load sensor
for normal load.
8) Lift the frame and balance the amplifier when only the frames load acting on the
sensor.

Note: Please take extreme caution not to damage the cables by stepping on them,
running over them with the vehicle or the frame or in any way mistreating them.
Electric cranes should be operated by the laboratory staff only! Never attempt to
use the remote control by yourself.

9) Place the front axle of the test vehicle on the frame.

10) Lift the front end of the vehicle just enough to separate the contact between the
tires and the ground. Record the front axle load. The rear wheels must be rolling
freely. Brakes must be released and gear box must be in neutral.
11) Lift the front axle of the vehicle using the crane (30-50 cm recommended). Record
the new front axle load and the distance between the wheel hub center and the
ground.
12) Subtract the static tire radius to calculate H.
13) Move the rear axle of the vehicle into the frame. Repeat the step 9 for the rear axle.
14) Reconfigure the vehicle with the test personnel in the vehicle. (If instructed)

Requirements:

1) Derive the necessary equations and determine the location of CG along the
longitudinal and vertical plane.
2) Discuss the effects of CG location on acceleration, climbing, stopping distance,
springing, handling and rollover performance of a vehicle briefly.
3) Prepare a short design section for the report, which identifies the projected weight
distribution for your design vehicle. Discuss the effects of power plant, drive axle,
driver, passenger, trunk and fuel tank weights and their locations.
4) Answer the questions that may be assigned by your laboratory instructor.

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